Academic writing

In all these cases the preposition has a purely syntactic relational function in relating a VERB, adjective or noun to a following object or complement.. I HE CLAUSE 4 A group of words c

ACADEMIC WRITING – TÀI LIỆU ÔN THI

TÔ MINH THANH – CHU THỊ LÊ HOÀNG

TỐT NGHIỆP ĐẠI HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH NGỮ VĂN ANH

TUYỂN SINH SAU ĐẠI HỌC CHUYÊN NGÀNH GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH

NHÀ XUẤT BẢN ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH - 2009

MỤC LỤC

LỜI NÓI ĐẦU

Thực tế không phải là sách dạy tiếng của tác giả người nước ngoài nào cũng Đáp ứng đúng và đủ nội dung ôn tập thi tốt nghiệp đại học chuyên ngành

Ngữ văn Anh và thi tuyển sinh sau đại học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) theo quy định của

Trường đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn - Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh.

Tài liệu này ra đời nhằm (1) đáp ứng nhu cầu ôn tập thi tốt nghiệp đại học

của sinh viên hệ tại chức và hệ chính quy bằng 1 và bằng 2 theo chuyên ngành ngữ văn Anh và (2) giúp các anh chị cựu sinh viên ôn tập tuyển sinh sau đại học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh.

Ngoài ra, tài liệu này cũng có thể nằm trong thư mục sách tham khảo giúp

(1) học viên cao học chuyên ngành Giảng dạy tiếng Anh và (2) các thầy cô

theo: khóa Bồi dưỡng giáo viên tại Trường Đại học Khoa học Xã và Nhân văn đại

học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh học thành công môn Writing PG trong

chương trình chính khóa của cả hai hệ đào tạo sau đại học này

Để giúp các đối tượng dự thi làm quen và chuẩn bị tốt kỳ thi của mình, tài liệu này được trình bày thành bốn phần:

1) Phần ôn tập các thành phần câu ( components) thường dùng

trong văn viết tiếng Anh trang trọng;

2) Phần ôn tập cấu trúc cơ bản của một đoạn văn (a paragraph); 3) Phần ôn tập cấu trúc cơ bản của một bài luận văn (an essay);

4) Phần giải một số đề thi dựa trên các đề thi đã thực tế được dùng

trong các kỳ thi gần đây

Hy vọng rằng bốn phần trình bày này cùng với khá nhiều bài tập đa dạng

về độ khó và phong phú về chủng loại có gợi ý hoặc có lời giải đính kèm để

minh họa cho phần lý thuyết được trình bày sẽ giúp các đối tượng dự thi tự luyện

tốt hơn dù có điều kiện hay không thể trực tiếp theo học các lớp luyện thi chính thức.

Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, ngày 10 tháng 1 năm 2005.

Tô Minh Thanh và Chu Thị Lê Hoàng 

SECTION 1:SENTENCE COMPONENTS

THE PHRASE

'A phrase is a group of words used as a single part of speech and not containing

a verb and its subject.’ [Warriner, 1958: 59] These groups of words may be used not only as verbs but also as adjectives, adverbs and nouns

Prepositions - Prepositional phrases

1 Prepositions:

1.1 Definition: A preposition is a word that shows the relation

between a noun or a pronoun and other words in a sentence

I walked to the house/ around the house/ through the house the book by him/ for him/ about him.

In the above examples, prepositions make great differences in meaning

when they link the house with walked, and him with the book.

1.2 Characteristics:

1.2.1 English prepositions may be in different forms.

1.2.1.1 one – word prepositions:

ininsideintolikeofoffexceptonoutsideoversincethrough

throughoutto

towardunderunderneathuntil

upuponwithwithinwithout

- I am tired of them

- George sat between the two deans

- He objected to the las t paragraph.

- The car stopped at the station

- The lad stood on a barrel

- The car coasted into the garag e with lights on.

- The girl was sitting against th e wall.

- These roses are for you .

1.2.1.2 -ing prepositions:

In addition to the prepositions already mentioned, there is in English a

group of -ing preposition which have a verb as a stem Here are some of the most common: barring, concerning, regarding, considering, following, including, pending, during, etc.:

- He was vague concern ing the details

- Assum ing the accuracy of the report , action must be taken at once.

- We WILL DELAY the papers, pend ing the of arrival of the contract

Distinguish the -ing preposition from THE -ING VERB.

- ing prep 1 Barr ing accidents the picnic will begin at eleven.

- ing prep 2 There will be a smoker follow ing the dining car

- ING VERB 3 She IS only FOLLOWING her orders after all.

- ing prep 4 May I have a conference regard ing my examination!

- ING VERB 5 He WAS REGARDING the newcomer with curiosity.

- ING VERB 6 CONSIDER ING the time , we HAD BETTER STOP now

- ing prep 7 Consider ing your loss , the bill WILL NOT BE SENT.

- ING VERB 8 I AM INCLUDING damage to my window on the bill.

- ing prep 9 The entire squad, includ ing the water boy WILL MAKE the trip

- ing prep 10 This IS the letter concern ing their complaint

as concerns because ofowing toinstead of

on account of

in spite ofwith rega to

In event ofFor the sake of

In case of

By means of

Recognize the compound preposition in the following sentences:

1 We arrived ahead of time

2 The game was cancelled on account of rain.

3 The oldest daughter is up at the c am p

4 Contrary to our expectations , the movie was a delightful spoof

5 The hoard had a meeting with reference to the new building

6 I want to thank you on behaif _ of these refugee

7 They served rice in lieu of potatoes

8 I can answer all the questions except for the last

9 In spite of her protestations , Harriet was persuaded to join the guild

10 The foreman received a letter with respect to alleged violations

1.2.2 As far as their meaning is concerned, English prepositions are of two main kinds:

1.2.2.1 Prepositions that have specific meanings, namely the meanings

of the relations that they represent or refer to Below are a number of their common meanings:

a Space may be subdivided into:

+ Location: in the kitchen, under the ground, behind the wall

+ Direction: towards the town, from Leeds to Manchester

b Time may be subdivided into:

+ Point of time: before the wedding, at nine o'clock

+ Extent of time: for several days, since January

c Topic: (chilling stories) about ghosts

d Purpose: (a key) for the opening of the safe 

e Similarity: (a boy) like his father

f Instrument: with an axe

g Accompaniment: with a bowler hat

1.2.2.2 Prepositions used without any specific meaning, when they are attached to particular VERBS, adjectives or nouns.

- They BLAMED the mess on Jim

- They BLAMED Jim for the mess

- I am interested in your_offer

- She is proud of her children

- He’s anxious about/for her_safetỵ.

- There is great anxiety about his future

- We have a lot of sympathy for you

- During the occupation, we had to live in total ubmission to the invaders

In all these cases the preposition has a purely syntactic relational function

in relating a VERB, adjective or noun to a following object or complement The preposition is predictable (i.e it cannot be replaced by any other preposition), and so lacking in specific meaning

2 Prepositional Phrases:

Do not confuse prepositions with adverbs Prepositions, which introduce prepositional phrases, are always followed by a nominal

Compare:

Adverb: She looked up

Preposition: She looked up the stairs

Adverb: They went inside

Preposition: They went inside the house

Distinguish prepositions from adverbs.

1 The swimmer waited below

2 The swimmer waited below the dam

3 She liked to sit near

4 She sat near the window

5 the paint bucket fell off

6 The paint bucket fell off the porch

7 I haven’t seen him since

8 I haven’t seen him since yesterday

9 The refreshments came after

10 The refreshments came after the program

2.1 Definition: A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with

a preposition and ending with nominal The nominal which ends the prepositional

phrase is the complement of the preposition that begins the phrase.

- He answered the question with (grea t) care [prep + noun (phrase)]

- I am interested in swimming [prep + gerund]/ in learning a foreign language

[prep + gerund phrase]

- Do it fo r me [prep + pronoun]

- One can see the airport from upstairs [prep + adverb]

2.2 Use:

2.2.1 A preposition phrase can be used as an adjectival to modify a noun

or a pronoun.

EX: - the lady in the green dress

- two identical girls with long blond hair

- some of the most common meth ods

- one of tine two possibly solutions

2.2.2 A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial to modify:

2.2.2.1 A VERB (when this prepositional phrase tells when, where,how, how etc the action of the verb takes place):

- He LIVES in the suburbs ( Where does he live?)

- The train ARRIVED at two o 'clock ( did the train arrive?)

- The reproduction TAKES PLACE b y bu dding (How does the reproduction take place?)

- He MISSED the target by a foot ( How far did he miss the target?)

2.2.2.2 AN ADJECTIVE

- These shoes ARE too small for comfort

- If you ARE susceptible to colds , vitamin c helps you resist them

- She IS very clever at dealing with strangers

2.2.2.3 ANOTHER ADVERB

- Never in mililion years WILL he ADMIT defeat

- Later in the afternoon ,the sun WAS NOT so bright, and the sky WAS NOT SO blue

2.2.2.4 A WHOLE CLAUSE OR SENTENCE:

- According to me , you'RE quite right.

- In fact the contract IS invalid

2.2.3 A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial after the verb BE

It is called the subjective complement in the sentence:

- The books ARE under the desk-lamp

- She IS in the kitchen preparing dinner

- Jack WAS on top of the car

- HAVE you ever BEEN to Cairo

EXERCISE 1: Underline the prepositional phrases in the given paragraph

Vitamins are necessary for good health Vitamin A promotes the

growth of young animals and is essential to the proper development of their eyes If you CANNOT SEE in the dard, perhaps you should drink more milk, which is rich in vitamins Yellow vegetables like carrots also contain vitamin

A If you have trouble with digestion or if your appetite IS below normal, you may need vitamin B Among the food containing this vitamin are eggs, green vegetables, and meals According to my druggist; liver, which contains vitamin B, IS a safeguard against anaemia For an adequate supply of this vitamin, eat plenty of tomatoes If you are susceptible to colds, vitamin C may help you resist them In the spring or during the summer, you CAN GET vitamin D by a trip to a sunny beach Vitamin D, derived from sunshine and found In fish-liver oils, PREVENTS rickets When you look at a menu, DECIDE upon a well-balanced meal fortified with vitamins.

PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

Perfect Participle Having written Having been written

1.2 A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifier ( s) and/or its object (s):

IS a

safeguard against anaemia For an adequate supply of this eat plenty of tomatoes If you are susceptible to , vitamin c may help you resist them In the spring or during the summer, you CAN GET vitamin D by ứ trip to a sunny beach Vitamin D, derived from

sunshine and found in fish-liver oils,PREVENTS rickets When you look

at a menu, DECIDE upon a well-balanced fortified with vitamins

PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

1 Definition:

1.1 A participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or an adverb

Participles may occur in different forms:

1.2 A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifieris) and/or Itsobieciis):

- The man standing near the is Mr Snow

t J

active present participle adjunct of place

- Having translated the, text with great I copied it down

sentence, following A LINKING VERB

ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES a liv/>7ỹthing a burn/>7ỹ house a approach/Ạỹstranger the \eering manager the preced/>7ỹ statement melt/>7ỹsnow taWing leaves the leapÁr^/dropp/Ạỹđicks

- Thẹ cup GOT broken

- Some plants are erect, others ARE tracing or

2.2 We use a present participle after VERBS OF PERCEPTION to show something

in occurrence:

- DO you HEAR her s\r\qingfl

- We SAW the enemy approach/>7ỹ

-1 FEEL my heart beating

2.3 We also use a present participle to show an action happening at the same time with the action illustrated by THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence:

- The children RAN crying in the street

- Step by step, they FOLLOWED danc/>7<7

- Be/>K7 described os an example of gymnosperms the pines ARE abundant plants, particularly in colder regions of the world

In these cases, 'when’and may be added before the

present participle: 

Wherjspeak/nợ about the new project,the lecturer SHOWED a map

- Whffe working a\ the farm,the students HELPED the farmers

2.4 To express an action which has already finished before the one illustrated by THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence, we use either a past or a perfect participle

- Translat ecjinto many_ languages,this book BECAME well-known all over the world

- Hav/>7<7 finish ecjmy work,I SAT down to rest

- Hav/>7<7 been cqrefu[Ịỵ_repai rthe elevator RAN well

2.5 A participial phrase may be a modifier of a noun or a pronoun:

- The stem ly/>7<7 between two nodes IS an inter-node

- Frank, tack I go' hard on the fifty-yard line, WAS seriously INJURED

- He JUMPED over the rope extended across

In most cases, participial phrases are more related to THE PREDICATIVE VERB of the sentences in which they occur, expressing , time, manner, condition ox means

- Being a careless fellow,he FORGOT all about it

(CAUSE: Why did he forget all about it?)

- Hav/Wff had my breakfast,I WENT to school

(TIME: When did you go to school?)

- He STOOD on the veranda, listen/>7<7 to the wind

(MANNER: How did he stand on the veranda?)

- Joking morning_ exercises every day*you CAN IMPROVE your health

(CONDITION: Under what condition can I improve my health?)

- Runn/>7<7 q!Lthe way, I CAUGHT the express

(MEANS: How/Bywhat means did you catch the express?) 

EXERCISE 2: Number from 1 to 10 on your paper Make a list of the participles in the following sentences After the participle, write the (group) word modified Be prepared to tell whether each is a present or a past participle

1 The radio announcer spoke sadly to the listening audience

2 His trained voice held them in its spell

3 T have a distressing news to relate,’ he told them

4 ‘Mudville has lost the game; the defeatedieom is in deep disgrace.’

5 Pausing briefly, he went on.

6 ‘Overconfident and swaggering,our proud players made one mistake after another.’

7 They swung their bats so recklessly that the opposing pitcher easily struck them out.’

8 ‘ Angered,\the few men who tried to reach base never succeeded.’

9 Therefore, our fanned victory celebration will not take place.’

10 ‘And now,’ he concluded, ‘an excit word from our sponsor.’

GERUNDS - GERUND PHRASES 1 Gerunds:

1.1 Definition: A gerund is a word formed from a verb and used as a noun

1.2 Usage: Like a noun, a gerund can be:

a The subject

Studying certainly KEEPS low grades away Thesweei singing of birds DELIGHTS US

The loud knockingof the door FRIGHTENED him

b The subject ivecomplement

Seeing IS believ/>7ỹ

His favourite pastime IS swimm/>7ỹ

Jack ENJOYS hunt/>7ỹ

You MUST CONTINUE work/>7ỹ

d The complement of a preposition:

That tool IS USED for drilling

/ARE computers capableot Tnink/>7<7?

Ill his youth, Henry V W/AS givedrink/Ạỹand gambl/>7^

1.3 Notes:

a Gerunds always end in - ing:hut not all words ending in -ing are gerunds: they may he present participles or a part of A PREDICATIVE VERB For instance, there are three words ending in -ing in the following sentence, hut only one of them, is a gerund:

Watch/>7<7 the judges in the balcony, Gwen WAS TRYING to win the contest with her loud singing

h A gerund can also he used as an adjective to modify a noun But it should he carefully distinguished from a participle:

ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES I i V ingorganisms the sleeping guard

a drinking horse

The combination of gerund and head noun is also referred to as a

compound noun (ComN, for short) Sleeping car for example

should he dominated in ComN as in (2):

NP

V-Ger headN

I I

(2) the sleeping car

c A gerund can he a part noun and part verb

The noun feature is clearly illustrated in the two following cases:

• A gerund can be used with a posses

- You MAY RELY ON my coming

- We DON'T LIKE your qoing away

- Our working on a collective farm in summer HELPS US in studying many subjects

• A gerund may be modified by a

case-

- The problem IS the stud regularly

- 1 INSIST ON my brother's coming in time

The verb feature is shown in the two following cases:

• A gerund may have a direct object

-1 LIKE reading books

-My friend IS veryquickm

• A gerund may be modified by an

- 1 LIKE walk ingslowly

- We CONTINUE doing morning regularly

2 Gerund Phrases

2.1 Definition: A gerund phrase is a phrase containing a gerund

2.2.Usage: Like a gerund, a gerund phrase can be used as:

a The subject

- Learn/>7ff rules without examplesis useless.

- LiV ing far.from home IS NOT always easy

b The sub iect ivecomplement

- His bad habit IS teWina lies

- The basic job of computers IS process forma

c The direct

object I ENJOY listen/Wffto Ịheụv

- It BEGAN rain/>7<7 early m the morning. 

d The complement oi a preposition:

- The farmers -ARE sure of harvest/no pood

- I -AM devoted to brinq//7<7 up my children

- The idea of breed ing cattle in this region IS progressive

- He DEVISED a mechanical way of multiply//7ffand dividing

- The answer IS OBTAINED

by examin/>7<7 the characteristics of various -This equipment WAS USED many without repaired

- The abacus CAN BE UNDERSTOOD without know/>7<7 how to

e The appositive

- My favourite exercise,play/>7q tennis,IS very beneficial to my health

EXERCISE 3: After you have listed each gerund in the sentences below, w rile how each is used: subject (S), direct object (dO), subject/Ve implement(sC), complement of a preposition (pC)

Many students ENJOY play/>7 g basketball (play/WydO of The first requirement

of the game IS fast think/>7<7

(think/W^sC of

Rhythm IS NEEDED for skilful dribbl//7<7- (dribbl/>7<VpC of ‘for’)

- Smooth iump/>7<7often HELPS in scoring

(jump/i^S of ‘hepis’) {scoring/pC of

- ■ Precisetim//7ff IS one of the most important abilities

of a good basketball player (tim/W^S of

INFINITIVES - INFINITIVE PHRASES

1 Definition:

1.1 An infinitive is a verbal consisting of “to” followed by a verb Infinitives may occur in different forms: 

1.2 An infinitive phrase is a phrase beginning with an infinitive

to study a foreign language

I

active present infinitive noun phrase/dO

to go to the movies with some

active present infinitive PP/complement

to have been built for a lonq

+ I

passive perfect infinitive pp/adjunct of time

2 Usage: Infinitives or infinitive phrases may be used as nouns,

adjectives or qdverbs_

2.1 As a noun, an infinitive (phrase) can be:

a The subject

- To err IS human, to forgive IS divine

- To travel to Italy by boat WILL BE interesting

b The real subject

- It WILL BE interesting to travel to Italy by

c The sub ject ive complement (idler A LINKING VERB):

- To question IS to learn

- He SEEMED to be angry

- They APPEAR to be in pood spirits

- The house SEEMED to have been built for

d Th edirect object

- They soon AGREED to follow

- I WANT to master English c The complement of a preposition:

- Betty WAS about to faint/to fall down the stairs

1 2 As tin adjective, an infinitive (phrase) can moil'I'v a noun

- This IS one way to go

- We NEEDED a guide to lead through the

- This IS a pleasant win drink in hot weather

z:As an adverb, an infinitive (phrase) can modify: a An adjective:

- My dot! IS too oldtojegrn

-M i s s J a n e w A s pleased to receive

- They WERE loath to leave this district

b A VERB

- She PUT the cake in the oven to bake

- Sara HAS GONE to invite her aunt

Infinitive phrases are also commonly found in the expressions: TOO + adjective

I + 1 for (pro)noun| + infinitive phrase adjective + ENOUGH I

_p_ 1 Carmen PREFERRED the reclining chair lor his bad back

_G_ 2 Doctors BELIEVE that walking IS one of the most beneficial forms _/_ 3 The quiet night and bright campfire INSPIRE US to tell ghost stories _G_ 4 It ISN’T flying that MAKES Elsa anxious but the airline food

_p_ 5 Scratching\\sback against a tree, the bear LOOKED deceptively harmless._/_ 6 To make.the room more cheerful, Alice PAINTED the dark cabinets yellow._G_ 7 Observinggorillas’ mating behaviour IS part of that zookeeper’s

job

_/_ 8 During the movie, Bert CONTINUED crunch loudly on his popcorn

_p_ 9 My brother’s receding hairline MAKES him LOOKoXácv than he really is._p_ 10 In the drainage ditch, the boys FOUND a wooden crate

dozens of spiders

EXERCISE 5: Identify the italicized wo in the following paragraph as

a participle (P), an infinitive (/), or a gerund (G).

(1) Having Hephzibah Schleirbech for a name, I HAVE CONE through life as a kind of handicapped person.(2) Knowing that my name is unusual, I AM patient with strangers (3) After all, or

Spelling Hephzibah Schleirbech IS NOT easy (4) One day ,

excited about a new family car, TRIED to me about it by making a long-distance telephone call (5) Not remembering my number, she SPELLED my name over and over again for the operator (6) Exhausted by efforts to understand.\ the operator remarked, ‘It seems to me the number would be easier to remember than the name.’ (7) When I AM calling \he dentist, I sometimes get a quick appointment by my

name to Mary Smith or Jane Jones (8) Occasionally, however, I FORCET to answer to Mary or Jane (9) When this happens, the embarrassed dentist looks

at me strangely (10) He seems to I’m a criminal

using an alias (11)1 must find another way to change my name (12) My one desire is to marry‘à man named John Henry

I HE CLAUSE

4 A group of words containing a verb and its subject and used as a part of a sentence is called a clause.’ [Warriner, 1958: 71]

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

‘A main (or independent) clause expresses a complete thought _nd can stand by itself as a sentence.’ [Warriner, 1958: 72]

SENTENCES: - My neighbours HAVE SOLO their home

- They WILL MOVE to Denver next week

When combined into one long sentence, these main clauses "ccomc parts of the sentence:

MAIN CLAUSES: My neighbours HAVE SOLD their home, they WILL MOVE to Denver next week

4 A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not express a complete 'nought and can’t stand alone.’ [Warriner, 1958: 72] A subordinate clause depends on a main clause to make the meaning complete SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: Ifshe BAKES a cake [What then?]

Subordinate Main Clause

SENTENCE: If she BAKES a cake, we CAN HAVE a party

' BORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

An Adjective Clause is a group of words (containing A FINITE EBB) doing the work of an adjective It is usually introduced by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative Adverb That is why it is also called a

Relative Clause Compare:

- He ate the biggest apple (

- He ate the apple on the green, plate.(

- He ate the apple which he FOUND

- He is a clever boy ( )

He is a boy with a love of sport ( >

-He is a boy who SHOULD DO gregt_ things^some daỵ

{Adjective

1 The Relative Pronoun agrees in Gender Number, and Person with its antecedent, but does not agree in Case That is, is subject or object of its own clause ,

- I saw the man who DID it

- The mail whom you MET was here yesterday

- There is the man whose book you FOUND

- The house which you ASKED for is over there

- That is the house the top of which CAN BE SEEN over the trees

2 The clause joined to a previous clause by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative Adverb may be restrictive or non-restrictive

2.1 A Restrictive Clause restricts the meaning of the noun qualifies:

- The boy who SITS next to me came late this morning

- The village which you CAN SEE over there is very old

2.2 A Non-restrictive Clause does not restrict the meaning of the noun

it qualifies, but only adds some description to the meaning:

- My father, who IS an old sailor',often tells me stories about the sea

- The boy next to me, who IS very clever, has a brother in another class

3 7775/may be used about either persons or things but can only be used

in Restrictive Clauses The usage of as follows:

3.1 Use that only in Restrictive Clauses For example, do not say

The island of Hong Kong, that WAS a British colony, lies off the coast of China.’ Use which

3.2 Do not use that too near another ‘that’ For example, do not say T think that that man //75/ asked YOU the question is a politician.’ Use who

3.3 Do not use that after a preposition

For example, do not say ‘I saw the house in that he used to live.’ Say either: ‘I saw the house in he used to live.’

or: "I saw the house that he used to live in.’ - The Relative Pronoun when objective can be omitted:

- Last niíĩhl I heard that piece of music, > LIKE so much

- He is the most interesting man IVE ever MET

\ERC1SE 6: Supply the correct relative pronoun where necessary,

explaining why you use each one or why you do not put one in

The house over there is the one I like best

I I am sure that he is the youngest president we have ever

had

The mail came over in the Queen Mary was delivered in

London yesterday

I never again met the man gave US so much help in Paris

The tennis racquet, I bought last week, has got one of its

He was the man painted the picture in the new city hall

The men he interviewed seemed to have little knowledge of the work he wanted them to do

10 He said that he wanted to buy that car he had tried out the

day before

11 He spent a great deal of time in his garden was four miles

outside the town

12 All over the country the ground a few days before had been

bare was now bright with flowers

13 The hills lie to the north are volcanic while those in the south

are limestone

14 Those proposals you are putting up, are little different from

the ones we turned down last year.

15 He never developed patience _ is necessary in dealing with

people are slow to understand something

16 He came of a family prided itself on its age and position

17 Those wanted to come had to fill in a card they had

to have signed by a Justice of the Peace

18 Those to invitations were sent were asked to be in their

places by 7 o’clock so as to make sure that all would be ready by 8 was the time _ the procession was due to pass

19 According to all I have heard, the concert is being

held on Monday should be the best has ever been here

20 The ship is due to sail tomorrow has the most valuable cargo

on board has ever been sent from this port

EXERCISE 7: Fill in each blank with a relative pronoun And rewrite the

given sentences by moving the preposition to the position before the

relative pronoun For example,

-1 think I know the man whom spoke to

-1 think I know the man _ to _ you spoke

1 He is the officer everyone relies on

2 The subject Professor Moore wrote about is interesting

3 The speaker _ we listened to mentioned that matter

4 The woman you are talking about is here now

5 The apartment we live in is on the twelfth floor

6 The paper you wrapped the with was very pretty

7 The man Alice spoke about teaches English here

8 The person Mr Green to answer his questions

9 The house he was going to in had been bought for him

by an agent

10.1 disagree with the fact your argument based on

SUBORDINATE NOUN CLAUSES

A Noun Clause is a group of words (containing /4 FINITE VERB) doing the work

of a noun It is usually introduced by <3 Conjunctionof which the most common

is Noun Clauses may be used as the of a verb, usually of the

verb ‘to be.’ Usually, too, it follows the verb and the pronoun ‘it’ is used as a dummy subject:

- It is clear that he IS wrong

- It is a strange thing that he always COMES late

- It is unknown whether/if it IS CAUSED by rain or wind

- It is one of the first axioms of Euclid

that the shortest distance between two points IS a straight When the Noun Clause comes first, there is no need for the dummy 'Ubject:

- What 's DONE IS DONE

- What you HAVE iustSAID IS quite true

- Where he SOES IS no business of yours

- When I GO DEPENDS on when the train leaves

- That the problems ARE immense IS obvious

- That rain MA y FALL in deserts IS true

- That Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable

- That a depression OCCURRED WAS attributable partly to psychological factors

- That he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody

- That Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED

- That a tenth p/anet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTED by discrepancies in the motions

of Uranus and Neptune

- That the computer revolution IS infancy

frequently ESCAPES c mment

2 Noun Clauses may be used as the Indirect Object (iO, for short) of A TRANSITIVE VERB:

DI LEND whoever CALLS the bicycle pump in the shed

- SAVE whoever COMES the trouble of ringing

- GIVE whatever you THINK best priority

- She GAVE whomever she MET a warm greeting

- Jack MADE whoever CAME there the same offer

3 Noun Clauses may form the ồirect Objects (do, for short) of the verbs of SAYING, THINKING, KNOWING, OBSERVING, and DOING (which are in fact MONO-TRANSITIVE VERBS) They answer the question ‘What?’

- He SAID that he WAS FEELING tired ( What did he say?)

- She THOUGHT that the train ARRIVED at ( What did she think?)

- I UNDERSTAND that nothing IS GOING TO BE DONE

( What did you understand?)

Other words might introduce N Clauses are who, why

when, how, what.; whether, and if

- I DID NOT KNOW who he WAS

- He DID NOT SEE where she HAD GONE

- DO you UNDERSTAND DO

- They DO NOT REALIZE how we DO

- HAVE you DONE what I TOLD you to do!

- I DON’T KNOW if he HAS DONE yet

Instead of the single conjunctions who , how, when, etc we

may use conjunctive adverbial phrases formed with prepositions, which

will often express our meaning more clearly and exactly:

- HAVE you FOUND out at what time the train

- They DID NOT KNOW for how many_ hou he HAD BEEN there

- He DID NOT KNOW in what district the house COULD

- He KNEW quite well on what business the policeman HAD

- He soon DISCOVERED

which of the hoys ip Class 5HAD BROKEN The window

- 1 HAD HEARD how often he HAD DONE it,

but\HAD FORGOTTEN exactly how WAS

Advise ask, remind show,reach, and are some common DI¬

TRANSITIVE VERBS which lake a do subordinate Noun Clause alter n i() pronoun

or noun phrase:

- The teacher ASSURED US that we ARE m no danger

- I BET you that no one WILL ACCEPT the offer

- She finally CONVINCED the jury WAS TELLING the

- The police NOTIFIED mv friend that car HAD BEEN FOUND.

- They PERSUADED me that the plan WAS, feasible

- REMIND your father that we HAVE tonight

- Experience HAS TAUGHT them a copy IS essentia!

- No one HAS ever TOLD me that I A beautiful

- WILL you please TELL me whether

- CAN you TELL me howl CAN s WITCH

- PEL ASK someone whom we CAN GIVE to

- No one CAN ADVISE you what you SHOULD DO

- I TOED him in what restaurant I WOULD

- He REFUSED TO TELL anyone on whose account he HAD COME to

town

The do subordinate Noun Clause may also follow its ỈO prepositional phrase which is usually introduced by to’:

- He CONFESSED to me that he WAS extremely alarmed

-1 POINTED OUT to John that few people WOULD AGREE

-She SIGNALED to US that she WOULD KEEP quiet

-We CAN’T PROVE to the commission that effects ARE NOT harmf

- The employers ANNOUNCED to journalists

the dispute HAD BEEN SETTLED

- The consultant RECOMMENDED to the employers

that new salary scales SHOULD BE INTRODUCED

- The garage EXPLAINED to customers

that the spare parts HAD NOT BEEN DELIVERD

The do subordinate Noun Clause may be moved to the position after its compleiTTent,which is in form of an adjective (phrase); its

original position is taken up by the meaningless pronoun

- I FIND it strange that he REFUSES to come

- 1 CONSIDER it unlikely that the money WILL BE REFUNDED

4 Noun Clouses may form a complement of a preposition:

- CAN you SEE from where you sit?

- You MUST DO the best with what you HAVE

- We’D LIKE WORK with whom we CONSIDER the best.

- The parly WILL HAVE TO DRAW from whatever sources CAN -1 strongly OBJECT to what you HAVE just SAID

- It all DEPENDS on where you GO

- We HAVE RECEIVED no news of when the boat LEAVES

- He HAS no idea of how it WOULD BE DONE

5 Noun Clauses may be used as an app of a noun phrase the head of which is

an abstract noun such as ; belief, rumour story, news,

etc Noun Clauses normally specifies of the head noun

- There EXISTS the belief that his comp a profit

- Everybody KNOWS

the rumour that Ed's wife FALLS love with his brother

- The news that the enemy WERE near WAS untrue

- The story that Eleanor HAD MET with the senator IS NOT unknown

- The fact that rain MAY FALL in deserts IS widely known/IS true

- The fact that the problems ARE immense IS obvious

- The fact that Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable

- The fact that a depression OCCURRED

WAS attributable partly to psychological factors

- The fact that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody

- The fact that Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED

- The fact that a tenth planet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTED

by discrepancies in the motions of Uranus and Neptune

- The fact that the computer revolution IS infancy

frequently ESCAPES comment

6 Noun Clauses may be the subject ive after A LINKING VERB:

- That WAS what I THOUGHT too

- She BECAME what she HAD HOPED

- She HAS BECOME what she always WANTED TO BE

- This IS how you SHOULD DO

- Ken’s belief IS that things CAN'T GET any worse

- My question IS whether (or not) you WILL PAY for such a loss. 

7 Noun Clauses maybe the object complement after a do pronoun

or noun phrase:

- DYE your hair what colour you L

- YOU’VE MADE me what I AM

- We HAVE MADE the club what today

EXERCISE 8: Identify all the Noun Claus the following paragraph

What roles do the Noun Clauses play in the sentences involved?

The sight that met our gaze was certainly not a little amusing Peter sat on the ground gazing into the cat’s face with his nose about four inches from it Turning his head a little to one side he spoke to the

cat, telling (it that)he loved it but the cat said nothing Peter therefore demanded sharply if it heard him Again he told it loved and

he asked if it didn't love him This time the cat gave a faint mew Peter was better pleased: he called it a jolly old rascal and asked why did not speak to him

at once Then, putting forward his mouth, he kissed the cat on the nose! He paused for a moment and then told it again he loved it because he had to take care of it, and looked after it, and think about it, and see that it didn't die As he said this the cat interrupted, mewing two or three times

SUBORDINATE ADVERB CLAUSES

An Adverb Clause is a group of words (containing a finite verb) doing the work of

an adverb It is introduced by a

Conjunction Compare:

- He came yesterday

-He came on the ỉưh of August

- He came when I ASKED him

(Adverb of Place) 

- Take it to Mr Smith's house

- Take it wherever you LIKE

- He acted strangely

- He acted in a peculiar

- He acted as if he WERE afraid

There are times when the Adverb Clause may come before THE ERB it qualifies; there are other times when the Adverb Clause can nly come after

Adverb Clauses can be sub-categorized according to the meanings

:ney express:

1 Adverbials of Time have four subcategories within them:

1.1 Adverbia/s of Point of Time tell

jylace,answering the question ‘ or what

- I'LL DO when I HA VE time

- As soon as everyone WAS ready, I GAVE a signal

- As I WAS GOINS down the road, I MET your friend Tom

1.2 Adverbia/s of Duration or Extent in Time describe

long an event lasts,answering the question

- The two drivers MUST STAY the police GET there

- I’VE BEEN WORKING here

since I TED from my university

- AỊI the tjmeI WAS there, I DID NOT SEE a sign of him

- While I WAS SITING there, he CAME up to me

1.3 Adverbia/s of Frequency describe event

occurs, answering the question 'How oftenT or 'How many timesT

- He CALLED on me I ARRIVED

- My dog COMES whenever I CA

1.4 Adverbials of Temporal Relationship convey the temporal relationship between two events or states, answering the question

-1 HOPED to pay him a visit before I WENT away -I’LL READ you my letter

after I'VE FINISHED and I SEND away

- Almost everyone HAD LEFT for home by the we ARRIVED

2 Adverbials of Place (also called spaed) answer the questions

‘ Where?’or ‘How farT

- He always HIDES where I CAN never REACH

- r LL JOG as farasI CAN

- GO as near as you LIKE to him: he does not bite

- They GO wherever they ARE TOLD

3 Adverbials of Manner describe the which something

done,answering the question ‘ Hor ‘By what wayT

- You OUGHT TO WRITE as I DO

- When my father IS away, I WILL DO as I

- The dog LOOKS asjfhe WANTED something to eat.

- He BEHAVES asjf he IS COINS TO BE ATTACKED

4 Adverbials of Comparison compare of state

action relative to another,answering the question

- He DOES it as well as I DO

- He DOES NOT DO it so well as you DO

- He DOES it better than I DO

- It IS as good as I THOUGHT

- He DID as much as he COULD

- There ARE NOT so many people here as I EXPECTED

- Our coach LEFT earlier than it SHOULD HA

- The road SEEMS longer than I THOUGHT

5 Adverbia/s of Cause and Adverbia/s of Reason answer the

question ‘WhyT Traditionally, has been associated with

a relatively objective statement while reason has implied a more subjective assessment:

- The old man WALKED slowly his legs ARE bad

- I’VE BEEN WAITING here

as I KNOW you'll certainly come and pick me up

In the majority of cases, however, it is difficult to judge the level: objectivity and thus to discern between cause and reason, as with the llowing examples:

- The plan FELL down because it PROVED to be expensive

6 Adverbials of Contingency, like adverbials of Cause, also answer the question

"Why’.However, it is necessary to n te that adverbials of Cause ‘give as a reason

of something which is happening, has happened, or will happen’ while adverbials

of Contingency ‘give as a reason something which might have happened, or which may happen’ [Campbell, 1962 59] The first is certain, the second is only possible or probable

- They DECIDED to retreat at once

for fear (thatyiest they SHOULD BE CUT from the main force

- You HAD BETTER NOT SKI ẬT7 the weather IS really bad

7 Adverbials of Purpose answer the question ‘ What forT or

whatpurposeT Notice that 'iorder that’ is more forceful than

'so that.’

- She always WALKS to school

/>7 order that she MAY GET plenty of exercise

-1 DO it like this so that it MIGHT better

- I HAVE WRITTEN it very clearly they CAN READ

- He always LEFT the house at eight

//7 orderthathe MIGHT NOT by any chance LOSE the ti

8 Adverbials of Result never consist of ‘may’ or ‘might.’

- He DRANK so much that he' SOOT sto

- My father SMOKED so heavily he GOT lung cancer

- He JUMPED so high that he easily CROSSED the barrier

- He WAS so stupid that he COULDN'T PASS his examination

- He SHOWED such stupidity

that the examiner REFUSED to pass

- That IS so common an occurrence no one NOTICED

- The third couple DANCED so beautifully

that all the examiners A WARDED them the maximal pi

- Such WAS his cleverness

! that he PASSED every examination ea

9 Adverbials of Concession express

the proposition of the rest of the clause or, in the case

adverbials realized as clauses, proposition

main clause

- Although it 'sGETTING late, I think we ought to finish our less

- However much she DOES, she never seems to have finished

- He WON’T MANAGE it however hard he TRIES

- They KEPT on swimming (even the weather WAS b

- He’S COMING today

/>7 spite ofthe fact_ that I distinctly TOLD him I didn't want

- I THINK it is a good plan

excepl that MISSED OUT to London

- Exceplfor the fact that the singing WAS very bad,

it WAS a good concert.

10 Adverbia/s of Condition express the conditions

the Iirpggsitipnof the main clause, including both positive and negative conditions They usually answer the question ‘

what condition (s)T

- These people CANNOT OPERATE they RECEIVE support

- We CAN PLAY as long as it DOESN'T RAIN

- Supposing the boat CAPSISED, what WOULD you DO?

- I’LL HELP you on condition that you DO your lesson

- You MAY LEAVE right now

provided^ that you WORK overtime tomorrow

- And if you WERE in the mood, we COULD at least GO

- If only he HADN'T MADE that m

we SHOULD all BE happy now

- Now that summer IS here, we CAN GO boating

XERCISE 9: Identify all the Adverb C in the following sentences What roles do the Adverb Clauses tp\w)j in the sentences involved? When it CREW dark.; I made my way along the road

2 Since you TOLD me that, I have been unable to think of anything else

Be sure to stay here until I COME

- You may take the book tonight you RETURN

tomorrow

Till I WAS 15 years old, I had never seen a railway train

I gave it to him on condllịoỊi thaf he DID NOT MAKE a mess of

7 He was quiet as long as I WAS there, but I WENT away he

started making noise

8 I haven’t seen him since I CAME back

9 You had better take someone with you 7/7 way

10.1 sat waiting till everything WA5 ready

11 He put on many clothes so that he MIGHT BE warm

12 He put on so many clothes that he WAS warm

13 He was such a popular person that IS always BEING ASKED out

14 Unless he DOES his work, he should not be paid.

15.1 took a good meal before I WENT

for fear (/hat) I SHOULD NOT BE able to get any food there

16 Had_I_reajjzed_ that,I would not have said anything

17 Since there WAS no one there, I went away as soon I COULD

18 While I WAS WAITING for him, I asked a passer-by

at what the train LEF1

19 If you THINK so, you should go bef he COMES

20 Though I DON'T LIKE the plan, I am helping as much I CAN

21 After I HAD dinner, I went to sleep

although I I ought to keep awake

22 You may go and play with him when he COMES

on condition that you DO your home lessons tomorrow

23 Except that there IS NOT much to do, I think that it would make a excellent place for holiday

24 Don’t come unless you HEAR from me

25 While I WAS quietly sitting reading, he came rushing into my room

as if he HAD some very important news to tell mt

26 If you PRACTICE, you will be able to play tennis much better IC/

All the time I WAS there, he never came to see me

he HAD PROMISED to do so

' //7 case there IS any trouble about

you had better telephone them that you are coming Although thunder and lightning ARE PRODUCED

lightning waves travel faster than sound waves DO,

so we see the lightning we HEAR the thunder

When I first STARTED to play I though that it was so difficult

that I SHOULD never BE able to ; but, nowthatlHA VE HAD more practice,

I can play much better I EXPECTED

NTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

‘Classified according to structure, there are four kinds of ntences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.’

(1) A simple sentence has one main clause and no subordinate clauses AMPLE

At the end of the day, we GATHERED around the campf ire

to fe//qhost stories

(2) A compound sentence has > two or more main clauses but no subordinate clauses

AMPLE Clyde WANTS to become a lawyer,

and Lucy IS STUDYING to be a welfare worker

(3) A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses

AMPLE If you WASH the sweater, it WILL STRETCH

(4) A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clause and one or more subordinate clauses

AMPLE Since I HAD SEEN him the before, I KNEW he WAS

unhappy, but I DID NOT GUESS that he WOULD GIVE UP s

[Warriner 195S: 81-82]

EXERCISE 10: Classify the following sentences according to their structure

1 One day last week while I WAS RIDING a bus , I noticed

two career girls

2 Not far from me, they were standing in the crowded aisle

3 Fortunately I was comfortably seated, andl enjoyed listening to their conversation

4 One of the girls looked as though she WERE about sixteen years old

5 Her companion, about two years older, quietly fretted as she TRIED to keep her balance on the swaying , and she was obviously bored with the long speeches of her younger friend, who CHA TIERED enthusiastically about 'making good the big '

6 This ambitious girl talked about her job at a shoe factory, and she

discussed the personality of her boss

7 Clinging to a narrow strap with one hand and clutching the back of my seat with the other, the older girl remained silent

8 ‘I’m going to work hard,’ the first girl continued, I CAN

DESERVE a promotion, for all that I WANT in IS to get ’

9 Her weary companion finally spoke

10 ‘All that I WANT is to get a seat.’

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

There are four main kinds of Co-ordinate Conjunctions:

1 The AND type

1.1 And or its substitute is used to add something of the same kind

to what we have already said The word, phrase, clause which follows and or its substitute \s what we might expect

- He was tired and hungry

- He was both tired and hungry

- He was pot only tired butalso hungry

- He was tired as wellas hungry

- He was tired andalsohungry

- He was tired and hungry, too

- The concert was very poor in the middle, but there were interesting items both

at the beginn the end

- Surely the question can be easily settled when the

employers and the workmen want an early agreement

- Some boy had only an apple, but he had an orange

- Julius Caesar was n ot_ only a great genera! a wise

legislator

1.2 What’ more (also called what is more), moreover, and

furthermore are used to add an extra fact after two or more

have already been given Very often it is the most important fact acting as the climax:

- I don't think the man is suitable for a gardener: he is ;

stupid, and unreliable; what's more,he knows nothing about

gardens

- He has been judged guilty of murder to death',

what’s more,all his land has been taken by the government

1.3 The parts joined by and or its substitutes must balance each other:

- The guy WAS not_only stupid but also cowa

- Not only \N AS the guy stupid buthWAS cowardly

- That instrument IS expensive and practically u

- That instrument IS not only expensive practically

- Not only IS that instrument expensive

it IS also useless

The BUT type

2.1 But or its substitute is used to add something different from what we have already said The word, phrase, clause which follows but or its substitute'^not what we might expect

Compare:

- He is stupid and lazy

- He is stupid but persevering

- He works hard and gains all the prizes

- He never works but gains all the prizes

- He works hard but never manages to gain a prize

2.2 It is not always possible to put all or any of the following co¬ordinates instead of but

- History tells the story of man’s life through the ages,

many people dislike it

- This one costs $10, while the one over there costs only $4

- William is in the top class

whereas John, who is a year older, is only in class 5

- The sun is shining, and there are very few clouds;

nevertheless,I am sure that it is going to rain

- I told them thatldidn’t want them to send those parcels;

however,I now think they had better do so

- There are many people who say that it is more sensible to buy what one wishes and pay for it afterwards by instalment;

for all that,I prefer to wait and pay for things I buy them

- The beauty of writing lies not in how many words we know, but In the way we choose the words we use and how we organize them

1

3 The OR type

3.1 Or and its substitutes give two statements of equal value to

choose from: if one is true the other is not

- If you want, you can

either\NAIK to the next town and TAKE the train from there or HIRE a car here and (90 the way by road

- The climate of Britain is neither too hot too cold in winter

- He never works steadily:

either he WORKS extremely hard or he DOES nothing

- He has no accomplishments: he can TALK,

(not)PLAY the piano, (not)TELL funny stories, PLAY at cards

- You MUST LEAVE at once, otherwise yow WILL MISS the train

-You had better COME yourself or els SEND a friend: it is not enough to send a letter

3.2 The parts joined by either ơrand must balance

each other:

- He WAS either a rogue ora fool

- Either \\e WAS a rogue or\\e WAS a fool

- I HAVE food neither for m for my horse

- I HAVE food for neither myself n

- The SO type

So and its substitutes are used to add something which follows as a

consequence for the previous part:

- He was born in Athens, so he speaks Greek like a native

- Singapore lies very near to the equator;

consequently,the weather is very hot all the year round - He has done very good work for societ);

he deserves great praivc

- There is no demand in Shanghai for this make of car;

accordingly,I am not able to give you any order

EXERCISE 11: SENTENCE TRANSFORMATION

Rewrite each of the following sentences in such a way that it means almost the same as the original sentence:

Bachelors PREFER red-haired

Girls with red hair ARE PREFERRED BY unmarried men

A GERUNDS vs INFINITIVES

1 Sitting in one place for so long is very uncomfortable.

It is very uncomfortable to sit in one so

2 It will be a lot of fun to go to that party next week

Going to that party next week will be a

3 Understanding that fellow was very difficult for me

It was very difficult for me to understand that

4 lYusually takes me forty minutes toschool by bus

Getting to school by bus usually takes me forty

5 Flying to Caracas, Venezuela took US only eight hours

It took us only eiíỊÌĩt hours to fly to Car

B SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION

6 He will never admit defeat

Never 'will he admit defeat

7 We had hard/ybovuw our work when it began to rain

Hardly had we begun our work when began

8 She had scarcely entered the room when the phone rang

Scarcely had she entered the room when the phone rang

9 An individual rarely finds himself sought by both parties

as their presidential candidate, as did General Eisenhower

Rarely does an individual find himself soug by both

as their presidential as

He had no sooner arrived thanhe was asked to leave again

No sooner had he arrived than he was

Ỉ He doesn't like Beethoven, either

Neither does he like Beethoven

- Hughes owned Las Vegas hotels and á movie studio as well

Not only did Hughes own Las Vegas h hut he also a

The destruction was so great that the South took decades to recover

So <’reat was the destruction that the took

- Most snakes will attack human beings only they are in danger

1 )nly when in danger will most snakes human

c REPORTED SPEECH:

STATEMENTS

' You must study hard for the test,’ the teacher informed US

The teacher informed US that we had study hard for the

Mr Anderson said, T have been smoking too much recently.’

Mr Anderson said that he had been smoking too

WH-QUES TIONS

How soon can you pay back the monev?’ Mr Jones said to me

Mr Jones asked me how_ soon I could pay the

V 'What does the word outfit mean?’ the student said to the teacher.The student asked the teacher what the word

YES-NO QUESTIONS

Have you seen that movie yet?’ Roger asked US

Roger asked USif/whether {or not)we had seen

Do you understand this lesson?’ I said to her

I asked her if/whether(or not) she understood

COMMANDS

21 ‘Show me your driver’s license,’ the policeman ordered

The policeman ordered me to show

22 The clerk said to US, ‘Don’t come back before one o’clock.’

The clerk told US not to come hack

D CLAUSES vs PHRASES

23 Being a careless fellow, he forgot all about it

Since he was Cl careless fellow, he

24 Having had my breakfast, I went to school

After I had_ had my breakfast, 1 went

25 He stood in the veranda, listening to the wind

He stood in the veranda as if he to

26 Taking morning exercises every day, you can improve your health

If you take morning exercises every you your

27 Runningi\Wthe way to the station, 1 caught the express

I caught the express by runn inji a the way the

28 After trying twice, Ivan broke the record when he tried the third time

Ivan broke the record at the third

29 They had a wonderful holiday even the weather was bad

Despite/In spite of the bad weather,they had a They had a wonderful holiday, despite bad

They had a wonderful holiday in spite of

30 Considering you r condition, we won’t press charges

Under the circumstances, we won’t press

31 He never seemed to have finished anything though he tried hard

However hard he tried, he never

32 1 was sick with the flu, but \ still had to study for the test

Although 1 was sick with the flu,I had the

33 The hair dryer was not working right, I returned it to the store

Because the hair dryer was not working I

Dan set the table, andhis wife finished cooking dinner

As soon as his wife finished cooking Dan set the table

35 I watered my drooping African violets, and they perked right up

No sooner had I watered my drooping African

than they perked

36 The little boy kept pushing the down button,

butÚ\Q elevator didn’t come any more quickly Although the little hoy kept pushing the down

the any more

The elevator failed to give a quick answ regardless of

the little boy’s effort to keep pushing the down button

7 I never really knew what pain is,

and then\ had four impacted wisdom teeth pulled at once

I didn’t really know what pain is

until I had four at

' Fred didn’t do that unless he had your permission

If Fred didn’t have your permission, do

If he does/ĩ^do his work, he should not be paid.

Unless he does his work, lie should n he

- 1 Unless you hurry, we won’t be able to catch the train

We can only catch the train if you hu

Were he here, I would/should ask him

If lje_were here,/ would/shouldask

-1 If 1 had realized that, I would/should not have said anything.Had / realized that,I would/sliouldnot have

- shouldhe see me,I will/shall be punished

If sees me, / will/shall he punished

44 I did it like that to improve her looks

I did it like that so that/ln order that she better

45 They always walk to school in order they may get plenty of exerciThey always walk to school to get

46 He was so stupid that the examiner refused to pass him

He showed such stupidity that the e refused to pass

47 He is such a popular person that he is always being asked out

He is so popular that he is always b asked

48 I was too tired to walk any further

I was so tired that I couldn’t walk any further

49 The nearest service station is 50 miles away

It is 50 miles to the nearest service

4

50 i*saw Ted at the party

It was Ted that I saw at the party

5 1 Picasso painted Guernica, not Dali

It was Picasso who painted Guernica,

52 That Sharon s car broke down was unfortunate

It was unfortunate that Sharon’s car broke down

53 My son will be 14 next week

It’s my son’s 14'h birthday next week

54 It is almost unnecessary for me to say that I was upset.

I need hardly say that I was upset

55 He hardly ever goes to bed before midnight

He very seldom íỊoes to bed before

56 It is why you want to leave for Africa that I can't understand

What can’t understand is why you want to

57 IYis Alice’s job to look after new staff

Alice is responsible for looking after new staff

5 s It looks as if we’ll have good weather for our trip

We’re likely to have good weather for our trip

It won't make any difference even they offer him more money Offering him more money won’t make any difference

This booki which had been translated into many languages,

became well-known all over the world Having been translated into many lanthis hook over There's no need for you to get so upset

You don7 need to get so upset

2.The last time 1 was in Hanoi was last December

I haven’t been to Hanoi since last D

\ This text is too difficult for US to translate Without a dictionary

This text is not easy enough for US to translate a dictionary

4 The fridge was so heavy that wo couldn’t move it

The fridge was too heavy for US to move

5 Henry regrettedbuyinq the second-hand car

Henry wished he had not_bought the

He didn’t know where John was, and I didn’t either

Neither of US knew where John was

They are both worth reading

Both of them are worth reading

Y 1 expect (that) she missed the train

She must have missed the train

Did he give you any reason for his behaviour?

Did he explain why he behaved like ?

I haven’t heard from Susan recently.

Susan hasn’t written to me recently

71 When he was ten, he could ride a bicycle

At ten, he could ride a bicycle

E ACTIVE vs PASSIVE

72 You should open the wine about three hours before you use it

The wine should be opened about three hours before is

73 People thought that some homesteaders]^already settled in Montana, Some homesteaders were thought t

74 This Speed limit IS TO he introduced gradually

The authorities ARE TO introduce this speed

75 The damaged ship was being towed into harbour when the towline brokeThey were towing the damaged ship int when the brok

76 Someone will HAVE TO be found to take her place

We will/shall HAYE IQ ŨUỂsomeone to her

77 No one has changed the curtain for three weeks

The curtain has not been changed for

78 The doctor should have signed my insu form My insurance form should have been signed by the doctor

F RELATIVE CLAUSES

79 Those boys walking together are brothers

Those boys who are walking together are

80 The speaker we listened to mentioned that matter

The speaker to whom we listened mentio that

81 The paper you wrapped the gifts wi was very pretty The paper wftji which you wrapped the gifts was

82 The apartment ijn which we live is on the second floor

The apartment where.we live is o the

84.1 fail to remember the day on which he was sent to the front

1 fail to remember the day when he was sent to the front

* - you look for the time when the procession due to pasd 1 1 you look for the time during which the procession due to pass'!

•ft- - _ e you found out when the train leaved!

- - e you found out at_ what_ time the train leaved!

e soon discover wjwhad broken the window

She soon discover whfchjof the boys in Class_ 5had broken the window

w - knew quite well why the train leaved

IHa\ e you found out on what_ business the police had come

*§ don’t know where the house could be found

don’t know />7 what disjrictthe house could be found

• They did not know how long he had been there

Tr.ey did not know for how_many hours he had been there!

SECTION 2: PARAGRAPH WRITING

Question 1 What is a paragraph?

According to Oshima and Hogue [1991:16], a paragraph is ‘a basic

unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea.’

A paragraph should include a clearly stated topic sentence, which embodies a topic and a controlling idea

A paragraph should be unified have unity, it discusses only one topic A paragraph should be coherent/have coherence so that the reader can follow its points of discussion fairly easily

A paragraph may have a concluding sentence in which the topic,

the controlling idea and/or the main points of discussion within the paragraph are restated

PRACTICE 1: Identify the topic and the controlling idea Paragraph 1

Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power (1) These violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach velocities of seventy miles per hour or more (2) Furthermore, the strong winds and heavy rainfalls that accompany

them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours The energy that

is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by humankind throughout the world one year

seven states along the river and the federal government (2) What makes the agreement shaky is that (2.1) it is based on an overly optimistic estimate of the river’s average flow About 15 million acre-feet of water were originally apportioned to the states; actually, the average annual supply is only 13.8 million (2.2) 7/7 the did not take

into account Mexico’s right to any Colorado River water at all, so the 1.5 million acre-feet later guaranteed to Mexico widen the gap between demand and supply The Colorado is, in short, overbooked

Paragraph 4

Marie is as beautiful as any (1) Her thick,

wavy, long black hair gracefully falls down to her shoulders and surrounds her exquisite, diamond-shaped face (2) A golden suntan usually highlights her smooth, clear complexion (3) Her slightly arched chestnut brown eyebrows draw attention to her deep blue eyes, which remind me of a lake on a stormy day Her eyes are large, but not too large, with thick eyelashes (4) Her nose is straight and neither loo long nor too short A small black mole on the left side of her mouth adds to her beauty (5) And her mouth! It is a small mouth that looks delicate

and feminine (6) Her ups are rather thin, but not too thin; her light lipstick adds another touch of feminine beauty When she smiles, which is often, her well-formed and even, white teeth brighten up her whole face There is nothing but extraordinary in the face of Marie

Question 2 How can we avoid the lack of unity in a paragraph?

To avoid a lack-of-unity paragraph, make sure that each sentence of the paragraph relates to its topic and develops its controlling idea ‘If a sentence does not relate to or develop that idea, it is irrelevant and should be omitted.’ [Smalley and Ruetten, 1986: 17]

PRACTICE 2:Make a paragraph unified

Read the following paragraphs Underline the topic sentence for each paragraph and cross out any sentence that does not belong in the paragraph There may be one or more irrelevant sentences

Another problem facing a number of elderly people is

on reduced income Upon retiring,old people may receive the pension