Physical geology laboratory manual 4th edtion karen woods

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY LABORATORY MANUAL Fourth Edition Karen M Woods Lamar University Contributing Authors Margaret S Stevens James B Stevens Roger W Cooper Donald E Owen James Westgate Jim L Jordan Bennetta Schmidt KENDALL/HUNT 4050 Westmark Drive PUBLISHING Dubuque, COMPANY Iowa 52002 Copyright © 1994, 1997, 2001, 2006 by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company Revised Printing 2009 ISBN: 978-0-7575-6114-6 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company Printed in the United States of America 10 Preface v Chapter Minerals Introduction Minerals Identification of Mineral Unknowns 12 Mineral Property List 15 Mineral Uses 19 Chapter Rocks 31 Igneous Rocks 31 Sedimentary Rocks 43 Metamorphic Rocks 53 Rock Property List 63 Uses for Common Rocks 67 Chapter Tectonics, Structure, and Soils 69 The Earth (Zones and Characteristics) 69 Continental Drift 71 Plate Tectonics 71 Plate Boundaries 71 Structural Geology 79 Soils 97 Chapter Topographic Maps 107 Elevation 107 Contours 107 Coordinate Systems and Map Locations 121 Chapter Streams, Rivers, and Landscapes 129 Water Cycle 129 Streams and Rivers General Terminology 129 Rivers and Erosion: Development of Landscapes 131 Stream Drainage Patterns 134 Chapter Groundwater, Karst Topography, and Subsidence 139 Groundwater 139 Caves and Karst Topography 141 Karst Topography 141 Subsidence 143 Chapter Shorelines 149 General Shoreline Features 149 Sea-Level Changes: Eustatic, Local, and Regional 151 Emergent Shorelines, Causes and Characteristics 152 Submergent Shorelines, Causes and Characteristics 153 References 159 iv Physical Geology L a b o r a t o r y Manual Physical Geology is the first introductory course in the field of Geology The faculty and staff of Lamar University, Department of Earth and Space Sciences have collaborated to produce a laboratory manual that is informative and easily understood It has been customized to present the concepts and ideas the faculty feel are most important in Physical Geology It is intended to supplement the main lecture course by exposing the student to conceptual exercises and hands-on experience of the subjects introduced in lecture , INTRODUCTION Geology deals with the physical and historical aspects of the Earth Physical geology is the study of the composition, behavior, and processes that affect the Earth's lithosphere The science of geology also provides the means to discover and utilize the Earth's natural resources (coal, gas, petroleum, minerals, etc.) Geologists also study the Earth and its processes so that they can better understand and predict potentially dangerous geologic situations (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, etc.), which results in the saving of lives Historical geology, the second introductory course, deals with geology as it relates to the Earth's history This laboratory manual begins with the study of common Earth materials, minerals, and rocks that make up the lithosphere, and proceeds to the kinds of forces and situations that can alter (build up or tear down) the surface of the planet MINERALS Minerals are the basic building blocks of nearly all Earth materials for most geological purposes A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid, inorganic combination (compound) of one or more elements, whose atoms are arranged in an orderly fashion (crystallinity), and has an established chemical composition that can vary slightly within specific limits Minerals also have a set of physical properties (hardness, color, etc.) that distinguish them from each other "Inorganic" means that the compound was not the result of organic processes Natural compounds are not "pure" in the pharmaceutical sense, particularly if modern analytical methods are used Most chemical elements can be shown to consist of several "isotopes," atoms of different atomic weights that have a closely similar set of chemical properties Minerals as natural compounds are fairly complicated They consist of one or more elements that consist of one or more isotopes, are not absolutely "pure" compounds, and show some variation, even within materials called by the same mineral name The guideline geologists have agreed on to define a particular mineral is the nature of the internal geometric arrangement (the crystallinity) of the atoms This arrangement is usually called the crystal structure (technically, the term "crystal structure" is redundant—the word "crystal" by itself is sufficient) Materials such as glass and opal have no particular geometric arrangement of their atoms, and are not true minerals because they lack crystallinity The term "mineraloid" is used for these materials, and some mineraloids are simply called rocks (natural glass, obsidian, is a kind of volcanic rock) SUMMARY: a material must be/have the following characteristics to be classified as a mineral: be naturally occurring (not man-made) be solid be inorganic (not compounds that can be produced only by living organisms) have a geometric arrangement of its atoms—crystallinity have a chemical composition that can vary only according to specific limits A substance that satisfies these requirements will have a characteristic set of physical properties that can be used for identification Common Minerals Many of the minerals studied in the laboratory (Table 1.1) are familiar to nongeologists Some elemental materials (sulfur, graphite, and diamond) are classified as minerals when found in large, natural cohesive quantities Quartz (Si0 , silicon dioxide) is the most commonly known mineral Varieties of quartz include: rose quartz, milky quartz, chert (in many different colors), flint, agate, rock crystal (clear), amethyst (purple), aventurine (green), jasper (red), etc Halite (NaCl, sodium chloride) is probably the most commonly used mineral and is found in most spice cabinets as table salt Minerals have many unexpected uses and a list of some of these uses is found at the end of this chapter Physical Properties of Minerals All minerals have a set of distinctive physical properties that can be used to identify them The goal of the student is to become familiar with geological terminology and apply the terms to unknown mineral specimens in order to correctly identify them Students should note that the physical properties of each different mineral group are not absolutes Hardness is one property that can vary from sample to sample of the same mineral The mineral magnetite has a hardness of 6, but it can actually range between 5.5 and 6.5 Therefore, some specimens of magnetite will easily scratch a glass plate (hardness Ss 6) and some specimens may barely scratch glass or not scratch it at all Color is another property of minerals that can vary widely and thus should not be the only criterion used for identification of an unknown mineral specimen Quartz comes in many different colors and is easily confused with other minerals of similar color Amethyst purple quartz is easily mistaken for purple fluorite, and vice versa The student should not use any one property alone to identify unknown minerals A group of physical properties leads to a more accurate identification Crystal Form Crystal form is the geometric arrangement of plane ("flat") surfaces on the outside of a mineral that reflect the internal crystallinity of the mineral (Fig 1.1a and Fig 1.1b) Crystal faces develop only when the crystal has enough room to grow without interference The planar (flat) sides of a cube, for example, are called faces A cube is a crystal form that has six faces (flat sides) (Fig 1.1a) Halite and fluorite often have cubic ciystal form, while garnet and pyrite have more complicated crystal forms that are variations on the cube Corundum, quartz, and calcite show different variations on the hexagonal (six-sided) ciystal form (Fig 1.1b) The hexagonal form of calcite (Fig 1.1b) is the most difficult of these to see, but a calcite crystal will have one or two sharp points, and if one looks along the line between these two points, the visible outline is hexagonal Minerals without an external crystal form are referred to as massive (chert, limonite, etc.) Physical Geology Laboratory Manual TABLE 1.1 Chemical Groups of Selected Minerals Chemical Class Chemical Composition Mineral/Mineraloid Natives Only one kind of element present, "naturally pure" Sulfur Graphite/diamond (not available) Oxides Quartz (quartz crystal, milky, rose, chert, smoky, agate, etc.) Oxides of Iron: Oolitic Hematite Specular Hematite Goethite Limonite (mineraloid) Magnetite Corundum Bauxite (mineraloid) Si0 (Silicon dioxide) Fe Fe FeO(OH) Fe nH Fe A1203 Al nH (Iron oxide) (Iron oxide) (Hydrous iron oxide) (Hydrous iron oxide) (Iron oxide) (Aluminum oxide) (Hydrous Al oxide) Sulphides (A metal bonds directly with sulfur as the nonmetal) Pyrite Galena Sphalerite FeS2 PbS ZnS (Iron sulfide) (Lead sulfide) (Zinc sulfide) Sulfates (A metal bonds with the S complex ion acting as a nonmetal) Gypsum (Selenite, Satin spar, Alabaster) Anhydrite CaS0 H (Hydrous calcium sulfate) (Calcium sulfate) CaS0 Carbonates (A metal bonds with the C complex ion acting as a nonmetal) Calcite Dolomite GaC0 MgCaC0 (Calcium carbonate) (Calcium-magnesium carbonate) Halides (A metal bonds with a halogen [CI, F, Br or I] as the nonmetal) Halite Fluorite NaCl CaF (Sodium chloride) (Calcium fluoride) (A metal bonds directly with oxygen as the nonmetal) S c (Sulfur) (Carbon) Silicates (A metal bonds with the Si0 complex ion as the nonmetal) Nesosilicates (island silicates) Garnet (Fe, Mg)Si0 (Iron magnesium silicate) Complex Ca, Mg, Fe, Al silicate Inosilicates (chain silicates) Hornblende Augite Ca, Na, Fe, Mg, Al silicate (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)206 Phyllosilicates (sheet silicates) Muscovite Biotite Chlorite Talc Kaolinite OH, K, Al silicate (Hydrous potassium-aluminum silicate) OH, K, Mg, Fe, Al silicate OH, Mg, Fe, Al silicate OH, Mg silicate OH, Al silicate Orthoclase Plagioclase (Albite, Labradorite) Quartz K, Al silicate Ca, Na, Al silicate SiQ2 Tectosilicates (3-D silicates) Olivine Chapter Minerals EXERCISE 6.2: GROUNDWATER FLOW The water table mimics the ground surface but it usually has a more subdued topography Because the water table is a three-dimensional surface, it can be contoured, just like the ground surface above The only requirement is sufficient data points from water wells and other sources to create sufficient control The groundwater flows downhill under the influence of gravity Its flow can be represented by flow lines Flow lines intersect water table contours at right angles They cannot intersect, but they can diverge or converge The groundwater flows until it intersects or enters a stream In case of an influent stream, one where the groundwater flows into the stream, the stream Occupies a low in the water table, and pollution will not cross a stream and a pollutant in the stream will not enter the groundwater Groundwater flow is confined to drainage basins like streams Flow cannot cross major basin divides, but can cross subbasin divides at the lower end Draw flow lines on the following map from points A, B, and C Groundwater from which point will intersect the stream at the highest elevation? Stream Contour Chapter Groundwater, Karst Topography, and Subsidence 147 EXERCISE 6.3: GROUNDWATER PROBLEM The following map is a hypothetical groundwater map A property owner living at point B intends to drill a well to supply water to his home If the ground surface elevation at point B is 760 feet, what is the minimum depth the well will have to be to reach the water table? If a toxic substance is accidentally added to the groundwater at point C, will the water at point B be contaminated? At point A? At Point D? Explain your answers 148 Physical Geology Laboratory Manual Shorelines A shoreline is a boundary between land and water Shorelines can be classified as emergent, where dry land is gradually appearing as the seas withdraw, the result of uplifts of the land (regression), or submergent, where the shoreline is, or has recently been, advancing inland, the result of subsidence (transgression) Broadly speaking, emergent shorelines have fewer inlets and bays than submergent shorelines Shorelines in areas recently heavily affected by valley glaciation (fjord shorelines) are extensively digitated (fingerlike) even though they can be either emergent or submergent GENERAL SHORELINE FEATURES FIGURE 7.1 Shorelines The longshore current is a current of water that moves parallel to the shore and transports wave-eroded sediments down current (in the direction of the prevailing wind, or away from a storm center) and is responsible for the formation of several shoreline features (Fig 7.1) Bays are recesses in the shoreline that are the result of the erosion of materials of differing hardness The less-hard material is eroded away and a recess is formed Headlands, rocky protrusions along the shore, are also formed due to differential erosion Over time, the headlands may be completely cut off from the shore and form marine arches, blowholes, or small rocky islands known as stacks Spits are sandbars attached to the mainland, created by the deposition of the sediments moved by the longshore current Spits elongate in the direction of current flow 149 A spit that extends completely across the mouth of a bay is referred to as a baymouth bar The former bay, now a lagoon, has been separated from the ocean except for a shallow tidal inlet or pass Lagoons also develop when barrier islands form along coastlines, such as Laguna Madre along the Texas Gulf Coast Tied islands are islands that act as breakwaters to slow the longshore current, and consequently are attached to the coast by sediments deposited by the current Coastal environments with low amounts of wind and wave action are the areas where tied islands would most likely form A tombolo is the sand bar that "ties" an island to the shore The shoreline features found on modern coasts were formed in the geologic past and can be recognized in the stratigraphic record Recognition of these ancient features in subsurface sedimentary rock allows the geologist to pinpoint areas most likely to be sources of oil, gas, and fresh water Some shorelines are rocky and have steep promontories (headlands), and some have masses of collected sediment (usually sand) called beaches Rocky shorelines, generally in areas of rugged topography and where water depth increases rapidly offshore, change very slowly because rocks resist erosion Rocky and steep shorelines occur in areas of erosion, while beaches represent areas of (at least temporary) deposition For beaches, position (relative to some fixed referent such as a beach highway), appearance, and shape can shift subtly on a daily basis Weather and tidal variations influence wave action and sediment transportation, but most beaches show little if any net change over periods of years It might seem that violent storms, such as hurricanes, which commonly cause extensive beach erosion and change the beach substantially in a matter of hours, might provide an exception to the preceding statement But such changes, even though they may remove the beach highway ("fixed referents"), within a few months will be unnoticeable as the beach will look very much as it did before the storm Of course, some fundamental change in the frequency of violent storms over a long period of time would produce net changes in the general position of the beach and the shoreline by changing the wave energy (how hard and how frequently waves hit the shore) and the force and extent of the longshore currents Longshore currents control the transfer (migration) and deposition of sediments along shorelines to an even greater extent than the tides do, in many areas Beach drifting is the down-current movement of sand accompanying the longshore current Wave fronts are bent to become more nearly parallel to the shore (wave-travel direction is bent to become more nearly perpendicular to the beach) as the waves near the shore and where the water shallows to about one-half the wavelength However, the bending, called refraction, is rarely complete, with the result that the wave energy strikes the beach at a slight angle to the backwash, and water and sediment are forced to slip sideways in a given direction along the beach Conditions of emergence and submergence depend on the balance between sets of operations (Fig 7.2) Many are commonly working at the same time, and some would, by themselves, produce emergence; others may be working in the opposite "direction" (submergence) Following are some of the possible factors, arranged in order of the scope of the effects 150 Physical Geology Laboratory Manual Emergence (Regression) Worldwide (Eustatic) Sea Level Changes A Climatic changes (decreased temperature) resulting in an increase in the size of the worlds Icecaps Regional to Local Sea Level Changes B Uplift of land C Increase in rate of deposition D Increase in the amount of sediment brought in area E Glaciers are melt ins F Increase in rate of sedimentation Submergence (Transgression) Worldwide (Eustatic) Sea Level Changes G Climatic changes (increased temperature) resulting in an decrease in the size of the worlds Icecaps Regional to Local Sea Level Changes H Downwarping of land area I Decrease in rate of deposition J Decrease in amount of sediment brought in area FIGURE 7.2 Clauses of Emergence, Equilibrium, and Submergence SEA-LEVEL CHANGES: EUSTATIC, LOCAL, AND REGIONAL Worldwide Eustatic Sea Level(s) Eustatic sea-level change is a change in the volume of water in the oceans and seas, or in the volume of the ocean basins that affect shorelines worldwide, at the same time Historical records and geological evidence show that sea-level changes as the volume of ice stored in continental ice caps and glaciers (particularly in Antarctica and Greenland) varies with changes in the global climate Sea level is rising at present Plate tectonics, which affects the motion of lithospheric plates, changes the shape of the ocean basins, and rates of spreading change heights and volumes of oceanic ridges Chapter Shorelines 151 Regional and Local Effects of Sea-Level Change Tectonic activity influences the Earth's surface regionally or locally There can be uplift in tectonically active areas (compressional and transform margins), downwarping or rebound (when downwarping stops) in back-arc basins, and downwarping induced by crustal cooling at locked plate margins One of the things that makes many features of our planet hard to measure, including what is exact sea level, is that few if any parts of the Earth's crust "hold still." Climatic factors influence the rate of weathering and erosion, and thus the production of sediment varies Storms on land create floods that move sediment to the shoreline (eventually), and storms at sea drive longshore currents and determine wave size Storminess affects the transfer or deposition of sediments along the shore, and the rate at which promontories (headlands) are attacked The "Greenhouse effect" and possible global warming may be responsible for the eustatic rise in sea level (transgression) that is currently submerging shorelines and encouraging beach erosion Human activity also influences the Earth's surface regionally or locally Clear-cutting a forest may affect the local climate, and frees a great deal of sediment because deforestation encourages run-off and erosion Damming a river temporarily prevents sediment from reaching the shoreline, so that beaches and marshes, deprived of sediment replenishment, erode The building of jetties and groins along the shore will cause the longshore currents to deposit sediment immediately up-current of the obstruction, and to erode beaches farther down-current EMERGENT SHORELINES, CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS Emergence of a shoreline (regression) can take place for three fundamentally different reasons One is the actual uplift of the land relative to sea level A second is eustatic sea-level fall, and the third reason is an increase in the rate of deposition (usually a local effect) The amount of sediment deposited exceeds the capacity of the agents of erosio—wave energy and longshore currents—to carry it away While it is useful for purposes of analysis to think of these factors separately, they more usually work in combination Emergence by Actual Uplift (Features) Wave-cut platforms develop when, in the course of long-term emergence, there is a pause, a temporary reversal producing brief erosional submergence Waves plane off (or build up) a smooth surface that slopes very gently seaward Marine terraces are wave-cut platforms that are exposed when the sea level drops (or the land rises) Beaches, lagoons, or backbeach marshes produce a ridge and swale topography (strand plains and chenier plains) that can be left behind when the sea regresses Emergence by Deposition (Features) Deltas are, in map view, triangular, fan-shaped, or "bird-foot"-like (Mississippi River delta) deposits of river sediment, which the stream transports to and deposits in a relatively still body of water, such as a lake or ocean The river slows (its capacity decreases rapidly) and drops its load of sediment in a shape that depends both on the strength of waves and currents in the body of "quiet" water, and on the texture of the sediment The river divides into distributaries (rivers that have more than one mouth) As deltas grow, they get flatter and flatter, and with time the distributary is unable to push sediment out across the delta, with the result that the river migrates laterally rather abruptly (avulsion) A delta is a complex of smaller deltas of different, crosscutting ages Emergent shorelines are generally straight and smooth, but in areas where the currents and waves are weak, or the amount of sediment introduced by the rivers is very large, deltas will have bumps on, or even complicated projections from, an uncomplicated coast Along the Gulf Coast, the 152 Physical Geology Laboratory Manual Mississippi delta is an example of a situation where enormously more sediment is supplied than the longshore currents can carry away The delta of the Brazos River is much less impressive because the river supplies barely more sediment than longshore currents can remove Barrier islands (Fig 7.1) are elongated sandbars that parallel the coast with beaches and, commonly, dune ridges Barrier islands along the Atlantic Coast of the United States from Long Island to northern Florida are discontinuous, and tidal passes (inlets) are important in their development Texas barrier islands along the Gulf Coast (Galveston to South Texas and Tamaulipas), where tides are small, have few natural passes and are much more effective at cutting off lagoons (such as Laguna Madre) from the open sea Barrier islands along the Texas coast began to grow less than 5,000 years ago, when eustatic sea-level rise (from the melting of the glaciers of the last ice age) slowed, and the rate of deposition began to exceed the rate of drowning of the paleoriver valleys Texas "bays" or estuaries are submerged river valleys SUBMERGENT SHORELINES, CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS The causes of submergence of shorelines are, with one exception, the opposites of the causes of emergence Submerged shorelines (Fig 7.1) can occur via the "drowning" of a coast due to the eustatic rise of sea level (worldwide effect), tectonic downwarping (regional effect), and/or the compaction of thick sediment (along the Gulf Coast, for instance), also a regional effect Locally, withdrawal of large amounts of water, oil, or natural gas from unconsolidated sediments can speed up subsidence dramatically Another cause of submergent shorelines is erosion The forces of erosion can be increased by climatic change or increased storminess, or by a decrease in the amount of sediment brought in, so that the capacity of erosional agents exceeds the sediment supply Submergence by Actual Sea-Level Rise The main identifying feature of drowned submergent shorelines is the presence of clusters of islands (if the topography was hilly), bays, and estuaries A bay (Fig 7.1) is a broad recess in the shoreline Small, narrow bays not dominated by a river may be called inlets, and fjords (drowned U-shaped valleys) are long narrow inlets cut by a glacier An estuary is a broadened and tide-dominated, drowned lower portion of a river valley, with brackish water, a mix of sea and fresh water (hyposaline) There is little difference between high and low tide along the Texas shoreline, and many rivers in South Texas not deliver enough fresh water to keep the "bays" from becoming hypersaline (saltier than sea water) in summers due to evaporation But in many respects, Texas "bays" (such as Sabine Lake) would qualify as estuaries Chesapeake Bay, the drowned confluence of the Susquehanna and Potomac rivers (Maryland and Virginia), is a classic estuary As the sea level rises or the land subsides, these shoreline recesses migrate further and further inland Bays, particularly large bays, usually have beaches, but low wave energy and poorly developed beaches are characteristic of estuaries Bays and estuaries usually have marshy or swampy edges As the sea advances into one of these kinds of recesses, the beach or marsh moves inland When the water moves inland against a steep or rocky coast, it may produce wave-cut cliffs, which, if erosion dominates, temporarily will have wave-cut platforms, and perhaps narrow beaches at their bases Stacks (as mentioned at the beginning of the chapter) such as off the California coast, are small, steep-sided rocky islands produced when wave action erodes through a promontory or headland along a steep or rocky shore Submergence by Erosion Submergence by erosion has the effect of simplifying, straightening, or rounding the shoreline, and making it steeper When a river avulses, abandoning an old delta to build a Chapter Shorelines 153 new one, the old delta, both because it no longer receives sediment and because sediment already deposited continues to compact under its own weight, is rapidly eroded and submerged Slow eustatic rise in sea level or tectonic downwarping, if unaccompanied by sufficient increase in sediment transfer, will produce the same effect on a regional basis (and of course, eustatic rise in sea level affects shorelines globally) Regionally, differences in the durability of materials being eroded may lead to complication in the shape of the shoreline, but nevertheless, where erosion is dominant, simplification is the general rule Usually in areas of regional submergence, erosion does round or straighten shorelines in promontory or headland areas 154 Physical Geology Laboratory Manual EXERCISE 7.1 Answer the following questions using the topographic maps indicated Kingston, Rhode Island, 7.5-Minute Series What shoreline feature is Green Hill Beach? What is it made of? Where does the source material for beaches come from? How was the source material transported to the oceans? Along the beaches? How was Green Hill Pond formed? How did you determine the direction of the longshore current? What the small circular contours seen on Green Hill Beach represent? (Hint: remember contour patterns and composition of most beaches.) List all the shoreline features seen on this map (man-made as well as natural) Provincetown, Massachusetts, 7.5-Minute Series What feature of shorelines is Long Point? What direction does the longshore current flow on the northern side? Western side? (Hint: Look at the shape of the area.) What feature of shorelines is Pilgrim Lake? What is the elevation of the highest bench mark on this map? Chapter Shorelines 155 Are there any estuaries on this map? Why? Name one bay on this map Are there any sandbars on this map other than those under the water? If yes, where? Cordova, Alaska What feature of shorelines are Egg Islands, Copper Sands, and Strawberry Reef? What are they made of? What feature of shorelines are Porpoise Rocks, Seal Rocks, and Schooner Rocks (far left near bottom)? Where does the source of sediment for the Gulf of Alaska originate? What direction does the longshore current flow in the Gulf of Alaska? How did you determine the longshore current direction? List at least two bays on this map Locate a fjord on this map What is it named? What type of river is the Copper River, south of Miles Lake? (Refer to Chapter 5) What depositional stream feature is found at the mouth of the Copper River? General Question What are the white areas on this map? 156 Physical Geology Laboratory Manual NOTES Allen, John R L (1984) Sedimentary Structures: Their Character and Physical Basis Amsterdam: Elsevier Anders, R B., McAdoo, G D., and Alexander, W H., Jr (1968) Ground-Water Resources of Liberty County, Texas Texas Water Development Board Report 72, 140 pp Atwater, B E, Cisternas V M., Bourgeois, J., Dudley, W C., Hendley II, I W, and Stauffer, R H Surviving a Tsunami—Lessons from Chile, Hawaii, and Japan United States Geological Survey Circular 1187, (1999) (http://pubs.usgs.gOv/circ/cll87/#debris) Baker, E T, Jr (1964) Geology and Ground-Water Resources of Hardin County, Texas Texas Water Commission Bulletin 6406, 179 pp Baker, E T, Jr (1986) Hydrology of the Jasper Aquifer in the Southeast Texas Coastal Plain Texas Water Development Board Report 295, 64 pp Bell, P., and Wright, D (1985) Rocks and Minerals New York: Macmillan Publishing Company Blatt, H., Tracey, R J., and Owens, B E (2006) Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic New York: W H Freeman and Company Castillo, Suzanne Physical Geology Lab Lecture Guide K M Woods, Ed Lamar University, Department of Geology Unpublished manuscript Chernikoff, Stanley (1995) Geology: An Introduction to Physical Geology New York: Worth Publishers, Inc Cooper, R W Physical Geology Lecture Outline Lamar University, Department of Geology Unpublished manuscript Encyclopedia Britannica, S v "Mount Saint Helens." 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