· The humerus is a long bone with a rounded head at the shoulders and a broad lower end at · One fibula the lower leg bones · One tarsal bones of the ankle · Five metatarsal bones of th
Trang 1Untouchability is a sin Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is inhuman
College Road, Chennai 600 006.
Trang 2Authors
Dr. Mrs.Prasanna Baby Mrs. M. Elizabeth
Trang 3The development of the text book “Nursing” resulted from the combined efforts of many talented professional, committed to excellence. Special recognition and due acknowledgement is hereby made
to the Director of School Education and the Joint Director of School Education Chennai.
Nursing is a major component of the health care develivery system and nurses make up the largest employment group within the system.
Nursing services are necessary for every patient seeking care of various types including primary, secondary, tertiary and restorative. As nursing is an important part of health care delivery system, the nurses need to have a sound knowledge about nursing as a profession and common professional activi ties.
With the present introduction of Vocational courses such as nursing in the academic stream as one
of the options, it is believed that it will contribute towards the basic nursing care of individuals, families and community for health and happiness. It will also be a foundation course for future diploma and degree programmes in Nursing.
In this edition a new chapter on “Bio Medical Waste Management” have been added in view of the fact that these knowledge will be essential for the students to learn before entering into the profes sional course. The subject contents has been developed, refined and reconstructed at several points as
per the current perspectives.
Dr. Mrs.P.Mangala Gowri.
III
Trang 41. Nurse and Nursing as a profession 20
2. Anatomy and Physiology: 50
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Trang 27Fig.2.1 Stucture of the Cell
Trang 32· Sinuses. Some skull bones have hollow spaces called “sinuses” which connect with the nose
and are filled with air. Sinuses make the skull lighter, and help in the sound of the voice.
‘Sinusitis’ is infection in these spaces. The main sinuses are the frontal ones above the eyes, and large antrum sinuses, one in each of the upper jaw bones
· Hyoid bones, this is a horse shaped little bone in the upper part of the neck. The tongue
muscle is attached to this bone.
The Vertebral Column
Spine or back bone is the central part of the skeleton. It supports the head and encloses the spinal cord. It consists of 33 irregular bones called “Vertebrae” but some are fused together and so these are
The vertebrae are also joint together by ligaments and muscles attached to the back and side processes
Trang 33FUNCTIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
1) Movement: Forward, backward, from side to side, also nodding and turning the head are possible because the spine is made of not one but many small bones, with discs of cartilage in between.
2) The spine supports the weight of the head, and of the abdominal organs.
3) Protection for the spinal cord, which lies within the spinal canal, and protection from injury by cushioning of the discs.
4) Balance in the erect position is made possible by the curves of the spine.
The Thorax: The thorax or chest is formed by the sternum (Breast bone) and costal cartilages in front,
the ribs at the sides, and the twelve dorsal vertebral bones at the back.
The sternum is a flat bone, shaped like a dagger pointing downwards. The tip consists of a carti lage known as the xiphisternum. The upper part, like the handle is joined to the two collar bones. The costal cartilages are joined to the sides of the sternum and to the true ribs.
5) Coccxygeal Region
Fig 2.7 The Thorax
1 & 2) Sternum 3) True Ribs 4) False Ribs 5) Floating Ribs 6) Xyphisternum 7) Lumbar Vertebrae
Trang 34The ribs are twelve pairs of the long curved bones. The upper seven pairs are called true ribs. These are each attached to the sternum by its costal cartilages.
· Eight carpal bones of the wrist.
· Fourteen phalanges of the fingers.
Trang 35· The collarbone (clavicle) on each side is a long bone with two curves. Its inner end is
attached to the sternum, and outer end with the shoulder blade. The collarbone is easily felt at the lower and front part of the neck. It keeps the shoulder blade in place. When it is broken the shoulder drops forward and downwards
· The shoulder blade (scapula ) on each side is at the upper and outer part of the back of the
thorax. It is large flat, triangular shaped bone with a ridge or spine at the back. It takes part in the shoulder joint
· The humerus is a long bone with a rounded head at the shoulders and a broad lower end at
· One fibula the lower leg bones
· One tarsal bones of the ankle
· Five metatarsal bones of the foot
· Fourteen phalanges of the toes
Trang 361) The Innominate Bones: One on each side, join with the sacrum to form the pelvis. Besides pro
tecting the pelvic organs, the pelvis supports the abdomen and provides the deep sockets for the hip joints.
In the female, the true pelvis (lower part ) is round so that the head, of the baby can pass through during delivery. ; In the male the true pelvis is long, narrow and heart – shaped.
The innominate bone in a child is separated into three bones, which are fused together in the adult.
Therefore the bone has three parts as follows:
1) Ilium, the upper flat part, forms the false pelvis. Its upper ridge is called the iliac crest. 2) Ischium, the ;heavy lower part, which supports the body when sitting.
Trang 371) Femur 2) Patella 3) Cartilage 4) Tibia 5) Synovial Membrane 6) Fibula
Trang 38Structures and Functions of Voluntary Muscles
A voluntary muscle is shaped like a spindle, and is enclosed in a protective coat called fascia. The centre of the muscle is called the body or belly. the body in thick and become shorter and thicker when the muscle contracts.
In health the muscles are always in a state of the slight constractions, ready at all times for action. This state of readiness is called ‘muscle tone’.
Fucntions are 1) Movement, 2) Maintaining posture. 3) Producing body heat.
Main Group of muscles and their actions
Many muscles are arranged in pairs, and oppose each other in action. They are often grouped according to function as follows.
3) Pectorails 4) Biceps 5) Quadriceps 6) Illiopsoas 7) Sartorius
Trang 39Muscles of the head and neck: Sternomastoid,a muscle attached to the mastoid process of
the temporal bone and to the sternum. This pair of the muscles when used together flex the and head. Separately they held to turn the head to one side.
Trapezius, a large diamond shaped muscle, attached to the occiput and dorsal vertebrae. It draws
back the shoulders and extends the head, thus helping in good posture.
Muscles that move the upper Arm: Deltoid a triangular muscle covering the shoulder joint,
and attached to the shoulder blade, collar bone and humerus. It raises th arm outwards to shoulder level (abduction).
Pectoralisa muscle covering the front of the chest, attached the humerus. It adducts the arm (draws the arm across the chest).
Trang 40Muscles that move the lower Leg: Quadriceps femoris a very strong group of four muscles, which cover the front of the thigh. Passing from the ilium and femur, they are attached tot he patella and so by the patellar ligament to the tibia. They extended the knee joint.
Harmstringsfrom the ischium and femur to the tibia and fibula, this muscle lies at the back of the thigh and flexes the knee joint.
Sartoriusfrom the iliac spine to the inner side of the tibia, this long thin muscle helps to abduct and flex both the hip and knee, as when sitting crosslegged.
Muscles of the abdominal wall: Rectus abdominis from the sternum and costal cartiliages to the public bone, these are two straight muscle forming the front wall of the abdomen. they cause flexion of the spine, and help in defaecation and in childbirth.
downward pressure in defaecation, passing urine, and in childbirth.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
This functions like a telephone system. With the brain as the head office, and nerves like the telephone wires communication takes place with all parts of the body. By means of numerous messages
Nerve Tissue: Nerve Tissue, of which these nervous systems are composed, is soft tissue made up of
nerve cells and nerve fibres. The cells massed together, as in the brain, form what is called the gray matter. The nerve fibres form ‘white matter’.
Nerve fibres are each connected with their own nerve cells, forming a unit called a neurone. Messags jump across from one neurone through its firbes to the next neurone. The fibres of some neurones are very long (eg. those in the limbs) and they are grouped together as visible white nerve trunks
Trang 41Nerves are three types:
1) Sensory nerves, which carry messages from all parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord. They enable the body to react for its protection.
2) Motor nerves, which take messages from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands in all parts of the body. they stimulate activity.
3) Mixed nerves consists of both sensory and motor nerve fibres, so they carry messages in both
directions.
The brain:
This is the most important part of the central nervous system. It is well protected in the cranial cavity and has the following parts
2) Parietal lobe: The sensory centers for sensations of touch, pain, heat, cold and pressure. 3) Temporal lobe: For hearing .
Trang 42is a little thicker. It lies just inside the skull.
Functions of the Medulla:
1) Connects the brain with the spinal cord, and conveys messages. It is in the medulla that cerebral nerve fibres cross over to the opposite side.
The Spinal Cord:
The spinal cord is a cord of nervous tissue, the thickness of a little finger and about 12cm long. It lies inside a canal formed by the vertebrae. It connects above with the medulla where the back of the
neck joins the skull and extends to the level of the first lumbar vertebrae.
Functions of the Spinal Cord:
1) Receives motor impulses from the frontal lobe of the cerebrum, and passes them on to muscles via the spinal nerves.
2) Receives sensations from the skin and other tissues and relays the message to the brain. 3) Reflex action. This is the quick response in the spinal cord itself. Eg. If you touch something hot, the message received in the spinal cord is immediately flashed to the muscles of the arm; before the news reaches the brain you have taken your hand away
Trang 43Sympathetic Systems: This consists of two chains of ganglia (groups of nerve cells) one on each side
of the vertebral column. The ganglia are attached by fibres to the spinal nerves.
The sympathetic nerves are stimulated by the emotions such as fear, excitement and anger. The results of the sympathetic nerve stimuli are: 1) dilated pupils 2) the heart beats quicker 3) breathing is quicker and deeper 4) the blood pressure is raised 5) digestion is slowed down 6) sweating is increased and 7) anal and urethral sphincters tighten up.
Trang 44The heart is important organ of the circulatory system. It is placed behind breastbone and within the thoracic cage. It is hollow muscular organ. It is enclosed in a sac known as the pericardium. It is about the size of a person’s clenched fist and weighs around 300 gm in a man and 250gm in a woman.
The heart has four chambers, two atria (upper) and two ventricles lower. Valves connect the upper and lower chambers. The right and left sides of the heart are totally separated by a muscular wall and there is no communication between them.
The right side of the heart receives the deoxygenated (impure) blood collected from the different parts of the body through small and big veins, which enters the lungs. In the lungs the blood is oxygenated and carbondioxide and metabolic waste are removed
The left side of the heart receives (pure) blood from the lungs and supplies it to the entire body through the major blood vessel (aorta) and its numerable branches (arteries and capillaries).
The left ventricle generates greater pressure than the right ventricle to enable the bold to be pumped throughout the body. Hence the left ventricle is more thicker and more muscular.
The coronary arteries branch out (left and right coronary arteries) from the root of the aorta near its origin from the left ventricle. Both the coronary arteries branch of into smaller vessels, which are distributed all over the surface of the heart. For efficient pumping, it is necessary for the heart to beat at
a reasonable rate of 60 – 90 beats per minute, which is achieved through controlled electrical impulses (conductive system).
6) Superior Venacava 7) Right Atrium 8) SemiLunar Valves 9) Right Ventricle 10) Inferior Venacava
Trang 45Functions of Heart:
1) It draws blood back from the capillaries and veins. 2) It sends blood into the lungs where it is oxygenated. 3) It sends blood through the aorta to all the parts of the body.
Trang 46White Blood cells
White blood cells help to fight infection. There are two main types.
1) Leucocytes are produced in the bone marrow. They can change shape and squeeze through the small bood vessel walls in order to fight gems that have entered the tissues. Many die in the fight and become “pus cells”. In acute infection many more leucocytes are produced to help in the fight (leucocytosis)
Ø Lymph is a fluid like plasma and the tissue fluid but in cases of infection it may contain bacteria.
Lymph is really the tissue fluid, which finds it way into the lymphatic vessels.
Ø Lymphatic Vessels: Lymphatic start in tissue spaces between the cells and start like the veins.
Inside them are the valves which help the flow of lymph towards the two largest lymphatic vessels
Trang 47Once the food is digested, it must be transferred to the blood stream and the process by which this transfer occurs is called absorption. Digestion and absorption are two chief functions of
the digestive system.
The Alimentary Canal:
The alimentary canal is a long muscular digestive tube extending through the body. It is about 750cm in length. It consists of the following parts:
1) The mouth 2) Oesophagus 3) Stomach 4) Small intestine
5) Large intestine. 6) Rectum 7) Anal canal.
1
2
3 4
Trang 48The gastro intestinal tract consists a tube composed of four principal layers from outside inwards: 1) Tunica adventitia or serous coat
The accessory organs – which are vitally necessary for the digestive process, do not happen to be
the part of the alimentary canal.
Physiology of Digestion: Digestion takes place is three parts of the alimentary canal. They are: 1) Mouth – with the help of saliva from three pairs of salivary glands, 2) Stomach – with the help of
gastric juice from the stomach wall and 3) Small intestine – with the help of pancreatic juice from the pancreas bile juice from the liver and the intestinal juice from the small intestine.
The Mouth: The mouth is also called the oral cavity. In the mouth there are about 32 teeth. They are
(1) Molars – 12 (2) Pre molars – 8 (3) Canines – 4 (4) Incisors – 8
The teeth help to break down the food substances into small particles. A muscular organ projects into this space is called the tongue. It helps in chewing and swallowing and is one of the principal organs
of speech.
The tongue has on its surface a number of taste buds by means of which we can differentiate sensation of taste. (bitter, sweet, sour and salty)
In chewing, the teeth grind the food into pieces while the secretion of saliva moistens and lubri cates the food.
Saliva is a juice secreted by three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth . they are
1) The parotid: located in front and below each external ear.
2) The submaxillary: located between the mandible and the muscle of the floor of the mouth.
3) The sublingual gland: located in floor of the mouth.
Salivary secretion is a reflex process, both conditioned and unconditioned reflexes are involved. A new born infant salivates when food is placed in its mouth. But the sight and smell of food does not produce any reaction.
Later by associating the sight and smell of food with its taste, the child learns that the food has certain qualities and these very qualities are after wards capable of eliciting salivary secretion