Tài liệu hạn chế xem trước, để xem đầy đủ mời bạn chọn Tải xuống
1
/ 133 trang
THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
Thông tin cơ bản
Định dạng
Số trang
133
Dung lượng
878,32 KB
Nội dung
EXPLORING SOCIAL MARKETING POLICIES: THE USE OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EMOTIONAL APPEALS IN HEALTH ADVERTISING IN FOUR EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Doctoral Thesis in Business and Management Studies -Specialisation in Marketing and Strategy by Beatriz da Graỗa Luz Casais Supervised by Professor Doutor Joóo F Proenỗa Porto, August 2014 ii Authors Biography Beatriz da Graỗa Luz Casais was born in Porto, Portugal, on July 9th 1983 She has taken her higher education pathway at University of Porto with a degree in Journalism and Communication Sciences at Faculty of Arts (2005), a post-graduation in Health Communication at Faculty of Medicine (2007), and a MSc in Marketing at Faculty of Economics – FEP (2009) In February 2011 she finished the curricular course of the doctorate in Business and Management Studies at FEP, with the approval of the doctoral proposal in Marketing and Strategy, which made her PhD candidate Beatriz Casais teaches marketing and communication at University of Minho and Polytechnic Institute of Viseu as teaching assistant In the past, she collaborated with Polytechnic Institute of Viana Castelo, Polytechnic Institute of Porto and Porto Business School, in the same field She also did teaching mobility at Tallinn University of Technology (Estonia) under Erasmus Programme Beatriz Casais is also Marketing Manager and Communication Specialist at Five by Five Consulting and Research, Lda Between 2006 and 2011, Beatriz Casais was the manager of marketing and communication at the National Coordination for HIV/AIDS Infection, an organism from the Portuguese Ministry of Health In 2011, she integrated, for six months, the marketing and communication office of FEP Her professional career started in 2004/ 2005, when she was journalist trainee at Diỏrio Econúmico and Rỏdio Renascenỗa Her research interests focus on social marketing, social advertising, health marketing, public policies and management of non-profit organisations Beatriz Casais has published in Health Marketing Quarterly, Journal of Macromarketing and Advances in Advertising Research She has presented papers at AMA Marketing and Public Policy Conference, AMA Summer Educators’ Conference, Macromarketing Conference, International Conference in Research in Advertising (ICORIA), European Social Marketing Conference, International Conference of the International Association on Public and Nonprofit Marketing and International Colloquium on Nonprofit, Arts, Heritage, and Social Marketing, a special interest group from Academy of Marketing – where she won the best conference paper award provided by Journal of Social Marketing and Emerald Group iii Acknowledgments This thesis is a result of a personal effort and perseverance that would not be possible without the collaboration of several people to whom I want to express my gratitude The first acknowledge goes to my supervisor, Professor Doutor Joóo F Proenỗa He provided me an important learning process to conduct academic research I want to manifest my profound recognition for his professionalism, availability, rigour and constant demanding, as well as for his friendship and motivational support Professor, thank you for believing in me I want to thank the people that, in different ways, gave specialised assist to the research: professionals from institutions working on HIV/AIDS prevention that showed their campaigns and allowed confidence on the data collection process; translators of data from French, German and Italian to English; and the independent coders I also give my recognition to the academics that reviewed and discussed this topic with me, giving criticisms, suggestions and showing paths to follow Those contributions happened both at FEP, during the discussion of the thesis’ proposal, and in the international scientific meetings where I presented papers Finally, but not less important, I express my deep acknowledge to my family and my friends They supported me in several levels with love, friendship, care, comprehension and motivation My thankfulness is, at the same time, an apologising for my distance and absence in all those moments that I knew I was expected Thank you for your sense and for always being with me iv Abbreviations AIDS – Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome API - AIDS Programme Effort Index CDC –Center for Disease Control and Prevention ECDC – European Center for Disease Control and Prevention EPPM - Extended Parallel Processing Model EU – European Union GDP - Gross Domestic Product HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus IDU - Injection Drug Users MBA – Master in Business Administration MSc – Master of Science MSM – Men who have sex with men NCPI - National Composite Policy Index NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OPM - Ordered Protection Motivation PEH - Public Expenditure on Health PhD – Doctor of Philosophy PLWHIV - People Living with HIV PMT - Protection Motivation Theory PRL - Proportional Reduction in Loss TV – Television UN – United Nation Orgnisation UNAIDS - Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS WHO – World Health Organisation v Abstract The objective of this thesis is to understand the use of positive and negative appeals in the practice of health-related social marketing, since the theoretical knowledge about the effectiveness of appeals is inconsistent in the literature The research proposes to analyse the prevalence of positive and negative appeals in social marketing in a longitudinal overview, characterising their form and the context where they are used The thesis examines whether the use of positive and negative appeals fit with the theoretical knowledge of the conditions that differentiate their effectiveness - the target audiences and behavioural change messages, the type of institutional sources, the policy and cultural context, as well as the epidemic dynamics The researchers analysed 375 social advertisements preventing HIV/AIDS in four European countries developed by governmental or non-governmental organisations and broadcasted on television since the beginning of infection in 1981 until the end of 2011 The thesis contributes with a content analysis model to identify and characterise positive and negative appeals in health-related social advertisements and to classify ads according to the proportion of appeals verified in their different components Results indicate that positive appeals have expressive and higher proportional use all the period under analysis This is an unexpected result, suggesting that social marketing practices not follow the theoretical evidences and predominance in the literature regarding the effectiveness of negative appeals Public health advertisements are essentially targeted to general people, with general messages, and commonly framed by public policies in a reactive response to health dynamics The research showed sensitiveness between the use of positive and negative appeals and countries’ profiles and epidemic rates vi Resumo O objetivo da tese consiste em compreender o uso de apelos positivos e negativos nas práticas de marketing social em saúde, considerando que o conhecimento teórico sobre a eficácia desses apelos é inconsistente na literatura A investigaỗóo propừe-se a analisar a prevalờncia dos apelos positivos e negativos no marketing social numa perspetiva longitudinal, caracterizando a sua forma e o contexto em que são usados A tese verifica se o uso de apelos positivos e negativos está em conformidade com o conhecimento teórico das condiỗừes que diferenciam a sua eficỏcia o segmento alvo e as mensagens de mudanỗa comportamental, o tipo de fonte institucional, o contexto político e cultural, bem como a dinõmica epidemiolúgica Os investigadores analisaram 375 anỳncios publicitỏrios de prevenỗóo VIH/sida em quatro paớses europeus desenvolvidos por organizaỗừes governamentais ou nãogovernamentais e exibidos na televisão desde o início da infeỗóo em 1981 atộ ao final de 2011 A tese contribui com um modelo de análise de conteúdo para identificar e caracterizar os apelos positivos e negativos nos anúncios publicitários de promoỗóo da saỳde e para classificar os anỳncios de acordo com a proporỗóo de apelos verificados nas suas diferentes componentes Os resultados indicam que os apelos positivos têm um uso expressivo e proporcionalmente maior em todo o período de análise Trata-se de um resultado inesperado, que sugere que as práticas de marketing social não seguem as evidências teóricas nem a predominância na literatura relativamente eficácia dos apelos negativos Os anỳncios de saỳde pỳblica sóo essencialmente dirigidos populaỗóo geral, com mensagens generalistas, e sóo frequentemente enquadrados em aỗừes de políticas públicas numa resposta reativa às dinâmicas de sẳde A investigaỗóo mostra uma sensibilidade entre o uso de apelos positivos e negativos e os perfis dos paớses e situaỗóo epidemiológica vii Contents Author’s Biography iii Acknowledgments iv Abbreviations v Abstract vi Resumo vii Contents viii List of Tables x List of Figures xi CHAPTER - INTRODUCTION 1.1 Motivation for the Research Topic 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Research Purpose 1.4 Structure of the Thesis by Papers 1.5 Methodological Approach 10 CHAPTER - SOCIAL MARKETING POLICIES FOR PUBLIC HEALTH AND EPIDEMIC DYNAMICS: A STUDY BASED ON HIV/AIDS PREVENTION TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENTS IN FOUR EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 15 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Literature Review 18 2.2.1 Health-Related Social Marketing Interventions within Public Policies and NGOs 18 2.2.2 Social Marketing Effectiveness 20 2.2.3 Challenges and Barriers for Effective Health Social Marketing Programmes 21 2.3 Research Methods 24 2.3.1 Data Collection 25 2.3.2 The Database 25 2.3.3 Data Analysis 26 2.4 Discussion 30 2.4.1 Social Marketing as a Public Policy Intervention 30 2.4.2 Longitudinal Appropriateness of Health-Related Social Marketing to Epidemic Profiles 31 viii 2.4.3 Appropriateness of Targeting Policies and Behaviour Change Messages 34 2.4.4 Adequacy to the Environment 37 2.4.5 Social Marketing and Policy Ambivalences 40 2.5 Conclusion and Research Implications 42 2.6 Limitations and Further Research 43 CHAPTER - A CONTENT ANALYSIS MODEL TO CLASSIFY SOCIAL ADVERTISEMENTS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE OF POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE APPEALS 45 3.1 Positive and Negative Appeals in Social Marketing 47 3.2 A Content Analysis Model to Classify Social Advertisements 50 3.3 Methodology 51 3.3.1 The Model 51 3.3.2 The Empirical Research .52 3.3.2.1 The sample data .52 3.3.2.2 The analysis of categories 53 3.3.2.3 The comparison of classifications 54 3.4 Results 55 3.4.1 Categories 55 3.4.2 Reliability 59 3.5 Conclusion and Research Implications 60 3.6 Limitations and Further Research 61 CHAPTER - THE USE OF POSITIVE APPEALS IN SOCIAL MARKETING: FOCUSED ON TELEVISION ADVERTISING FOR PREVENTING A RESEARCH HIV/AIDS IN FOUR EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 63 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Literature Review 66 4.2.1 The Persuasiveness of Negative Appeals 66 4.2.2 Positive Appeals: an alternative to fear control .68 4.2.3 Factors Influencing the Efficacy of Positive and Negative Appeals .69 4.3 The Research Design 72 4.4 Methodology 73 4.4.1 The Database 74 4.4.2 Data Analysis .75 ix 4.5 Results and Discussion 77 4.5.1 What are the most prevalent appeals in social advertising? 77 4.5.2 When are positive and negative appeals used in social advertising? 78 4.5.3 How are positive and negative appeals used in social advertising? 79 4.6 Conclusion and Research Implications 90 4.7 Limitations and Future Research 92 CHAPTER - CONCLUSIONS 93 5.1 Conclusions 94 5.2 Theoretical and Managerial Implications 96 5.3 Limitations and Future Research 97 References 99 List of Tables Table 1.1 Table 1.2 12 Table 1.3 12 Table 2.1 27 Table 2.2 30 Table 2.3 32 Table 2.4 33 Table 2.5 34 Table 2.6 34 Table 2.7 39 Table 3.1 55 Table 3.2 56 Table 3.3 58 Table 3.4 60 Table 4.1 72 Table 4.2 77 x Flora, J.A and Maibach, E (1990), "Cognitive responses to AIDS information: The effects of issue involvement and message appeal", Communication Research, Vol 17, No 6, pp 759-74 Floyd, D.L., Prentice-Dunn, S., and Rogers, R.W (2000), "A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory", Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol 30, No 2, pp 407-29 Forthofer, M.S and Bryant, C.A (2000), "Using Audience-Segmentation Techniques to Tailor Health Behavior Change Strategies ", American Journal of Health Behavior, Vol 24, No 1, pp 36-43 Fox, K.F.A (2009), "Za Zdorovye! Soviet Health Posters as Social Advertising", Journal of Macromarketing, Vol 29, No 1, pp 74-90 Frieden, T.R (2010), "A Framework for Public Health Action: The Health Impact Pyramid", American Journal of Public Health, Vol 100, No 4, pp 590-95 Froelich, K.A (1999), "Diversification of Revenue Strategies: Evolving Resource Dependence in Nonprofit Organizations", Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Vol 28, No 3, pp 246-68 Fuhrel-Forbis, A., Nadorff, P.G., and Snyder, L.B (2009), "Analysis of Public Service Announcements on National Television, 2001-2006", Social Marketing Quarterly, Vol 15, No 1, pp 49-69 Gallopel-Morvan, K., Gabriel, P., Gall-Ely, M.L., Rieunier, S., and Urien, B (2009), "The use of visual warnings in social marketing: The case of tobacco", Journal of Business Research, Vol 64, No 1, pp 7-11 Gardner, M.P and Wilheim, J.F.O (1987), "Consumer responses to ads with positive vs negative appeals: some mediating effects of context induced mood and congruency between context and ad", Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, Vol 10, No 1, pp 81-98 Good, A and Abraham, C (2007), "Measuring defensive responses to threatening messages: a meta-analysis of measures", Health Psychology Review, Vol 1, No 2, pp 208-29 Gordon, R., McDermmot, L., Stead, M., and Angus, K (2006), "The Effectiveness of Social Marketing Interventions for Health Improvement: What's the Evidence?", Public Health, Vol 120, No 12, pp 1113-39 Gore, T.D and Bracken, C.C (2005), "Testing the Theoretical design of a health risk message: Reexamining the major tenets of the extended parallel process model", Health Education and Behavior, Vol 32, No 1, pp 27-41 105 Grassly, N.C., Garnett, G.P., Schwartländer, B., Gregson, S., and Anderson, R.M (2001), "The effectiveness of HIV prevention and the epidemiological context", Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Vol 79, No 12, pp 1121-32 Green, E.C and Witte, K (2006), "Can Fear Arousal in Public Health Campaigns Contribute to the Decline of HIV Prevalence?", Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, Vol 11, No 3, pp 245-59 Grier, S and Bryant, C.A (2005), "Social Marketing in Public Health", Annual Review of Public Health, Vol 26, No 1, pp 319-39 Grier, S.A and Brumbaugh, A.M (1999), "Noticing Cultural Differences: Ad Meanings Created by Target and Non-Target Markets", Journal of Advertising, Vol 28, No 1, pp 79-93 Grier, S.A and Kumanyika, S (2010), "Targeted Marketing and Public Health", Annual Review of Public Health, Vol 31, No 1, pp 349-69 Griffin, D and O'Cass, A (2004), "Social Marketing: Who Really Gets the Message?", Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, Vol 12, No 2, pp 129-47 Gruskin, S., Mills, E.J., and Tarantola, D (2007), "History, principles, and practice of health and human rights", Lancet, Vol 370, No 9585, pp 449-55 Guttman, N and Ressler, W.H (2001), "On Being Responsible: Ethical Issues in Appeals to Personal Responsibility in Health Campaigns", Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, Vol 6, No 2, pp 117-36 Gygax, P.M., Bosson, M., Gay, C., and Ribordy, F (2010), "Relevance of Health Warnings in Cigarette Packs: A Psycholinguistic Investigation", Health Communication, Vol 25, No 5, pp 397-409 Hankins, C.A and Zalduondo, B.O.d (2010), "Combination prevention: a deeper understanding of effective HIV prevention", AIDS, Vol 24, No suppl.4, pp S70-S80 Harris, G and Attour, S (2003), "The International Advertising Practices of Multinational Companies A Content Analysis Study", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 37, No 1/2, pp 154-68 Hastings, G (2003), "Relational Paradigms in Social Marketing", Journal of Macromarketing, Vol 23, No 1, pp 6-15 Hastings, G and Angus, K (2011), "When is social marketing not social marketing?", Journal of Social Marketing, Vol 1, No 1, pp 45-53 Hastings, G and Haywood, A (1991), "Social Marketing and Communication in Health Promotion", Health Promotion International, Vol 6, No 2, pp 135-45 106 Hastings, G and Saren, M (2003), "The Critical Contribution of Social Marketing Theory and Application", Marketing Theory, Vol 3, No 3, pp 305-22 Hastings, G., Stead, M., Lowry, R., MacFadyen, L., McVey, D., Owen, L., and Tomes, K (1998), "Using The Media to Tackle the Health Divide: Future Directions", Social Marketing Quarterly, Vol 4, No 3, pp 42-67 Hastings, G., Stead, M., and Webb, J (2004), "Fear Appeals in Social Marketing: Strategic and Ethical Reasons for Concern", Psychology & Marketing, Vol 21, No 11, pp 961-86 Heath, R (2001), "Low involvement processing - a new model of brand communication", Journal of Marketing Communications, Vol 7, No 1, pp 27-33 Helmig, B and Thaler, J (2010), "On the Effectiveness of Social Marketing—What Do We Really Know?", Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, Vol 22, No 4, pp 264-87 Henley, N and Donovan, R.J (1999), "Threat Appeals in Social Marketing: Death as a 'special case'", International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, Vol 4, No 4, pp 300-19 Higgins, E.T (1997), "Beyond Pleasure and Pain", American Psychologist, Vol 52, No 12, pp 1280-300 (1998), "Promotion and prevention: regulatory focus as a motivational principle.", in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, M P Zana, ed Vol 30 New York: Academic Press Hill, R.P and Martin, K.D (2014), "Broadening the Paradigm of Marketing as Exchange: A Public Policy and Marketing Perspective.", Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol 33, No 1, pp 17-33 Ho, R (2000), "Predicting Intention for Protective Health Behaviour: A test of the Protection versus the Ordered Protection Motivation Model", Australian Journal of Psychology, Vol 52, No 2, pp 110-18 Hofstede, G (2001), Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2 ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill (2010), "The GLOBE debate: Back to relevance", Journal of International Business Studies, Vol 41, No 8, pp 1339-46 House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., and Gupta, V (2004), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 107 Hsieh, H.-F and Shannon, S.E (2005), "Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis ", Qualitative Health Research, Vol 15, No 9, pp 1277-88 Jäger, T and Eisend, M (2013), "Effects of Fear-Arousing and Humorous Appeals in Social Marketing Advertising: The Moderating Role of Prior Attitude Toward the Advertised Behavior", Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, Vol 34, No 1, pp 125-34 Janis, I.L (1967), "Effects of fear arousal on attitude change: Recent developments in theory and experimental research", in Advances in experimental social psychology, L Berkowitz, ed Vol New York: Academic Press Jaworski, B.J and Kohli, A.K (1993), "Market Orientation: Antecedents and Consequences", Journal of Marketing, Vol 57, No 3, pp 53-70 Jeong, S.-H (2008), "Visual Metaphor in Advertising: Is the Persuasive Effect Attributable to Visual Argumentation or Metaphorical Rhetoric?", Journal of Marketing Communications, Vol 14, No 1, pp 59-73 Johnson, K and LaTour, M.S (1991), "AIDS Prevention and College Students Male and Female Responses to "Fear-Provoking" Messages ", Health Marketing Quarterly, Vol 8, No 3-4, pp 139-53 Jones, L.W., Sinclair, R.C., and Courneya, K.S (2003), "The Effects of Source Credibility and Message Framing on Exercise Intentions, Behaviors, and Attitudes: An Integration of the Elaboration Likelihood Model and Prospect Theory", Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol 33, No 1, pp 179-96 Jones, S.C and Iverson, D (2012), "Pandemic influenza: A global challenge for social marketing", Health, Vol 4, No 10A, pp 955-62 Jones, S.C and Owen, N (2006), "Using Fear Appeals to Promote Cancer Screening are we scaring the wrong people?", International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, Vol 11, No 2, pp 93-103 Kahneman, D and Tversky, A (1979), "Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk", Econometrica, Vol 47, No 2, pp 263-92 Kalichman, S.C and Hunter, T.L (1992), "The Disclosure of Celebrity HIV Infection: Its Effects on Public Attitudes", American Journal of Public Health, Vol 82, No 10, pp 1374-76 Kaplan, A.M and Haenlein, M (2009), "The Increasing Importance of Public Marketing: Explanations, Applications and Limits of Marketing within Public Administration", European Management Journal, Vol 27, No 3, pp 197-212 Kassarjian, H.H (1977), "Content Analysis in Consumer Research", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 4, No 1, pp 8-18 108 Keller, P.A (2002), "Depressive Realism and Health Risk Accuracy: The Negative Consequences of Positive Mood", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 29, No 1, pp 57-69 (2006), "Regulatory Focus and Efficacy of Health Messages", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 33, No 1, pp 109-14 Keller, P.A and Lehmann, D.R (2008), "Designing Effective Health Communications: A Meta-Analysis", Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol 27, No 2, pp 117-30 Kemp, G and Eagle, L (2008), "Shared meanings or missed opportunities? The implications of functional health literacy for social marketing interventions", International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, Vol 5, No 2, pp 117-28 Kendall, J and Anheier, H.K (1999), "The third sector and the European Union policy process: an initial evaluation", Journal of European Public Policy, Vol 6, No 2, pp 283-307 Kennedy, M.G., Mizuno, Y., Seals, B.F., Myllyluoma, J., and KristenWeeks-Norton (2000), "Increasing condom use among adolescents with coalition-based social marketing", AIDS, Vol 14, No 12, pp 1809-18 King, G., Gakidou, E., Ravishankar, N., Moore, R.T., Lakin, J., Vargas, M., TéllezRojo, M.M., Ávila, J.E.H., Ávila, M.H., and Llamas, H.H (2007), "A “politically robust” experimental design for public policy evaluation, with application to the Mexican Universal Health Insurance program", Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, Vol 6, No 3, pp 479-506 Kohli, C., Leuthesser, L., and Suri, R (2007), "Got slogan? Guidelines for creating effective slogans", Business Horizons, Vol 50, No 5, pp 415-22 Kong, E (2008), "The development of strategic management in the non-profit context: Intellectual capital in social service non-profit organizations", International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol 10, No 3, pp 281-99 Kotler, P and Levy, S.J (1969), "Broadening the Concept of Marketing", Journal of Marketing, Vol 33, No 1, pp 10-15 Kotler, P and Zaltman, G (1971), "Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change", Journal of Marketing, Vol 35, No 3, pp 3-12 Kreps, G.L (2008), "Strategic Use of Communication to Market Cancer Prevention and Control to Vulnerable Populations", Health Marketing Quarterly, Vol 25, No 1/2, pp 204-16 Kress, G and Leeuwen, T.V (2002), "Colour as a semiotic mode: notes for a grammar of colour", Visual Communication, Vol 1, No 3, pp 343-68 109 Kreuter, M.W and McClure, S.M (2004), "The Role of Culture in Health Communication", Annual Review of Public Health, Vol 25, No 1, pp 439-55 Krisjanous, J., Ashill, N.J., Eccarius, K., and Carruthers, J (2013), "Scared Stiff? The Effectiveness of Threat Appeals in Counseling Services Advertising to High-Anxiety Students", Psychology & Marketing, Vol 30, No 10, pp 874-90 Lang, A and Yegiyan, N.S (2008), "Understanding The Interactive Effects of Emotional Appeal and Claim Strength in Health Messages", Journal of Bradcasting & Electronic Media, Vol 52, No 3, pp 432-47 Laroche, M., Toffoli, R., Zhang, Q., and Pons, F (2001), "A Cross-Cultural study of the persuasive effect of fear appeal messages in cigarette advertising: China and Canada", International Journal of Advertising, Vol 20, No 3, pp 297-318 LaTour, M.S (2006), "Retrospective and Prospective views of 'fear arousal' in 'fear appeals'", International Journal of Advertising, Vol 25, No 3, pp 409-13 LaTour, M.S and Rotfeld, H.J (1997), "There are Threats and (Maybe) Fear-Caused Arousal: Theory and Confusions of Appeals to Fear and Fear Arousal Itself", Journal of Advertising, Vol 26, No 3, pp 45-59 Lefebvre, R.C (2011), "An Integrative Model for Social Marketing", Journal of Social Marketing, Vol 1, No 1, pp 54-72 Lefebvre, R.C and Flora, J.A (1988), "Social Marketing and Public Health Intervention", Health Education Quarterly, Vol 15, No 3, pp 299-315 Leventhal, H (1970), "Findings and Theory in the Study of Fear Communications", in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, L Berkowitz, ed Vol New York: Academic Press Lewis, I.M., Watson, B., White, K.M., and Tay, R (2007), "Promoting Public Health Messages: Should We Move Beyond Fear-Evoking Appeals in Road Safety?", Qualitative Health Research, Vol 17, No 1, pp 61-74 Lewis, I.M., Watson, B.C., and White, K.M (2009), "Response efficacy : the key to minimizing rejection and maximizing acceptance of emotion-based anti-speeding messages", Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol 42, No 2, pp 459-67 Likatavicius, G and VandeLaar, M (2012), "HIV and AIDS in the European Union, 2011", Eurosurveillance, Vol 17, No 48, pp 20329 Lombard, M., Snyder-Duch, J., and Bracken, C.C (2002), "Content Analysis in Mass Communication: Assessment and Reporting of Intercoder Reliability", Human Communication Research, Vol 28, No 4, pp 587-604 110 Lwin, M.O., Stanaland, A.J.S., and Chan, D (2010), "Using Protection Motivation Theory to Predict Condom Usage and Asess HIV Health Communication Efficacy in Singapore", Health Communication, Vol 25, No 1, pp 69-79 Mah, M.W., Deshpande, S., and Rothschild, M.L (2006), "Social Marketing: a behavior change technology for infection control", American Journal of Infection Control, Vol 34, No 7, pp 452-57 Maheswaran, D and Meyers-Levy, J (1990), "The Influence of Message Framing and Issue Involvement", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 27, No 3, pp 361-67 Manyiwa, S and Brennan, R (2012), "Fear appeals in anti-smoking advertising: How important is self-efficacy?", Journal of Marketing Management, Vol 28, No 11-12, pp 1419-37 Mattson, M and Basu, A (2010), "The Message Development Tool: A Case for Effective Operationalization of Messaging in Social Marketing Practice", Health Marketing Quarterly, Vol 27, No 3, pp 275-90 Mayer, W.G (1996), "In defense of negative Quarterly, Vol 111, No 3, pp 437-55 campaigning", Political Science McGinnis, J.M., Williams-Russo, P., and Knickman, J.R (2002), "The Case For More Active Policy Attention To Health Promotion", Health Affairs, Vol 21, No 2, pp 7893 McKay-Nesbitt, J., Manchanda, R.V., Smith, M.C., and Huhmann, B.A (2011), "Effects of age, need for cognition, and affective intensity on advertising effectiveness", Journal of Business Research, Vol 64, No 1, pp 12-17 McKinley, C.J (2009), "Investigating The Influence of Threat Appraisals and Social Support on Healthy Eating Behavior and Drive for Thiness", Health Communication, Vol 24, No 8, pp 735-45 McNaught, C and Lam, P (2010), "Using Wordle as a Supplementary Research Tool", The Qualitative Report, Vol 15, No 3, pp 630-43 McQuarrie, E.F and Mick, D.G (1999), "Visual Rhetoric in Advertising: Text Interpretive, Experimental, and Reader Response Analyses", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 26, No 1, pp 37-54 Meekers, D (2000), "The Effectiveness of Targeted Social Marketing to Promote Adolescent Reproductive Health The Case of Soweto, South Africa", Journal of HIV/AIDS Prevention & Education for Adolescents & Children Vol 3, No 4, pp 7392 Merson, M.H., O'Malley, J., Serwadda, D., and Apisuk, C (2008), "The history and challenge of HIV prevention", Lancet, Vol 372, No 9637, pp 475-88 111 Meyerowitz, B.E and Chaiken, S (1987), "The Effect of Message Framing on Breast Self-Examination Attitudes, Intentions and Behavior", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 52, No 3, pp 500-10 Mick, D.G (1986), "Consumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 13, No 2, pp 196-213 Milbourne, L (2009), "Remodelling the Third Sector:Advancing Collaboration or Competition in Community-Based Initiatives?", Journal of Social Policy, Vol 38, No., pp 277-97 Morris, Z.S and Clarkson, P.J (2009), "Does Social Marketing Provide a Framework for Changing Healthcare Practice?", Health Policy, Vol 91, No 2, pp 135-41 Mowen, J.C and Brown, S.W (1981), "On Explaining and Predicting the Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorser", Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, No 1, pp 437-41 Mukherjee, A and Dubé, L (2012), "Mixing emotions: The use of humor in fear advertising", Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Vol 11, No 2, pp 147-61 Muthusamy, N., Levine, T.R., and Weber, R (2009), "Scaring the Already Scared: Some Problems with HIV/AIDS Fear Appeals in Namibia", Journal of Communication, Vol 59, No 2, pp 317-44 Myhre, S.L and Flora, J.A (2000), "HIV/AIDS Communication Campaigns: Progress and Prospects", Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, Vol 5, No 1, pp 29-45 Newton, J.D., Newton, F.J., Turk, T., and Ewing, M.T (2013), "Ethical evaluation of audience segmentation in social marketing", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 47, No 9, pp 1421-38 Noar, S.M., Palmgreen, P., Chabot, M., Dobransky, N., and Zimmerman, R.S (2009), "A 10-Year Systematic Review of HIV/AIDS Mass Communication Campaigns: Have We Made Progress?", Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, Vol 14, No 1, pp 15-42 O'Keefe, D.J and Jensen, J.D (2008), "Do Loss-Framed Persuasive Messages Engender Greater Message Processing Than Do Gain-Framed Messages? A MetaAnalytic Review", Communication Studies, Vol 59, No 1, pp 51-67 OECD (2013a), Health at a Glance 2013: OECD Indicators: OECD Publishing (2013b), "OECD Statistic Profiles 2013": Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 112 Orth, U.R., Koening, H.F., and Firbasova, Z (2007), "Cross-national differences in consumer response to the framing or advertising messages: an exploratory comparison from Central Europe", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 41, No 3/4, pp 327-48 Oyedele, A and Minor, M.S (2012), "Consumer Culture Plots in Television Advertising from Nigeria and South Africa", Journal of Advertising, Vol 41, No 1, pp 91-107 Paek, H.-j., Kim, K., and Hove, T (2010), "Content Analysis of Antismoking videos on YouTube: message sensation value, message appeals, and their relationships with viewer responses", Health Education Research, Vol 25, No 6, pp 1085-99 Perreault, W.D and Leigh, L.E (1989), "Reliability of Nominal Data Based on Qualitative Judgments", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 26, No 2, pp 135-48 Peters, G.-J.Y., Ruiter, R.A.C., and Kok, G (2013), "Threatening communication: a critical re-analysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory", Health Psychology Review, Vol 7, No S1, pp 8-31 Prentice-Dunn, S and Rogers, R.W (1986), "Protection motivation theory and preventive health: beyond the health belief model", Health Education Research, Vol 1, No 3, pp 153-61 Puntoni, S., Schroeder, J.E., and Ritson, M (2010), "Meaning Matters", Journal of Advertising, Vol 39, No 2, pp 51-64 Quinn, G.P., Ellery, J., Thomas, K.B., and Marshall, R (2010), "Developing a Common Language for Using Social Marketing: An Analysis of Public Health Literature", Health Marketing Quarterly, Vol 27, No 4, pp 334-53 Raftopoulou, E and Hogg, M.K (2010), "The Political Role of Government-Sponsored Social Marketing Campaigns", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 44, No 7/8, pp 1206-27 Ralston, D.A., Holt, D.H., Terpstra, R.H., and Kai-Cheng, Y (2008), "The impact of national and economic ideology on managerial work values: a study of the United States, Russia, Japan, and China", Journal of International Business Studies, Vol 39, No 1, pp 8-26 Ray, M.L and Wilkie, W.L (1970), "Fear: The Potential of an Appeal Neglected by Marketing", Journal of Marketing, Vol 34, No 1, pp 54-62 Reardon, J., Miller, C., Foubert, B., Vida, I., and Rybina, L (2006), "Antismoking Messages for the International Teenage Segment: The Effectiveness of Message Valence and Intensity Across Different Cultures", Journal of International Marketing, Vol 14, No 3, pp 115-38 113 Reckwitz, A (2002), "Toward a Theory of Social Practices A Development in Culturalist Theorizing", European Journal of Social Theory, Vol 5, No 2, pp 243-63 Reeves, B.R., Newhagen, J., E.Maibach, Basil, M., and Kurz, K (1991), "Negative and positive television messages: effects of message type and context on attention and memory", American Behavioral Scientist, Vol 34, No 6, pp 679-94 Rimal, R.N., Brown, J., Mkandawire, G., Folda, L., Böse, K., and Creel, A.H (2009), "Audience Segmentation as a Social-Marketing Tool in Health Promotion: Use of the Risk Perception Attitude Framework in HIV Prevention in Malawi", American Journal of Public Health, Vol 99, No 12, pp 2224-29 Rimal, R.N and Creel, A (2008), "Applying Social Marketing Principles to Understand the Effects of the Radio Diaries Program in Reducing HIV/AIDS Stigma in Malawi", Health Marketing Quarterly, Vol 25, No 1/2, pp 119-46 Rogers, R.W (1983), "Cognitive and psychological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: a revised theory of protection motivation", in Social Psychophysiology, J Cacioppo and R Petty, eds New York: Guilford Press Rosenstock, I.M (1974), "The Health Belief Model and Preventive Health Behavior", Health Education and Behavior, Vol 2, No 4, pp 354-86 Rossem, R.V and Meekers, D (2000), "An evaluation of the effectiveness of targeted social marketing to promote adolescent and young adult reproductive health in Cameroon", AIDS Education and Prevention Vol 12, No 5, pp 383-404 Rothman, A.J., Salovey, P., Antone, C., Keough, K., and Martin, C.D (1993), "The Influence of Message Framing on Intentions to Perform Health Behaviors", Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol 29, No., pp 408-33 Rothschild, M.L (1999), "Carrots, Sticks, and Promises: A Conceptual Framework for the Management of Public Health and Social Issue Behaviors", Journal of Marketing, Vol 63, No 4, pp 24-37 (2010), "Using Social Marketing to Manage Population Health Performance", Preventing Chronic Disease, Vol 7, No 5, pp A96 Rowley, J (2002), "Using Case Studies in Research", Management Research News, Vol 25, No 1, pp 16-27 Ruiter, R.A.C., Abraham, C., and Kok, G (2001), "Scary warnings and rational precautions A review of the psychology of fear appeals", Psychology & Health, Vol 16, No 6, pp 613-30 Ruiter, R.A.C., Verplanken, B., Cremer, D.D., and Kok, G (2004), "Danger and Fear Control in Response to Fear Appeals: The Role of Need for Cognition", Basic and Applied Social Psychology, Vol 26, No 1, pp 13-24 114 Rust, R.T and Cooil, B (1994), "Reliability Measures for Qualitative Data: Theory and Implications", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 31, No 1, pp 1-14 Salmones, M.d.M.G.d.l., Dominguez, R., and Herrero, A (2013), "Communication using celebrities in the non-profit sector: determinants of its effectiveness", International Journal of Advertising, Vol 32, No 1, pp 101-19 Sampson, J., Witte, K., Morrison, K., Liu, W.-Y., Hubbell, A.P., and Murray-Johnson, L (2001), "Addressing Cultural Orientations in Fear Appeals: Promoting AIDSProtective Behaviors among Mexican Immigrant and African American Adolescents and American and Taiwanese College Students", Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, Vol 6, No 4, pp 335-58 Sar, S and Anghelcev, G (2013), "Perceived risk mediates the impact of mood on the effectiveness of health PSAs Implications for public health marketing", Journal of Social Marketing, Vol 3, No 1, pp 78-101 Savage, L.J (1954), The Foundations of Statistics, New York: Willey Saxton, G.D and Bonson, M.A (2005), "Social Capital and the Growth of Nonprofit Sector", Social Science Quarterly, Vol 86, No 1, pp 16-35 Schwartz, S.H and Sagie, G (2000), "Value Consensus and Importance: A CrossNational Study", Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol 31, No 4, pp 465-97 Self, D.R and Findley, C.S (2010), "Sensation Seekers as a Healthcare Marketing Metasegment", Health Marketing Quarterly, Vol 27, No 1, pp 21-47 Seno, D and Lukas, B.A (2007), "The equity effect of product endorsement by celebrities A conceptual Framework from co-branding perspective", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 41, No 1/2, pp 121-34 Shultz, C.J., Deshpandé, R., Cornwell, T.B., Ekici, A., Kothandaraman, P., Peterson, M., Shapiro, S., Talukdar, D., and Veeck, A (2012), "Marketing and Public Policy: Transformative Research in Developing Markets", Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol 31, No 2, pp 178-84 Sides, J., Lipsitz, K., and Grossmann, M (2010), "Do Voters Perceive Negative Campaigns as Informative Campaigns?", American Politics Research, Vol 38, No 3, pp 502-30 Silva, S.C and Silva, M.F (2012), "Failure is a stepping stone for success", International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, Vol 9, No 2, pp 153-79 Silvera, D.H and Austad, B (2004), "Factors Predicting the Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsement Advertisements", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 38, No 11/12, pp 1509-26 115 Slavin, S., Batrouney, C., and Murphy, D (2007), "Fear appeals and treatment sideeffects: an effective combination for HIV prevention?", AIDS Care, Vol 19, No 1, pp 130-37 Smerecnik, C.M.R and Ruiter, R.A.C (2010), "Fear appeals in HIV prevention: The role of anticipated regret", Psychology, Health & Medicine, Vol 15, No 5, pp 550-59 Smith, W.A (2000), "Social Marketing: An Evolving Definition", American Journal of Health Behavior, Vol 24, No 1, pp 11-17 Soscia, I., Turrini, A., and Tanzi, E (2012), "Non Castigat Ridendo Mores: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Humor Appeal in Printed Advertisements for HIV/AIDS Prevention in Italy", Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, Vol 17, No 9, pp 1011-27 Spigel, L (2009), "My TV Studies Now Playing on a You Tube Site Near You", Television & New Media, Vol 10, No 1, pp 149-53 Spotswood, F., French, J., Tapp, A., and Stead, M (2012), "Some reasonable but unconfortable questions about social marketing", Journal of Social Marketing, Vol 2, No 3, pp 163-75 Spry, A and Cornwell, B (2011), "Celebrity endorsement, brand credibility and brand equity European J", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 45, No 6, pp 882-909 Starks, H and Trinidad, S.B (2007), "Choose Your Method: A Comparison of Phenomenology, Discourse Analysis, and Grounded Theory", Qualitative Health Research, Vol 17, No 10, pp 1372-80 Stead, M., Gordon, R., Angus, K., and McDermott, L (2007), "A Systematic Review of Social Marketing Effectiveness", Health Education, Vol 107, No 2, pp 126-91 Suárez, D.F (2011), "Collaboration and Professionalization: The Contours of Public Sector Funding for Nonprofit Organizations", Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Vol 21, No 2, pp 307-26 Svenkerud, P.J and Singhal, A (1998), "Enhancing the Effectiveness of HIV/AIDS Prevention Programs Targeted to Unique Population Groups in Thailand: Lessons Learned from Applying Concepts of Diffusion of Innovation and Social Marketing", Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives Vol 3, No 3, pp 193216 Tanner, J.F., Hunt, J.B., and Eppright, D.R (1991), "The Protection Motivation Model: A Normative Model of Fear Appeals", Journal of Marketing, Vol 55, No 3, pp 36-45 Terblanche-Smit, M and Terblanche, N.S (2010), "Race and attitude formation in HIV/Aids fear advertising", Journal of Business Research, Vol 63, No 2, pp 121-25 116 Till, B.D and Shimp, T.A (1998), "Endorsers in advertising: The case of negative celebrity information.", Journal of Advertising, Vol 27, No 1, pp 67-81 Truong, V.D (2014), "Social Marketing: A Systematic Review of Research 1998– 2012", Social Marketing Quarterly, Vol 20, No 1, pp 15-34 Tversky, A and Kahneman, D (1981), "The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice", Science, Vol 211, No 4481, pp 453-58 Tversly, A and Kahneman, D (1981), "The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice", Science, Vol 211, No 4481, pp 453-58 Uhrig, J., Eroğlu, D., Bann, C., Wasserman, J.L., and Guenther-Grey, C (2010), "Systematic Formative Research to Develop HIV Prevention Messages for People Living With HIV", Social Marketing Quarterly, Vol 16, No 3, pp 23-59 UNAIDS (2004), “Three Ones” key principles “Coordination of National Responses to HIV/AIDS” Guiding principles for national authorities and their partners Washington: Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (2012a), 2012 National Commitments and Policies Instrument (NCPI) - Countries Geneve: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2012b), Global Report: UNAIDS Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2012 Geneve: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNO (2001), Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS - United Nations General Assembly Special Session HIV/AIDS 25-27 June 2001 New York: United Nations Organization (2011), Political Declaration on HIV/AIDS adopted by the General Assembly, 10 June 2011 New York: United Nations Organization USAID, UNAIDS, WHO, and Project, P (2003), The Level of Effort in the National Response to HIV/AIDS: The AIDS Program Effort Index (API) 2003 Round Washington: Policy Project Vakratsas, D and Ambler, T (1999), "How Advertising Works: What Do We Really Know?", Journal of Marketing, Vol 63, No 1, pp 26-43 Valdisserri, R.O (2002), "HIV/AIDS Stigma: An Impediment to Public Health", American Journal of Public Health, Vol 93, No 3, pp 341-42 VanDijk, T.A (1993), "Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis", Discourse & Society, Vol 4, No 2, pp 249-83 117 (2006), "Discourse, Context and Cognition", Discourse Studies, Vol 8, No 1, pp 159-77 Vaughn, R (1980), "How advertising works: A planning model", Journal of Advertising Research, Vol 20, No 5, pp 27-33 Vega, M.Y and Roland, E.L (2005), "Social Marketing Techniques for Public Health Communication: A Review of Syphilis Awareness Campaigns in US Cities", Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Vol 32, No 10, pp S30-S36 Vincent, A.-M and Dubinsky, A.J (2005), "Impact of Fear Appeals in a Cross-Cultural Context", Journal of Euromarketing, Vol 14, No 1, pp 145-67 Walsh, D.C., Rud, R.E., Moeykens, B.A., and Moloney, T.W (1993), "Social Marketing for Public Health", Health Affairs, Vol 12, No 2, pp 104-19 Walsh, G., Hassen, L.M., Shiu, E., Andrews, J.C., and Hastings, G (2010), "Segmentation in social marketing: Insights from the European Union's multi-country, antismoking campaign", European Journal of Marketing, Vol 44, No 7/8, pp 1140-64 Weiss, C.H (1999), "The Interface between Evaluation and Public Policy", Evaluation, Vol 5, No 4, pp 468-86 White, S.H and O'Brien, J (1999), "What is a hero? An exploratory study of students’ conceptions of heroes.", Journal of Moral Education, Vol 28, No 1, pp 81-95 Wicks, P.G., Nairn, A., and Griffin, C (2007), "The role of commodified celebrities in children’s moral development: The case of David Beckham", Consumption, Markets and Culture, Vol 10, No 4, pp 401-24 Wiebe, G.D (1951), "Merchandising Commodities and Citizenship on Television", Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol 15, No 4, pp 679-91 Williams, J.D and Kumanyika, S.K (2002), "Is Social Marketing an Effective Tool to Reduce Health Disparities?", Social Marketing Quarterly, Vol 8, No 4, pp 14-31 Witte, K (1991), "The Role of Threat and Efficacy in AIDS Prevention", International Quarterly of Community Health Education, Vol 12, No 3, pp 225-49 (1992), "Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel processing model", Communication Monographs, Vol 59, No 4, pp 329-49 (1994), "Fear Control and Danger Control: a test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM)", Communication Monographs, Vol 61, No 2, pp 113-34 Witte, K and Allen, M (2000), "A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns", Health Education and Behavior, Vol 27, No 5, pp 591-615 118 Wong, M.L (2002), "Can Social Marketing be Applied to Leprosy Programmes?", Leprosy Review, Vol 73, No 4, pp 308-18 Wymer, W (2011), "Developing more effective social marketing strategies", Journal of Social Marketing, Vol 1, No 1, pp 17-31 Yoon, H.J and Tinkham, S.F (2013), "Humorous Threat Persuasion in Advertising: The Effects of Humor, Threat Intensity, and Issue Involvement", Journal of Advertising, Vol 42, No 1, pp 30-41 Zhao, G and Pechmann, C (2007), "The Impact of Regulatory Focus on Adolescents’ Response to Antismoking Advertising Campaigns", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol 44, No 4, pp 671-83 Zhou, X and Belk, R.W (2008), "Advertising Consumer Culture in 1930s Shangai: Globalization and Localization in Yuefenpia", Journal of Advertising, Vol 37, No 2, pp 45-56 119 ... negative appeals in social marketing in a longitudinal overview, characterising their form and the context where they are used The thesis examines whether the use of positive and negative appeals. .. Classify Social Advertisements According to their Use of Positive and Negative Appeals? ?? Paper - ? ?The Use of Positive Appeals in Social Marketing: a research focused on television advertising for... proportional use in advertising components Analyse the use of positive and negative appeals in social marketing in a longitudinal overview in order to discuss what are their prevalence over time, how they