Overcoming Controllable and Uncontrollable Work Difficulties: Change Environment or Self?

Overcoming Controllable and Uncontrollable Work Difficulties: Change Environment or Self? Elise Maher, B.Sc (Hons) Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Deakin University, December 2002 DEAKIN UNIVERSITY CANDIDATE DECLARATION ii I certify that the thesis entitled “Overcoming Controllable and Uncontrollable Work Difficulties: Change Environment or Self?” submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is the result of my own work and that where reference is made to the work of others, due acknowledgment is given I also certify that any material in the thesis which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by any other university or institution is identified in the text Full Name Elise Catherine Maher Signed ……………… Date ……………… iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge my supervisor, Professor Robert Cummins Bob offered endless support, guidance, and encouragement throughout my studies His dedication to research and his tremendous work ethic motivated and inspired me I am most grateful that he challenged me and allowed me the freedom and respect to develop my own ideas and theories Second, I must thank all the organisations that allowed me to enter their workplaces, and all the participants involved in the studies I especially want to thank staff at Australian Unity, members of the Australian Centre of Quality of Life, and the hundreds of supermarket workers, teachers and academics that assisted me These people invested time and energy into completing my survey purely for the benefit of helping others I am so appreciative of their efforts and I am determined to share the knowledge that I have gained from them Third, I would like to acknowledge the academic and administrative staff, and fellow students at Deakin University I especially want to acknowledge Rose-Anne and Helen (my surrogate parents) for taking me under their wings Their delightful, vibrant personalities made work times pleasurable Also, I would like to acknowledge Carolyn and Catherine for always being there to listen and share Finally, I would like to acknowledge my family and friends My parents, John and Frances, and my brothers have provided endless support throughout the last seven years I also want to acknowledge Lauren, Taylah, Tyson and Buffy for always lighting up my life My partner, Tim Davis, has been my tower of strength, and I am forever grateful for his love and support iv Elise v Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF TABLES 1.1 LIST OF FIGURES III XIII XVII LIST OF APPENDICES XIX ABSTRACT XXI CHAPTER - LITERATURE REVIEW .1 2.1 ABSTRACT 2.2 JOB SATISFACTION 2.2.1 Theories of Job Satisfaction: Environmental and Dispositional Predictors .3 2.3 MASLOW’S (1954, 1970) HIERARCHY OF NEEDS 2.3.1 Need Hierarchy Theory .5 2.3.2 Applying Maslow’s (1954, 1970) Theory to Organisations 2.3.3 Criticisms of Maslow’s (1954, 1970) Need Hierarchy Theory 2.3.4 Conclusion 20 2.4 HERZBERG, MAUSNER AND SNYDERMAN’S (1959, 1993) TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF JOB SATISFACTION 21 2.4.1 How the Two-Factor Theory has Contributed to our Understanding of Job Satisfaction 21 2.4.2 Development of the Two-Factor Theory 21 2.4.3 Criticisms of Herzberg et al’s., (1959) Theory 23 2.4.4 Conclusion 32 2.5 VROOM’S (1964) EXPECTANCY THEORY OF JOB SATISFACTION 33 2.5.1 How Expectancy Theory has Contributed to our Knowledge of Job Satisfaction 33 2.5.2 Description of Expectancy Theory 33 2.5.3 Applications of the Valence Model 35 2.5.4 Studies of the Valence Model 35 vi 2.5.5 Methodological Limitations 36 2.5.6 Conclusion 42 2.6 DISCREPANCY THEORIES 43 2.6.1 How Discrepancy Theories have Contributed to our Knowledge of Job Satisfaction 43 2.6.2 Description of Discrepancy Theories 43 2.6.3 Empirical Studies Investigating Discrepancy Theories 43 2.6.4 Theoretical Problems with Discrepancy Theories 44 2.6.5 Conclusion 45 2.7 JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL (JCM; HACKMAN & OLDHAM, 1976) 46 2.7.1 How the Job Characteristics Model has Contributed to our Knowledge of Job Satisfaction 46 2.7.2 Description of the Job Characteristics Model 46 2.7.3 Empirical Studies of the Model 49 2.7.4 Conclusion 55 2.8 JOB DEMAND-CONTROL MODEL (KARASEK, 1979; KARASEK & THEORELL, 1990) 56 2.8.1 How the Job Demand-Control Model Contributes to our Understanding of Job Satisfaction 56 2.8.2 Description of the Job Demand-Control Model 56 2.8.3 Empirical Studies of the Job Demand-Control Model 58 2.8.4 Conclusion 61 2.8.5 Extensions on the Job Demand-Control Model 61 2.8.6 Addressing the “Gaps” in the Job Demand-Control Model .62 2.9 DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW EXPLANATION FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB AUTONOMY AND JOB SATISFACTION: INFLUENCING EMPLOYEES’ RESPONSES TO WORK DIFFICULTIES 63 2.9.1 a) Primary Control Strategies and Secondary Control Strategies 64 2.9.2 b) Amounts of Primary Control and Secondary Control 67 2.9.3 c) Which Control Strategies are more Adaptive for Employees? .67 2.9.4 Summary 74 vii 2.10 EXPLAINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB AUTONOMY AND JOB SATISFACTION: HOW JOB AUTONOMY INFLUENCES PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONTROL 74 2.10.1 1) Use of Primary and Secondary Control 75 2.10.2 2) Adaptiveness of Primary and Secondary Control .76 2.10.3 Summary 84 2.11 OTHER MAJOR PREDICTORS OF JOB SATISFACTION 86 2.11.1 Personality 86 2.11.2 Life Satisfaction .89 2.12 MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION 95 CHAPTER - STUDY ONE 98 3.1 ABSTRACT 3.2 PROPOSAL FOR STUDY ONE 99 100 3.2.1 Identifying Employees with Low/High Job Autonomy 100 3.3 AIMS AND HYPOTHESES 102 3.4 METHOD 105 3.4.1 Participants .105 3.4.2 Materials 105 3.4.3 Procedure 111 3.5 RESULTS 113 3.5.1 Data Screening and Checking of Assumptions .113 3.5.2 Descriptive Statistics and Inter-Correlations 115 3.5.3 Factor Analyses .117 3.5.4 Factor Analysis of the Job Descriptive Index 117 3.5.5 Factor Analysis of the Primary and Secondary Control Scale .118 3.5.6 Factor Analysis of the Job Autonomy Scale 122 3.6 HYPOTHESIS TESTING 124 3.6.1 Hypothesis One- Assumption Testing 124 viii 3.6.2 Hypothesis Two- Occupational Differences in the Use of the Control Strategies 125 3.6.3 Hypothesis Three- Examining how Job Autonomy Relates to the Control Strategies 127 3.6.4 Hypothesis Four- Examining how Job Autonomy Influences the Adaptiveness of the Control Strategies 128 3.6.5 Hypothesis Five- Does Job Autonomy Moderate the Relationship Between the Control Strategies and Job Satisfaction? 129 3.6.6 Hypothesis Six- Do the Control Strategies Mediate the Relationship Between Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction? 134 3.6.7 Hypothesis Seven- Occupational Differences in Job and Life Satisfaction 139 3.6.8 Hypothesis Eight- Predictors of Job Satisfaction 143 3.6.9 Conclusion .145 3.7 DISCUSSION 147 3.7.1 Assumption Testing 147 3.7.2 Does Job Autonomy Influence the Use of the Control Strategies? 148 3.7.3 Does Job Autonomy Influence the Relationship Between the Control Strategies and Job Satisfaction? .151 3.7.4 Do the Control Strategies Mediate the Relationship Between Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction? .153 3.7.5 Examining Occupational Differences in Job Satisfaction .154 3.7.6 Examining Occupational Differences in Life Satisfaction 160 3.7.7 Predicting Job Satisfaction from Job Autonomy, Control Strategies, Personality, and Life Satisfaction .161 3.7.8 Conclusion .163 CHAPTER - STUDY TWO 164 4.1 ABSTRACT 165 4.2 PROPOSAL FOR STUDY TWO 166 4.2.1 a) The Primary and Secondary Control Scale 166 ix 4.2.2 b) Job Autonomy Scale 178 4.2.3 c) Occupational Groups 179 4.2.4 d) Need for Job Autonomy .181 4.2.5 e) Addition of Social Support 183 4.3 MODEL OF JOB SATISFACTION 186 4.4 AIMS AND HYPOTHESES 188 4.5 METHOD 192 4.5.1 Participants .192 4.5.2 Materials 193 4.5.3 Procedure 200 4.6 RESULTS 201 4.6.1 Data Screening and Checking of Assumptions .201 4.6.2 Descriptive Statistics and Inter-Correlations 202 4.6.3 Preliminary Examination of the Primary Control and Secondary Control Scale 203 4.7 HYPOTHESIS TESTING 208 4.7.1 Hypothesis One: Levels of Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction .208 4.7.2 Hypotheses Two and Three: Examining how Job Autonomy Influences the Amount of Primary and Secondary Control Strategies .209 4.7.3 Hypotheses Four and Five: Examining how Job Autonomy Influences the Relationship Between the Control Strategies and Job Satisfaction 210 4.7.4 Hypothesis Six: Examining the Proposed Explanation for the Relationship Between Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction 213 4.7.5 Hypothesis Seven: Occupational Differences in Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction .215 4.7.6 Hypothesis Eight: Examining how Social Support at Work Moderates the Relationship between Difficulties at Work and Job Satisfaction 218 4.7.7 Hypothesis Nine: The Moderating Role of Need for Autonomy on the Relationship Between Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction 224 4.7.8 Hypothesis Ten: Major Predictors of Job Satisfaction 225 x 4.7.9 Conclusion .228 4.8 DISCUSSION 229 4.8.1 Assumption- The Academics Represent a High Job Autonomy Group and the Teachers Represent a Low Job Autonomy Group 229 4.8.2 Hypothesis Testing 232 4.8.3 Job Autonomy Influences the Amount of the Control Strategies .232 4.8.4 Job Autonomy Influences the Relationship Between the Control Strategies and Job Satisfaction .235 4.8.5 Limitations in the Hypotheses Examining Job Autonomy and Control Strategies 236 4.8.6 Other Predictors of Job Satisfaction .238 4.8.7 Occupational Differences in Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction .238 4.8.8 The Influence of Social Support at Work on the Relationship Between Work Difficulties and Job Satisfaction 242 4.8.9 The Influence that Need for Job Autonomy has on the Relationship Between Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction 243 4.8.10 Major predictors of Job Satisfaction .244 4.8.11 Conclusion .245 CHAPTER - STUDY THREE .246 5.1 ABSTRACT 247 5.2 PROPOSAL FOR STUDY THREE 248 5.2.1 Specificity of Hypotheses Testing the Proposal that Job Autonomy Influences the Control Strategies 248 5.2.2 Examining how the Controllability of a Difficulty Influences the Use of the Control Strategies 249 5.2.3 Empirical Studies Examining if the Controllability of a Situation Influences the Use of Control Strategies 250 5.2.4 Examining how Controllability Influences the Adaptiveness of the Control Strategies 254 419 Appendix K- Need for Autonomy Scale for Study Two (de Rijk et al., 1998) The following items assess how important it is for you to certain things at work Please tick a box ranging from 1=Not important at all to 10=Could not be more important 1) How important is it for you to set the pace of your tasks at work? Not important at all 10 Could not be more important 2) How important is it for you to have control over what you at work and the way that you it? Not important at all 10 Could not be more important 3) How important is it for you to your own planning at work? Not important at all 10 Could not be more important 4) How important is it for you to give orders at work instead of receiving them? Not important at all 10 Could not be more important 420 Appendix L- Job Satisfaction Scale for Study Two (Weiss et al., 1967) Please indicate how satisfied you are with the following aspects of your work Please tick a box ranging from (1) Very dissatisfied to (10) Very satisfied On my present job, this is how I feel about… 1) Being able to keep busy all the time Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 2) The chance to work alone on the job Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 3) The chance to different things from time to time Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 4) The chance to be “somebody” in the community Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 5) The way my boss handles his/her work Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 6) The competence of my supervisor in making decisions Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 7) Being able to things that don’t go against my conscience Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 421 8) The way my job provides for steady employment Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 9) The chance to things for other people Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 10) The chance to tell people what to Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 11) The chance to something that makes use of my abilities Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 12) The way company politics are put into practice Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 13) My pay and the amount of work I Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 14) The chances for advancement on my job Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 15) The freedom to use my own judgement Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 16) The chance to try my own methods of doing the job Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 422 17) The working conditions Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 18) The way my co-workers get along with each other Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 19) The praise I get for doing a good job Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 20) The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job Very dissatisfied 10 Very satisfied 423 Appendix M- Social Support Scale for Study Two (Revision of Karasek & Theorell, 1990) The following questions ask about your supervisor and your co-workers Please circle a number 1= Not true at all to 10= Could not be more true 1) My supervisor shows concern for me Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 2) My supervisor pays attention to me Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 3) My supervisor is helpful getting work done Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 4) My supervisor creates a good teamwork environment for me Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 5) My co-workers are friendly to me Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 6) My co-workers are helpful to me Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 7) My co-workers are personally interested in me Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 8) My co-workers are competent Not true at all 10 Could not be more true 424 Appendix N-Plain Language Statement used in Study Three Dear Sir/Madam, My name is Elise Maher, and I am completing my Ph.D in Psychology at Deakin University As part of my studies, I am undertaking a research project under the supervision of Professor Robert Cummins, a researcher in the School of Psychology This study is investigating job satisfaction and coping The study aims to provide useful information about the best type of coping strategies that workers should use The results will provide information that will enhance programs that increase job satisfaction You are invited to participate in this research If you agree, you will be asked to complete the enclosed questionnaire Any information you provide will be anonymous and confidential Only group results will be reported and no individuals will be identified Upon completion of the study, data will be secured in a locked cabinet in the School of Psychology, Deakin University, for a minimum period of six years from the date of publication The questionnaire should take around 20 minutes to complete and your participation would be greatly appreciated Examples of questions are: "I can decide on my own about how to go about doing my work", "Your co-workers really care about you", "What type of difficulties you face at work?" and "How satisfied are you with your close relationships with family or friends." You are free to withdraw up until you have returned the survey, in which event your participation in the research study will immediately cease and any information obtained will not be used You are free to refuse to answer any questions Following the completion of the study, I am happy to provide you a summary of the best coping strategies If you would like a copy of the summary or if you have any further questions regarding the study, please contact: Elise Maher on (03) 9251 7153 or Email: ecmaher@deakin.edu.au, or Professor Robert Cummins on (03) 9244-6845 or Email: cummins@deakin.edu.au If you are happy to be involved in this study, please complete the enclosed questionnaire and return it in the reply-paid envelope supplied (i.e., NO STAMP NEEDED) Thank you very much for your time Should you have any concerns about the conduct of this research project, please contact the Secretary, Deakin University Ethics Committee, Research Services, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, BURWOOD, VIC, 3125, Tel (03) 9251 7123 425 Appendix O- Primary and Secondary Control Scale for Study Three (Maher & Cummins, 2002) People may experience several kinds of difficulties in their work They can control some of them, but not others For example, Worker ‘A’, a teacher, can control difficulties involving students, parents and time management They cannot however control difficulties involving school policies and work times Another example, Worker ‘B’ a supermarket operator, can control difficulties involving customers and co-workers They cannot control difficulties involving pay, promotion and holiday leave 1) Tick the difficulties you experience at work that you CAN CONTROL         Difficulties with Supervisor(s) Difficulties with Promotion Difficulties with Co-worker(s) Difficulties with Time Management Difficulties with Kind of work you Difficulties with Motivation Difficulties with Pay Difficulties with Work Times  Difficulties with Work-place rules  Difficulties with Amount of Work  Other……………………………………………………………………… 2) Consider the difficulty that you experience MOST OFTEN, and which you CAN CONTROL How often you experience this difficulty? Rarely Sometimes Often Always 426 3) When you face this difficulty that you CAN CONTROL, how often you the following? a) Discuss solutions with the people involved Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always b) Think that the difficulty doesn’t matter Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always c) Think that this difficulty will work out okay in the end Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always d) Choose a solution and act on it Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always e) Think that I knew this difficulty would happen Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always f) Think that I can’t always get what I want Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always g) Work harder Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always h) Think that I am better off than many other people Never i) Rarely Sometimes Often Always Think that this difficulty is not my fault Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always j) Keep trying 427 Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always k) Tell someone about this difficulty to make me feel better Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always l) Think of the success of my family/friends Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always m) Think about my success in other areas Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always n) Do something different, like going for a walk Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always o) Ignore this difficulty Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always p) Look for something else that is positive in the situation Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always q) Other ………………………… (please specify) Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 428 The following questions examine difficulties that you CANNOT CONTROL 4) Tick the difficulties you experience at work that you CANNOT CONTROL         Difficulties with Supervisor(s) Difficulties with Promotion Difficulties with Co-worker(s) Difficulties with Time Management Difficulties with Kind of work you Difficulties with Motivation Difficulties with Pay Difficulties with Work Times  Difficulties with Work-place rules  Difficulties with Amount of Work  Other……………………………………………………………………… 5) Consider the difficulty that you experience MOST OFTEN, and which you CANNOT CONTROL How often you experience this difficulty? Rarely Sometimes Often Always 6) When you face this difficulty that you CANNOT CONTROL, how often you the following? a) Discuss solutions with the people involved Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always b) Think that the difficulty doesn’t matter Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always c) Think that this difficulty will work out okay in the end Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always d) Choose a solution and act on it 429 Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always e) Think that I knew this difficulty would happen Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always f) Think that I can’t always get what I want Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always g) Work harder Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always h) Think that I am better off than many other people Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always i) Think that this difficulty is not my fault Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always j) Keep trying Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always k) Tell someone about this difficulty to make me feel better Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always l) Think of the success of my family/friends Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always m) Think about my success in other areas Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always n) Do something different, like going for a walk Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 430 o) Ignore this difficulty Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always p) Look for something else that is positive in the situation Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always q) Other ………………(please specify) Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 431 Appendix P- Life Satisfaction Scale for Study (Cummins et al., 2001) 1) How satisfied are you with your standard of living? Completely dissatisfied 10 Completely satisfied 2) How satisfied are you with your health? Completely dissatisfied 10 Completely satisfied 3) How satisfied are you with what you achieve in life? Completely dissatisfied 10 Completely satisfied 4) How satisfied are you with your personal relationships? Completely dissatisfied 10 Completely satisfied 5) How satisfied are you with how safe you feel? Completely dissatisfied 10 Completely satisfied 6) How satisfied are you with feeling part of your community? Completely dissatisfied 10 Completely satisfied 7) How satisfied are you with your future security? Completely dissatisfied 10 Completely satisfied 432 Appendix Q- Social Support Scale for Study (Ducharme & Martin, 2000) The following questions ask about your co-workers Please circle a number ranging from to 10, where 0= Do not agree at all and 10= Agree completely 1) My co-workers really care about me Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 2) I feel close to my co-workers Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 3) My co-workers take a personal interest in me Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 4) My co-workers assist with unusual work problems Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 5) My co-workers are helpful in getting the job done Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 6) My co-workers give useful advice on job problems Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 433 The following questions ask about your supervisor(s) For each item, please circle a number ranging from to 10, where 0= Do not agree at all, and 10= Agree completely 1) My supervisor really cares about me Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 2) I feel close to my supervisor Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 3) My supervisor takes a personal interest in me Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 4) My supervisor assists with unusual work problems Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 5) My supervisor is helpful in getting the job done Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely 6) My supervisor gives useful advice on job problems Do not agree at all 10 Agree completely