Consumer behavior in travel and tourism

Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism Abraham Pizam, PhD Yoel Mansfeld, PhD Editors ROUTLEDGE Routledge Taylor & Francis Croup NEW YORK AND LONDON First Published by The Haworth Hospitality Press, an imprint of The Haworth Press, Inc., 10 Alice Street, Binghamton, NY 13904-1580 Transferred to Digital Printing 2009 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 1999 by The Haworth Press, Inc All rights reserved No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilm, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Softcover edition published 2000 Cover design by Marylouise E Doyle The Library of Congress has cataloged the hardcover edition of this book as: Consumer behavior in travel and tourism / Abraham Pizam, Yoel Mansfeld, editors p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-7890-0610-3 (alk paper) Tourism Travel Consumer behavior I Pizam, Abraham II Mansfeld, Y (Yoel) G154.7.C66 1999 338.4791—dc21 99-17251 CIP ISBN 0-7890-0611-1 (pbk.) Publisher's Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent CONTENTS About the Editors XV Contributors xvii Introduction PART I: OVERVIEW Chapter Consumer Behavior Related to Tourism Simon Hudson Learning Objectives Motivation of Tourists Typologies of Tourists Destination Choice Models of Consumer Behavior in Tourism The Nonuser Summary and Conclusions Concept Definitions Review Questions PART II: DESTINATION SELECTION AND PRODUCT CHOICE Chapter Estimating What Affects Tourist Destination Choice Gordon Ewing Wolfgang Haider Learning Objectives Introduction Theoretical Background of Discrete Choice Experiments A Model of Choices of Hypothetical Destinations on Five Caribbean Islands A Discrete Choice Experiment on Remote Fly-In Recreational Angling in Northern Ontario Summary and Conclusions Concept Definitions Review Questions 7 11 14 18 27 28 29 30 33 35 35 35 37 39 45 55 56 57 Chapter Understanding the Factors Influencing Ski Destination Choice: A Means-End Analytic Approach David B Klenosky Charles E Gengler Michael S Mulvey Learning Objectives Introduction Means-End Theory General Methodology for Assessing Means-End Relationships Study Objectives and Methodology Analysis and Results Implications for Leisure and Destination Research Concept Definitions Review Questions Optional Project: Measuring Means-End Chains Chapter The Roles of Image and Perceived Constraints at Different Stages in the Tourist's Destination Decision Process Seoho Urn John L Crompton Learning Objectives Introduction The Structure of Destination Choice Sets Study Hypotheses Data Collection Operationalizing Facilitators and Inhibitors Results Concluding Comments Concept Definitions Review Questions Chapter Tourists' Decision-Making and Behavior Processes A lain Decrop Learning Objectives Introduction 59 59 59 60 62 63 65 74 75 76 76 81 81 81 84 87 88 91 93 97 98 99 103 103 103 Major Aspects of Tourists' Decision-Making and Behavior Processes The Need for Relativism: Competing Paradigms in the Social Sciences and in Decision Theory The Positivist View: The Rational Tourist The Interpretivist View: The Other Aspect of the Tourist Summary and Conclusions Concept Definitions Review Questions Chapter Family Decision Making and Tourism Behaviors and Attitudes Catherine M Nichols David J Snepenger 104 111 114 121 129 129 130 135 Learning Objectives Introduction Data and Method Findings Marketing Implications Recommendations for Future Research Concept Definitions Review Questions 135 135 136 138 143 144 145 146 Chapter Consumer Decision Making and Prepurchase Information Search John C Crotts 149 Learning Objectives Marketing Communications in the Travel and Tourism Industry The Nature of Prepurchase Information Search Types of Information Sought Amounts and Sources of External Information Search Determinants of Information Search Purchase Involvement and Information Search Strategic Implications Concept Definitions Review Questions 149 149 152 154 155 161 161 164 164 166 Chapter Consumer Choice in Context: The Decoy Effect in Travel and Tourism Bharath M Josiam J S Perry Hobson Learning Objectives Introduction Purpose of the Study Methodology Findings Implications Limitations Conclusions Concept Definitions Review Questions Chapter Package Tourism and Customer Loyalties Monica Hanefors Lena Larsson Mossberg Learning Objectives Chapter Aim and Structure Package Tourism Travel Experiences and Loyalties Descriptors of Package Tourism Loyalties Summary and Conclusions Concept Definitions Review Questions PART III: PERCEPTIONS, EXPECTATIONS, AND SATISFACTION Chapter 10 Destination Image and Its Modification After Travel: An Empirical Study on Turkey Silvia Sussmann Arzu Ünel Learning Objectives Destination Image Image and Marketing An Empirical Study of the Image Change Induced by Actual Experience of Turkey 169 169 169 172 172 177 180 181 182 182 183 185 185 185 186 187 190 198 200 201 205 207 207 207 213 219 Conclusions Concept Definitions Review Questions Chapter 11 Valuing Changes to Scenic Byways Timothy J Tyrrell Maureen F Devitt Learning Objectives Introduction Economics of Travel Choice Behavior Survey Methodology The Logit Model Maximum Likelihood Estimates Willingness to Pay for Roadway Changes An Applications Workbook Limitations Conclusions Concept Definitions Review Questions Chapter 12 Tourism Expectation Formation: The Case of Camper-Van Tourists in New Zealand Jurgen Gnoth Learning Objectives Introduction Developing an Understanding of Expectations The Constructs or Tools Motives and Motivations Values The "Logic" of Values Attitudes Expectations Emotions Empirical Investigation of Expectations: Camper-Van Tourists in New Zealand Concept Definitions Review Questions 223 223 225 227 227 227 228 231 233 235 235 240 241 242 242 243 245 245 245 246 247 247 250 251 252 253 255 257 264 264 Consumer Behavior Related to Tourism 21 Furthermore, Schmoll's is the only model that pays attention to constraints and their impact on the decision-making process Mayo and Jarvis (1981) believe that individual travel behavior can be explained by the length of the decision process and by the influence of psychological factors on a person's choices After the decision to leave home has been made, other decisions such as where to go and what to are made, utilizing several different decision-making approaches, ranging from the highly routine to the very extensive (see Figure 1.7) When the traveler uses a routine decision-making approach, decisions are made quickly and with very little mental effort At the other end of the continuum, extensive decision makers will spend considerable time and effort seeking information and evaluating the alternatives available According to Mayo and Jarvis, understanding how individual travelers make decisions also requires an insight into the psychological and social factors that influence their choices Figure 1.8 illustrates that the decisionmaker, located in the center of the diagram, is affected by both internal and social influences The internal psychological factors that influence travel behavior are perception, learning, personality, motives, and attitudes Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world Learning refers to changes in an individual's behavior based on experiences Personality is associated with the patterns of behavior and the mental structures that relate behavior and experience in an orderly way Motives are thought of as internal energizing forces that direct a person's behavior toward the achievement of personal goals Attitudes consist of knowledge and positive or negative feelings about an object, an event, or another person FIGURE 1.7 The Decision-Making Continuum Routine Decision Making High Low Short Extensive Decision Making Perceived knowledge about available alternatives Perceived need for information Length of time to each decision Based on: Mayo and Jarvis, 1981 Low High Longer 22 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM FIGURE 1.8 Major Influences on Individual Travel Behavior Role and Family Influence Personality Reference Groups TRAVEL Perception DECISION MAKER Attitudes Learning Social Classes Motives Culture and Subculture Based on: Mayo and Jarvis, 1981 These psychological forces not operate in a vacuum Travel decisions are also affected by forces outside the individual, and by other people as well Mayo and Jarvis's model groups these social influences into four major areas: role and family influences, reference groups, social classes, and culture and subcultures However, the model does ignore external stimuli prominent in the other models, such as the market variables in the Woodside and Lysonski model and Schmoll's travel stimuli and external variables In the behavioral framework presented by Mathieson and Wall (1982), the decision-making process, as seen in Figure 1.9, involves five principal phases: Felt need or desire for travel Information collection and evaluation Travel decisions Travel preparations and travel experience Travel satisfaction evaluation Consumer Behavior Related to Tourism 23 FIGURE 1.9 The Tourist Decision-Making Process TOURIST PROFILE: Socioeconomic and behavioral characteristics Travel desire TRAVEL AWARENESS TRIP FEATURES Information search Confidence in travel intermediaries Image of destination Trip cost/value Infrastructure Trip duration Information search continued Perceived risk and uncertainty of travel Assessment of travel alternatives Geography and environment Travel decision Primary resources Domestic pressures Trip pressure Party size Trip distance DESTINATION RESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS Internal accessibility Travel ! arrangements Travel experience and evaluation Political, economic, and social structure Tourist facilities and services Based on: Mathieson and Wall, 1982 The components that are itemized in the framework, and their interrelationships, influence each of the five decision phases In their book, mainly dedicated to the impacts of tourism, the authors consider the framework under four major headings: The Tourist Profile This is viewed under the categories of the tourists' socioeconomic and behavioral characteristics Travel Awareness Potential tourists may be motivated to travel but, unless they are informed about available opportunities, they may be unaware of the means of meeting their requirements A tourist image is conjured up from the information received, as interpreted through the personal and behavioral characteristics of the tourist Trip Features These include such factors as distance, duration of stay, time constraints, trip cost, party size, and perceived risk 24 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRA VEL AND TOURISM Resources and Characteristics of Destinations These include types of attraction, the availability and quality of services, environmental conditions, the attributes of the host population, and their political organization Gilbert (1991) has criticized this model for omitting the important aspects of perception, memory, personality, and information processing, which is the basis of traditional models (although Mathieson and Wall could argue that these aspects are part of Travel Awareness in their model) Also, this, and other models, seem to ignore "type of holiday" in their trip features With the increase in special interest and activity holidays, future models should take into account the plethora of holiday options available to the consumer Despite its limitations however, the framework was designed solely to indicate that the impacts of tourism are the consequence of tourist decisions, and it recognizes that the impacts of tourism are dynamic, changing with corresponding changes in destination features, trip characteristics, and the personal and behavioral attributes of tourists One of the most recent models of vacation tourist behavior was presented by Moutinho in 1987 (see Figure 1.10) The model consists of a flow chart with three parts: (1) predecision and decision process, (2) postpurchase evaluation, and, (3) future decision making Each part is composed of fields and subfields, linked by other concepts related to the tourist's behavioral process Part 1—Predecision and Decision Processes This part is concerned with the flow of events, from the tourist stimuli to purchase decision The fields included are preference structure (as a major process in the predecision phase), decision, and purchase As the last two phases are outcomes of predecision, the model is more detailed in respect to this process, and its analysis includes the following subfields: stimulus filtration, attention and learning process, and choice criteria Moutinho saw the decision process as a series of conflicts with decisions based on perceived images, information from tourism destination promotion, previous experience, image of potential destinations, travel intermediaries, advice, or social interaction Pari 2—Postpurchase Evaluation This has three major purposes First, it adds to the tourist's store of experiences Second, postpurchase assessment provides a check on market-related decisions Third, it provides feedback to serve as a basis for adjusting future purchase behavior Consumer Behavior Related to Tourism 25 FIGURE 1.10 Vacation Tourist Behavior Model PART I: PREDECISION AND DECISION PROCESS Confidence Attitude Personality Internalized generation environmental Lifestyle Family influences influence Inhibitors Perceived role set Motives Intention PREFERENCE STRUCTURE Travel stimuli display Evoked set Search Stimulus filtration Choice criteria Comprehension Sensitivity to information Perceived risk Perceptual bias Attention and learning DECISION Cognitive structure PURCHASE PART II: POSTPURCHASE EVALUATION Postpurchase information Expectations Confirmation Disconfirmation Latitude of acceptance Reality Adequacy evaluation Cost-benefit analysis Product consistency High positive NonMedium Reinforcement commitment SATISFACTION - Cognitive DISSATISFACTION dissonance Medium Latitude of rejection High negative PART III: FUTURE DECISION MAKING REPEAT-BUYING PROBABILITY Repeat buying (medium positive) Repeat buying (high positive) Hesitation Refusal to buy Based on: Moutinho, 1987 Subsequent behavior Straight rebuy Future rebuy Subsequent Short-term Medium-term Long-term Modified rebuy Go to competition 26 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRA VEL AND TOURISM Part 3—Future Decision Making This is mainly related to the study of the subsequent behavior of the tourist by analyzing different probabilities for repeat buying The inclusion of postpurchase evaluation and future decision making in this model was an attempt by Moutinho to contribute to a global analysis of tourist behavior But Gilbert (1991) has suggested that the last stage could have been incorporated in the first part of the model where issues of attitude, evoked set, and perception can be treated in a more complex way He also argues that the subsequent behavior subfield is already encompassed in Part of the model within the attitude outcome field of satisfaction or dissatisfaction A less comprehensive model of tourist-buyer behavior was presented by Middleton a year later (1988), which he called a "stimulus-response" buyer behavior model (see Figure 1.11) Middleton's diagram has four interactive components, with the central component identified as "buyer characteristics and decision process," which incorporates motivation The first two components are inputs, most of which can be manipulated by marketing managers, while the final component represents the purchase output The author has recognized the importance of friends and reference groups within the communication proFIGURE 1.11 A Stimulus-Response Model of Buyer Behavior Communication channels Range of competitive products produced and marketed by the tourist industry Advertising Sales promotion Brochures Personal selling PR Buyer characteristics and decision process Communication Motivation filters Learning Demographic economic and social position NEEDS WANTS GOALS PERCEPTIONS Friends Family Reference groups Psychographic characteristics Postpurchase and postconsumption feelings Based on: Middleton, 1988 Attitudes Stimulus input Product Brand Price Outlet Consumer Behavior Related to Tourism 27 cess Research suggests that information accessible to individuals through family, friends, and work colleagues can be extremely influential on purchase decisions (Wells and Gubar, 1966) Middleton sees motivations as the dynamic process in buyer behavior, bridging the gap between the felt need and the decision to act or purchase He emphasizes that actions on purchase are linked directly to motivations, which in turn are linked to the buyers' characteristics defined earlier in the model The author also sees product satisfaction as the most powerful means of influencing future buyer behavior and provides a link in his model between postpurchase and the decision process Moutinho has also provided this link in his model, but there is very little research into how much product satisfaction influences buyer behavior, and brand loyalty in tourism is very weak (Hodgson, 1991) THE NONUSER Not only is there a lack of research into the link between satisfaction and repeat purchase (or nonpurchase), the knowledge of the nonuser and the constraints facing this group is virtually nonexistent In a wider context, authors on consumer behavior have occasionally referred to this group, usually during a discussion of user segmentation For example, Evans, Moutinho, and Van Raaij (1996) distinguished among brand-loyal users, brand switchers, new users, and nonusers However, they paid scant attention to the latter group, suggesting that they are an unattractive target group for marketers Likewise, Loudon and Delia Bitta (1993), in a section on usage segmentation, advise that marketing efforts should generally be aimed at light to heavy users rather than at nonusers However, they acknowledge that for many products, nonusers may represent a significant marketing opportunity, and with increased application of marketing research to understanding the motivations of different segments, greater success in converting nonusers to users should occur in the future For tourism, while research on nonusers is difficult, it is vital for marketers Discovering why people are not purchasing the services provided by an organization is important, as most tourism organizations need to attract new customers if they are to thrive, or even survive One should note the difficulty and high cost of finding out about nonusers as a major marketing challenge for those in the tourism industry However, such research can help marketers identify different types of nonusers for whom different marketing messages need to be developed and transmitted Such groups may be ex-users who need to be tempted back, those who are aware of the product but need to be persuaded to buy it, and those who are not aware of the product's existence 28 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM Furthermore, an understanding of the constraints facing these groups can only help transform potential demand into purchase decisions Some authors have attempted to segment the travel market based on their constraints to travel First, Stemerding et al (1996) have suggested that travel segmentation models take constraint behavior explicitly into consideration They propose a new integrated method that elicits the factors and constraints influencing leisure consumers' choice behavior, and on the basis of this, derives consumer segments This involves (1) measuring the attributes influencing the respondents' leisure travel decisions, (2) identifying the role these attributes play in the decision-making process (constraints/rejection inducing attributes or tradeoff attributes), (3) deriving a preference function that allows positioning of leisure destinations on a preference scale, and (4) using the results to identify consumer segments To this end, they developed a method derived from elements of the Repertory Grid methodology, the Decisions Plan Nets approach, and a choice-based scaling model Four market segments resulted from this procedure, and the derived knowledge of the relevant preferences, constraints, and background profiles of the segment members enabled the authors to suggest relevant, segment-specific marketing strategies Second, Norman (1995) tried to identify homogeneous groups of individuals based on their perception of the influence of constraints to travel, as well as describing these market segments based on their motives for travel, level of involvement, past travel experience, travel intention, and a number of sociodemographic variables To achieve these objectives, 544 individuals were questioned about the influence of perceived constraints on their decision to take a summer vacation trip Factor analysis with a varimax rotation of the thirty-five constraints resulted in seven factors that accounted for 66.8 percent of the variance A nonhierarchical cluster analysis procedure of the seven perceived constraint dimensions revealed a four-cluster solution Each cluster perceived different constraints on their travel decisions For example, the largest group, Cluster IV (33.3 percent of respondents), identified the combination of friends and family and work commitments as having an influence on the generic travel decision In addition, the results identified groups of respondents that were relatively unconstrained, those that were highly constrained, and those that report a high level of constraints but continue to participate at an unconstrained level SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Understanding the consumer's needs and buying process is the foundation of successful marketing By understanding how buyers proceed Consumer Behavior Related to Tourism 29 through the decision-making process, the various participants in the buying procedure, and the major influences on buying behavior, marketers can acquire many clues about how to meet buyer needs Consumer behavior research in tourism has focused on motivations, typologies, destination choice, and the decision process itself The "grand models" of consumer behavior have been transformed by authors interested in the tourism choice process From a marketing point of view however, all of these models are not predictive, for two reasons First, they are stereotypical and generalized whereas, in reality, the decision process will vary significantly among different groups of tourists Second, they have no time dimension, so they not indicate to the practitioner when to intervene in the process to influence the decision In addition, just as in the marketing of consumer goods, people with a lack of motivation are ignored, typologies not include the nonparticipant or nonuser, and the models (with the exception of Schmoll's) not take into account the constraints facing consumers in the decision-making process All of the models of consumer behavior in tourism assume that purchase is the outcome, and there is no reference to the negotiation of constraints This lack of research into the nonuser and the associated constraints represents an important gap in consumer behavior research CONCEPT DEFINITIONS Attitude: A person's enduring favorable'or unfavorable cognitive evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies toward some object, event, or another person Belief: A descriptive thought that a person holds about something Constraint: Any factor that comes between the preference for a product or an activity, and the purchase or participation Consumer: The person who uses a product or service Consumer behavior: The study of why people buy the products they do, and how they make decisions Learning: Changes in an individual's behavior arising from experience Model: A representation that seeks to illustrate and/or explain something Motive: A need that is sufficiently pressing to direct the person to seek satisfaction of that need Perception: The process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world Personality: The patterns of behavior and the mental structures that relate behavior and experience in an orderly way 30 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRA VEL AND TOURISM Postpurchase behavior: The stage of the buying decision process in which consumers take further action after the purchase based on their level of satisfaction Psychographic: The analysis of people's lifestyles, perceptions, and attitudes as a method of segmentation Purchase decision: The stage of the buyer decision process in which the consumer actually buys the product Segmentation: The practice of dividing total markets up into subgroups that have similar characteristics Tourism: The activity in which people spend a short period of time away from home for business or pleasure Tourist: A consumer of tourism products REVIEW QUESTIONS Discuss the main factors that might motivate tourists to take the following types of holiday: a Snowboarding holiday in a fashionable mountain resort b A cultural tour of Great Britain c A beach holiday in the Caribbean d Orangutan spotting in Borneo Briefly review Maslow's motive hierarchy of needs Cite three tourism products that might appeal to an individual at each stage of the hierarchy Can you suggest any tourism product for which a marketer might be able to appeal to at least three stages at the same time? Evaluate the potential applications of the main typologies of tourists and tourist behavior to the marketing of tourism products Of all the contemporary consumer behavior models summarized in the text, which you think would be most valuable to the tourism marketer? Why is the postpurchase behavior stage included in most models of the buying process? REFERENCES Cohen, E (1972) Toward a Sociology of International Tourism Social Research, 39(1), 164-182 Crompton, J.L (1977) A Systems Model of the Tourist's Destination Selection Process Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University Crompton, J.L (1979) Why People Go on Pleasure Vacation Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424 Consumer Behavior Related to Tourism 31 Dann, G (1977) Anomie, Ego-Enhancement and Tourism Annals of Tourism Research, 4, 184-194 Evans, M.J., Moutinho, L., and Van Raaij, W.F (1996) Applied Consumer Behavior Cornwall: Addison-Wesley Gallup Organization (1989) Unique Four Nation Travel Study Reveals Traveler Types London: American Express Gilbert, D.C (1991) An Examination of the Consumer Behavior Process Related to Tourism In Cooper, C (Ed.), Progress in Tourism, 3, 78-105 Hodgson, P (1991) Market Research in Tourism: How Important Is It? Tourism Management, 12(4), 274-279 Holloway, J.C (1990) The Business of Tourism Plymouth, UK: MacDonald and Evans Howard, J A and Sheth, J.N (1969) The Theory of Buyer Behavior New York: John Wiley Krippendorf, J (1987) The Holiday makers London: Heinemann LaPage, W.F and Cormier, PL (1977) Image of Camping—Barriers to Participation Journal of Travel Research, 15(4), 21-25 Loudon, D.L and Delia Bitta, A.J (1993) Consumer Behavior: Concepts and Applications London: McGraw-Hill Lowyck, E., Van Langenhove, L., and Bollaert, L (1992) Typologies of Tourist Roles In Johnson, P and Thomas, B (Eds.), Perspectives on Tourism Policy, 13-32 London: Mansell MacCannel, D (1976) The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class London: Macmillan Mannel, R.C and Iso-Ahola, S.E (1987) Psychological Nature of Leisure and Tourism Experience A unals of Tourism Research, 14(3), 314-331 Mansfeld, Y (1992) From Motivation to Actual Travel Annals of Tourism Research, 19(3), 399-419 Maslow, S.H (1943) A Theory of Human Motivation Psychological Review, 50, 370-396 Mathieson, A and Wall, G (1982) Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts Harlow, UK: Longman Mayo, E and Jarvis, L (1981) The Psychology of Leisure Travel Boston: CBI Publishing Middleton, V.T.C (1988) Marketing and Travel and Tourism Oxford, UK: Heinemann Mill, A.S and Morrison, A.M (1985) The Tourism System: An Introductory Text Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Moutinho, L (1987) Consumer Behavior in Tourism European Journal of Marketing, 21(10), 1-44 Muller, T.E (1991) Using Personal Values to Define Segments in an International Tourism Market International Marketing Review, 8(1), 57-70 Murray, H.A (1938) Explorations in Personality New York: Oxford University Press 32 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM Nicosia, F.M (1966) Consumer Decision Process: Marketing and Advertising Implications Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Norman, W (1995) Perceived Constraints: A New Approach to Segmenting the Vacation Travel Market Paper presented at the NRPA Symposium on Leisure Research, San Antonio, Texas Perreault, W.D., Darden, D.K., and Darden, W.R (1977) A Psychological Classification of Vacation Life Styles Journal of Leisure Research, 9, 208-224 Plog, S.C (1974) Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in Popularity Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Quarterly, 14(4), 55-58 Schmoll, G.A (1977) Tourism Promotion London: Tourism International Press Shih, D (1986) VALS as a Tool of Tourism Market Research Journal of Travel Research, 26(4), 2-11 Smith, S.L.J (1990) A Test of Plog's Allocentric/Psychocentric Model: Evidence from Seven Nations Journal of Travel Research, 28(4), 40-43 Stemerding, M.P., Oppewal, H., Beckers, T.A.M., and Timmermans, H.J.P (1996) Leisure Market Segmentation: An Integrated Preferences/ConstraintsBased Approach Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 5(3), 161-185 Stewart, F (1993) UK Leisure Trends and the Prospects After Skiing Paper presented at the 1993 National Ski Conference, Olympia, London Urn, S and Crompton, J.L (1990) Attitude Determinants in Tourism Destination Choice Annals of Tourism Research, 17(3), 432-448 Urry, J (1990) The Tourist Gaze London: Sage Wahab, S., Crampon, L.J., and Rothfield, L.M (1976) Tourism Marketing London: Tourism International Wells, W and Guber, G (1966) Life Cycle Concepts in Marketing Research Journal of Marketing Research, November, 355-363 Westvlaams Ekonomisch Studiebureau, Afdeling Toeristisch Onderzoek (1986) Toeristische Gedragingen en Attitudes van de Belgen in 1985 Brussels: Reeks Vakantieonderzoeken Witt, A and Wright, PL (1992) Tourist Motivation: Life After Maslow In Johnson, P and Thomas, B (Eds.), Perspectives on Tourism Policy, 33-55 London: Mansell Woodside, A.G and Lysonski, S (1989) A General Model of Traveler Destination Journal of Travel Research, 27(4), 7-14 Zaltam, G and Burger, P.C (1975) Marketing Research—Fundamentals and Dynamics Hinsdale, IL: The Dryden Press PART II: DESTINATION SELECTION AND PRODUCT CHOICE As discussed in Part I of the book, the process of destination selection is a crucial part of the study of tourism Not only is destination selection important for the study of tourism, but it is perhaps the most important decision that any traveler must make Part II highlights some of the reasons a particular destination is chosen, and also describes some marketing strategies used to make a destination desirable to potential customers Naturally, a destination must have something to attract travelers to it Customers are usually pulled toward a destination with offerings to suit their needs and desires Therefore, it is critical for marketing professionals to make the destination's offerings known to customers Simultaneously, travelers will often research a destination on their own before making a purchase decision In Chapter 2, Ewing and Haider describe one method used by tourists to make destination choices, called the Discrete Choice Experiment This statistical modeling approach, which is based on utility theory, allows destination marketers to understand what customers prefer in a destination Likewise, customers must have a positive view of a particular destination to choose it above others In short, the destination must maximize consumer benefits and minimize undesirable outcomes The Means End Theory presented by Klenoski, Gengler, and Mulvey in Chapter examines both the tangible and intangible attributes of the tourism product and measures their relative importance in influencing travelers to choose a particular destination Although it is of great importance to identify the factors that attract tourists to a destination, it is of even greater importance to identify those that inhibit potential tourists from selecting a particular destination Chapter 4, written by Urn and Crompton, explores the role of perceived inhibitors and facilitators in formulating a late evoked set of destinations from 33 34 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRA VEL AND TOURISM an early evoked set, and in selecting a final destination from the late evoked set of destinations Decrop, in a comprehensive review of the recent literature on tourist decision making (Chapter 5), describes and critiques the classical positivist methods of conceptualizing the decision-making process and discusses some of the more recent interpretivist and neomodern approaches In Chapter 6, the influence and relative weight of the husband versus wife in family tourism decision making is examined by Nichols and Snepenger, who studied the decision-making process of families who vacationed in Alaska Based on the results of their study, the authors discovered significant behavioral differences among the three decision-making modes of "husband-dominant," "wife-dominant," and "joint decision making." The process of communicating information to potential tourists in the prepurchase stage and the role of information in influencing tourist behavior are discussed by Crotts in Chapter Based on an extensive review of current and past literature, Crotts examines the quantity, intensity, and type of information that tourists seek, the time when it is acquired, the credibility of the sources, and other relevant factors Although marketing plays an important role in determining whether a destination becomes or remains a success, it may be surprising to find that financial aspects not play as great a role as one may believe As Josiam and Hobson demonstrated in their Decoy Effect (Chapter 5), low prices are not always a deciding factor in destination selection Finally, as suggested by Hanefors and Mossberg in Chapter 9, once a destination has been chosen, especially in an all-inclusive package, future customer-loyalty may or may not occur The effect of customer satisfaction on loyalty—along with the impact of a few other factors such as steady prices and quality of service—are analyzed and critiqued in this chapter Obviously, identifying the effects of every conceivable variable on destination selection and product choice is close to impossible Instead, this part of the book has concentrated on describing and analyzing the most important and influential factors It should be remembered while reading the following that many variables play a role in destination selection, but most are interrelated and therefore should not be thought of independently Chapter Estimating What Affects Tourist Destination Choice Gordon Ewing Wolfgang Haider LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of the chapter the reader should: • Understand the steps required to design a discrete choice experiment (DCE) • Know how to make operational different types of attributes (product characteristics, environmental attributes) in a single discrete choice experiment • Appreciate alternative methods of stimulus representation, written and pictorial, in a DCE • Know how to use evidence from consumer choice behavior to estimate the importance of different features of a tourist destination • Know how to estimate the monetary value of unpriced "goods," including attributes of a tourist destination or activity • Know how to use the results of a discrete choice model to design a decision support system (DSS) • Know how to use a DSS to estimate the sensitivity of demand to changes in a tourist destination's features • Know how to use a DSS to show how attributes of alternatives are traded off by consumers INTRODUCTION How tour operators or resort planners know which elements of a destination will appeal to clients and how can they determine the optimal 35 [...]... and fully immersed in its language, culture, heritage, and patterns of life 14 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM In effect, in this model increasing experience of leisure travel is taken as a crucial determinant of the dominant type of travel product consumers will demand Travel from the United Kingdom provides obvious examples of Phase 1 behavior in the dominant form of packaged holidaytaking... tourism, sees a thread running through all these theories of tourism motivation First, travel is motivated by "going away from" rather than "going toward" something; second, travelers' motives and behavior are markedly self-oriented The author classifies these theories into eight explanations of travel: recupera- 10 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM FIGURE 1.2 The Escaping and Seeking Dimensions of Leisure... state of the art in this multifaceted phenomenon of consuming tourist and travel products Second, it packages the various issues and aspects of consumer behavior in travel and tourism in the form of a textbook, to be used by both students and practitioners Thus, each chapter includes learning objectives, main concept definitions, and review questions The book comprises five main sections In search of improved... of consumer behavior within tourism marketing • Have a broad grasp of the part played by motivational factors in tourism behavior • Understand why tourism researchers have tried to explain tourist behavior by developing typologies of tourist roles • Be familiar with various studies that have attempted to understand the destination choice process • Have a general understanding of the usefulness and. .. that understanding travel behavior is imperative in today's highly competitive business environment After all, in such circumstances the ability to compete effectively is highly correlated with the ability to tailor the travel product to tourists' needs, expectations, and desires This mutual interest forms the raison d'etre for Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism In recent years, a growing number... describing how consumers' motivation affects their tourism behavior and actions Among the theories discussed in detail are Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Murray's Classification Scheme, Dann's Tourism Motivator, Crompton's Nine Motives, and Plog's Tourism Motivation Model All of these models focus on the needs and motivations of individuals and the influence these needs have on their tourism behavior Findings... their reluctance to travel Part II explores in greater detail the manner in which different consumers go through various decision-making processes that lead to consequent 1 2 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRA VEL AND TOURISM destination choices and spatial behaviors Using various case studies such as a ski destination choice or decisions to visit Disney World in Florida, the section defines the unique characteristics... Seeking Dimensions of Leisure Motivation Seeking Personal Rewards Seeking Interpersonal Rewards Escaping Interpersonal Environments Escaping Personal Environments Source: Mannel and Iso-Ahola, 1987 tion and regeneration, compensation and social integration, escape, communication, freedom and self-determination, self-realization, happiness, and travel broadening the mind The tourist motivation model proposed... research has been conducted in the area of consumer behavior in tourism While results varied greatly, most studies determined that motivation played a major role in determining tourists' behavior Accordingly, motivation determines not only if consumers will engage in a tourism activity or not, but also when, where, and what type of tourism they will pursue In Chapter 1, Hudson summarizes some of the... motivated to travel to leave behind the personal or interpersonal problems of their environment and to obtain compensating personal or interpersonal rewards The personal rewards are mainly self-determination, sense of competence, challenge, learning, exploration, and relaxation The interpersonal rewards arise from social interaction (see Figure 1.2) Krippendorf (1987), in an enlightening book on tourism, ... into eight explanations of travel: recupera- 10 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM FIGURE 1.2 The Escaping and Seeking Dimensions of Leisure Motivation Seeking Personal Rewards Seeking Interpersonal... as: Consumer behavior in travel and tourism / Abraham Pizam, Yoel Mansfeld, editors p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-7890-0610-3 (alk paper) Tourism Travel Consumer behavior. . .Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism Abraham Pizam, PhD Yoel Mansfeld, PhD Editors ROUTLEDGE Routledge Taylor & Francis Croup NEW YORK AND LONDON