Chocolate Science and Technology Chocolate Science and Technology Emmanuel Ohene Afoakwa University of Ghana, Legon - Accra, Ghana Formerly of Nestlé Product Technology Centre, York, UK SECOND EDITION This edition first published 2016 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007 Blackwell’s publishing programme has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work 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on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Afoakwa, Emmanuel Ohene Chocolate science and technology / Emmanuel Ohene Afoakwa p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-1189-1378-9 (hardback : alk paper) Cocoa Chocolate I Title TP640.A36 2010 664_.5–dc22 2009046211 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Cover image credit: Getty/LarisaBozhikova Typeset in 9.5/13pt MeridienLTStd by SPi Global, Chennai, India 2016 This book is dedicated to my dear wife, Ellen, and our three lovely children, Nana Afra, Maame Agyeiwaa and Kwabena Ohene-Afoakwa (Jr), whose wisdom, prayers and support have helped me achieve great success in my life and professional career Contents Preface, xix Acknowledgements, xxi About the author, xxiii History, origin and taxonomy of cocoa, 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Introduction, History of cocoa, Taxonomy of cocoa, Morphological and varietal characteristics of cocoa, 1.4.1 The cocoa plant, Varietal effects on cocoa bean flavour, 10 The concept of this book, 15 World cocoa production, processing and chocolate consumption pattern, 17 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Introduction, 17 World production of cocoa, 17 Major changes in world cocoa trade, 20 Cocoa yield in producing countries, 22 World cocoa grindings trends between 2005–2006 and 2014–2015, 23 2.6 World stocks of cocoa beans, 26 2.7 International cocoa price developments, 26 2.8 Cocoa processing trends, 31 2.9 Cocoa and chocolate consumption, 33 2.9.1 Apparent cocoa consumption, 33 2.9.2 World chocolate consumption, 34 2.9.3 World consumption of chocolate products, 35 2.9.4 World consumption of premium chocolate products, 38 2.10 Fairtrade cocoa and chocolate in the modern confectionery industry, 39 2.10.1 Sustainable fairtrade cocoa production, 39 2.10.2 Future of the fairtrade cocoa and confectionery industry, 41 2.11 The organic cocoa in chocolate confectionery industry, 42 2.11.1 The global organic food industry, 42 vii viii Contents 2.11.2 The organic cocoa industry, 43 2.11.3 Consumption patterns of organic cocoa, 44 2.11.4 Certification and market for organic cocoa, 45 2.12 The changing chocolate market, 48 Traditional and modern cocoa cultivation practices, 49 3.1 3.2 Introduction, 49 Environmental requirements for cocoa cultivation, 51 3.2.1 Temperature, 51 3.2.2 Rainfall, 52 3.2.3 Soils and nutrition, 52 3.3 Traditional cocoa cultivation practices, 53 3.3.1 Growth and propagation, 53 3.4 Modern cocoa cultivation practices using vegetative propagation, 54 3.5 Establishment and shade, 54 3.6 Flowering and pod development, 60 3.7 Harvesting of cocoa pods, 64 3.8 Pod breaking, 67 3.9 The cocoa pod, 68 3.10 Good agricultural practices in cocoa cultivation, 69 3.10.1 Quality improvement practices, 69 3.10.2 Weed control, 71 3.10.3 Pruning, 71 Cocoa diseases and pests and their effects on chocolate quality, 73 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Introduction, 73 Major cocoa diseases, 73 4.2.1 Cocoa swollen shoot virus disease (CSSVD), 73 4.2.2 Black pod disease, 74 4.2.3 Witches broom disease, 76 Cocoa pests, 77 4.3.1 Pod borers (capsids, cocoa thrips and mealy bugs), 77 Cocoa crop protection, 79 Cocoa bean composition and chocolate flavour development, 80 5.1 5.2 Introduction, 80 Bean composition and flavour precursor formation, 81 5.2.1 Physical structure and chemical composition of the cocoa bean, 81 5.2.2 Cocoa pulp: the fermentation substrate, 83 5.2.3 Polyphenols and chocolate flavour quality, 85 ❦ Plate Typical unripe Forastero cocoa pods ❦ Plate Typical ripe Forastero cocoa pod ❦ Plate Typical Criollo cocoa ❦ ❦ Plate 10 Harvesting of cocoa pods by a hook and pole tool Plate 12 Researcher carrying riped and unripe cocoa pods ❦ ❦ Plate 11 Typical sharp-edged tool used for harvesting cocoa pods from trees ❦ ❦ Plate 13 Riped, unriped and over-riped cocoa pods (from left to right) ❦ ❦ Plate 14 Vertical sections of unripe & riped cocoa pods showing arrangements & colour of fruits and seeds Plate 15 Longitudinal view of bean arrangement in matured cocoa pod ❦ ❦ Plate 16 Opening of heaped cocoa pods with wooden clubs for fermentation ❦ ❦ Plate 17 Heap of fresh cocoa beans prior to fermentation Plate 18 Heap of cocoa beans covered with banana leaves in fermentation ❦ ❦ Plate 19 Cocoa beans to undergo basket Plate 20 Cocoa beans to undergo tray fermentation in ghana, west africa fermentation in ghana, west africa ❦ ❦ Plate 21 Researcher arranging cocoa beans for tray fermentation ❦ ❦ Plate 22 Typical set-up for box fermentation system ❦ ❦ Plate 23 Drying of cocoa beans on raised platforms Plate 24 Dried cocoa beans ❦ ❦ Plate 25 Typical chocolate manufacturing factory ❦ ❦ Cocoa processing Cocoa butter Cocoa liquor Milk Sugar (crumb) Mixer 2-Roll refiner 5-Roll refiner Crumb manufacture Plate 26 Chocolate manufacturing process from cocoa to chocolate ❦ Conche ❦ Plate 27 Malvern particle size analyser ❦ ❦ (a) (b) (c) Plate 28 The three different phases of the conching process ❦ ❦ (a) (b) Plate 29 (a) Molten chocolate for determination of rheological properties (b) Molten chocolate ❦ ❦ Plate 30 Determination of chocolate viscosity (experimental set-up and data curves) ❦ ❦ Plate 31 AMK 50 aasted mikrovert mini-temperer ❦ ❦ Plate 32 Depositing molten chocolate in a mould ❦ ❦ Plate 33 Deposition and cooling plant in a chocolate manufacturing factory ❦ ❦ Plate 34 Moulded chocolate Plate 35 Moulded chocolate balls ❦ ❦ ❦ ❦ Plate 36 Different colours of cocoa powder from the alkalization process ❦ ❦ ❦ ❦ Plate 37 Infograph showing cocoas of different origins and their dynamic flavours Source: courtesy of Sean Seidell ❦ ❦ Plate 38 Assorted brands of chocolate products ❦ ❦ Plate 39 Assorted brands of chocolates with different types of wrappers and packaging materials Plate 40 Assorted brands of chocolates with different types of wrappers and packaging materials ❦ WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT Go to www.wiley.com/go/eula to access Wiley’s ebook EULA [...]... on food and nutrition security and sustainable agricultural development Dr Afoakwa is a research scientist and international expert in cocoa production and processing and chocolate technology He has contributed extensively to many international journals, books, book chapters and encyclopaedias in the area of cocoa and chocolate technology, and has given numerous presentations at both national and international... Kuendigar, Dr Ramana Sundara and Sylvia Coquerel of Nestlé Product Technology Centre, York, UK, and to Dr Jeremy Hargreaves of Nestlé Head Office, Vevey, Switzerland, whose advice, guidance and support enhanced my understanding of the science and technology of chocolate My sincere thanks also go to the many friends and colleagues around the world who have mentored, encouraged and inspired me in various... processing and chocolate manufacturing industry faces an enormous challenge in meeting the demand and quality criteria expected by the consuming populations This has to be matched vigorously by increasing production capacities of the chocolate manufacturing industry, which also requires a detailed understanding of the science and technology of chocolates As chocolate manufacturing is complex and requires... billion Chocolate Science and Technology, Second Edition Emmanuel Ohene Afoakwa © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 1 2 Chocolate science and technology The African region accounts for approximately 72.3% of net world exports of cocoa and is by far the largest supplier of cocoa to world markets, followed by the Americas (16.7%) and then Asia and Oceania (11.0%), and the... of flavour release and intensity in chocolates, 218 10.10 Electronic noses and tongues as online sensors for sensory assessment of chocolates, 221 10.11 Conclusion, 222 11 Nutritional and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption, 223 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Summary and significance, 223 Introduction, 223 Chemistry and composition of cocoa flavonoids, 225 Chocolate types and their major nutritional... Ofosuah Obimpeh, and also to my doctoral students, John Edem Kongor, Michael Hinneh and Bobby Antan Caiquo, for their interest in cocoa processing and chocolate technology Finally, my profound appreciation and love go to my siblings Sammy, Juliana and Regina for their prayers and support throughout my education, and again to my dear wife, Ellen, and our lovely children Nana Afra, Maame Agyeiwaa and Kwabena... Netherlands He is also a trained and a Licensed Food Auditor by the World Food Safety Organization, UK Dr Afoakwa has vast relevant experience in food science and technology and international food laws and regulations He is a member of several professional bodies, including the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), the Food Science and Nutrition Network for Africa (FOSNNA), the Information Technology. .. Feeding Programmes (ANSFEP), the Ghana Institute of Food Science and Technology (GIFoST) and the Ghana Science Association (GSA) He has authored and co-authored 180 publications (including 86 peer-reviewed journal publications, 4 books, 4 book chapters, 2 encyclopaedia chapters and 84 conference presentations with published abstracts) in food science and technology In the pursuance of his duties as a food... the International Foundation for Science (IFS) within the area of food science and nutrition, and also a trainer in scientific writing and xxiii xxiv About the author grant proposal development for the African Women in Agricultural Research and Development (AWARD) He has wide experience in food technology and nutrition, and translates his research findings through process and product development into industrial... rheological and textural qualities in chocolate, 132 7.8.1 Particle size distribution, 132 7.8.2 The role of fats, 142 7.8.3 The role of sugar, 143 7.8.4 The role of milk and other dairy components, 144 7.8.5 The role of surfactants, 145 7.8.6 Moisture and chocolate flow behaviour, 146 7.9 Chocolate quality and defects, 146 7.9.1 Chocolate quality, 146 7.9.2 Chocolate defects, 150 7.10 Conclusion and further