Research and development guidelines for the food industries

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRIES Wilbur A Gould, PhD Food Industries Consultant, President Midwest Food ProcessorsAssociation, and Emeritus Professor of Food Processing & Technology The Ohio State University RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRIES COPYRIGHT@1991 CTI PUBLICATIONS, INC Baltimore, Maryland All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or altered or utilized in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner Inquiries should be addressed to: CTI Publications, 261 Maryland Ave., Baltimore, MD 21 21 8-4576 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 91-72707 ISBN Numbers are as follows: 0-930027-1 7-5 Cover photo (top) courtesy of Carnpden Food Drink Research Association While the recommendations in this publication are based on scientific studies and wide industry experience, references to basic principles, operating procedures and methods, or types of instruments and equipment are not to be construed as a guarantee that they are sufficient to prevent damage, spoilage, loss, accidents or injuries, resulting from use of this information Furthermore, the study and use of this publication by any person or company is not to be considered as assurance that a person or company is proficient in the operations and procedures discussed in this publication The use of the statements, recommendations, or suggestions contained, herein, is not to be considered as creating any responsibility for damage, spoilage, loss, accident or injury, resulting from such use CTI PUBLICATIONS Inc 261 Maryland Ave., Baltimore, MD 21 21 8-4576USA 301 -467-3338FAX 301/467-7434 PREFACE Research and Development (R & D) is of major concern to nearly all aspects of the food industry R & D is an essential part of most agricultural college programs Further, R & D is part of nearly all graduate students studying in the food science, food technology, food processing, and food related programs Lastly, R & D is of vital interest to the public at large and, of course, the ultimate consumer of the fruits of R & D My interest is putting this book together was developed because of necessity as my advisors, teachers, and peers always talked about research and development, but seldom got down to the W’s and H, that is, the why, the when, the where, the what, the who, and the how My advisor and many of my teachers left it up to me and my colleagues to find out who was doing research and development work, what topics were considered worthy of good research in the field, when was the work done, where was the information published, why was a given approach taken, and how were the results being utilized in the industry I was totally appalled by the lack of good resource material and pertinent information Further, I could not fiid good and sound research methods that fit the situation that I was always interested in Therefore, after much consternation and thought, I developed an R & D course of instruction for the graduate students interested in my area of expertise and the thoughts in this book reflect some of the things that I gleaned and shared with these students as we struggled through some 40 years of research in food processing and technology Many of my graduate students have shared with me much information in this book as they have worked in both academia and the food industry They are the ones that made this book come to fruition and they are the ones that suggested I document my thoughts for those who follow, My most sincere thanks to my former students, my many collegeaues, and my many friends in the food industry for their helpful suggestions, criticisms, and inspirations I particularly wish to thank Winston Bash, Ken Beck, Ron Gould, Bill Hildebolt, Jackie Hood, Jim Mavis, Wade Schulte, and Bill Stinson for their critiquing this manuscript and their helpful suggestions My special thanks to Art Judge, II and Randall Gerstmyer for their constructive comments, interest, cooperation and valued assistance Wilbur Gould ABOUT THE AUTHOR Wilbur A Gould was reared on a farm in Northern New Hampshire He received his Batchelor of Science degree from the University of New Hampshire in Horticulture-Plant Breeding He started his graduate work at Michigan State University prior to service in the U.S Navy during World War II After military service, he completed his Master of Science and Ph.D degrees at The Ohio State University Dr Gould retired from The Ohio State University after 39 years on the faculty as Professor of Food Processing and Technology He taught courses during his tenure and advised over 900 undergraduate students, 131 Master of Science Students and 76 Doctoral students His major research interests were in Vegetable Processing and Technology and Snack Food Manufacture and Quality Assurance He has authored some 83 referred journal research publications, over 200 Food Trade articles, and books Dr Gould is a Member of Phi Kappa Phi, Phi Sigma, Phi Tau Sigma, Sigma Xi, Gamma Sigma Delta (Award of Merit in 1984), Alpha Gamma Rho, Institute of Food Technologists (Fellow in 1982), and American Society of Horticultural Science (Distinguished Graduate Teaching Award in 1985) The following are some of the recognitions that Dr Gould has received The Ohio State University Distinguished Leadership to Students Award in 1963 and a Certificate of Recognition Award in 1986; Ohio Food Processors H.D Brown Person of Year Award in 1971; Ohio Food Processors Association Tomato Achievement Award in 1985; Ozark Food Processors Association Outstanding Professional Leadership Award in 1978; 49er’s Service Award in 1979; Food Processing Machinery and Supplies Association Leadership and Service Award in 1988; Ohio Agricultural Hall of Fame in 1989 and an Honorary Life Membership in Potato Association of America in 1990 Dr Gould presently serves as Executive Director of MidAmerica Food Processors Association, Food Technology Consultant to the Snack Food Association, Secretary-Treasurer of The Guard Society, and Consultant to the Food Industries Dr Gould’s philosophy is to tell it as he sees it, be short and get right to the point Chapter RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AND ITS ROLE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRIES "Research is to see what everybody has seen and to think what no body has thought" A S Gyorgyi The food industry is continuously confronted with problems and concerns for its processes and its products Consequently, great opportunities exist for future actions to improve the position of any given firm within the industry through research and development (R & D) Some of the present day major concerns include the following: AUTOMATION - Development of programs, equipment, and application to insure greater on-line efficiencies, better product uniformity, and a reduction of costs BIOTECHNOLOGY & BIOENGINEERING and new processes - New products CONSUMERISM - Dealing with Activists Groups and their wants, the changing eating habits and patterns, Dietary needs, Weight control, etc ENVIRONMENT - Air pollution, solid and liquid wastes FOOD SAFETY - Uses of chemicals for production agriculture, food additives, chemical cleaners, micoorganisms, etc LABELING ISSUES etc - Nutritional and other claims, quality, RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES LABOR - Lack of trained and skilled and scientific, costs and benefits including health care and insurance NEW PRODUCTS - Modifications, reformulations and new creations ON-LINE SENSORS AND CONTROLLERS - Identification of product quality during manufacture and for assurance of total quality control PACKAGES AND PACKAGING - Metal, vs glass vs plastic vs composities and product liabilities, insurance, disposal biodegradable, microwaveable, retortable and shelf life PROCESS CHANGES - Aseptics, Can Acid by acidification and refrigeration QUALITY - Its identification, assurance and evaluation ramifications including analytical instrumentation shelf life testing, nutrition, and consumer education RAW MATERIAL COSTS - Urbanization, drought, irrigation, and out of country produced REGULATIONS - Their effect on development of new chemicals and their testing and on food plant operations including marketing of foods RISK/BENEFIT CONCEPTS - Lack of definition and ultimate effect on slowing down of research and marketing of new products and new additives SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL - Organic and inorganic chemical problems, including digestion times and use of mice organisms LABELING - Nutrition, quality/grade identification including consumer education R & D/ROLE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY Need for Research More money is spent on food today than any other single consumer item Yet, the food industry as a whole spends less money on research and development than any other industry Some industries spend well over 20% of their gross dollar income for research and development while the latest figures indicate that the food industry does not even spend 1% on research and development However, some companies spend a lot of money on research and new product development in their firm Much of it is tied in with quality assurance, production programs, processing changes, marketing practices, etc and not under an R & D Department or funds per se In 1979 NSF published that the continuing rate of return to the gross national product for every dollar invested in R & D was 30 to 50% This was for all industries The return on dollars spent on R & D for the food industry may be higher or lower depending on the product and the firm There is no question that R & D dollars over the long run should make for a good return on the investment if research is properly conducted with the results put into practice If one goes back in history and looks at some of the b t real efforts to solve food problems, one has to take a look at the early 1800’s and Napoleon Bonaparte and his offer of 10,OOO Francs for the development of a method of food preservation Bonaparte could only move his armies as fast as he could move his food kitchens as an army moves on its stomach Today, the highest award by the Institute of Food Technologists is the Nicholas Appert award as Appert was the man that won the 10,OOO Francs for his method of food preservation in 1810, that is, the concept of hermetically sealing food in a container followed by sterilization What is Research? Progress as we know it today would not be possible without research Boss Kettering stated “If you don’t research until you have to, its too late” This statement has been most true and many segments of the industry now realize the importance of a n on-going research and development program Some segments of the industry allocate funds direct for contract or in-house research RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES and development Most food firms today realize that the consumer wants new types and styles of different formulated foods Change should be made in some cases in the food industries to make food better Right after World War 11, the U S Government passed the Hatch Act and established a n elaborate system of funding agricultural research Other agencies like the National Science Foundation, also, sponsored research in food and agriculture Presently, private industry funds much of the research in the food areas In addition, due in part to mergers, many companies have established elaborate R & D departments and much of their research inhouse Research in the food areas is a major part of the over 50 Universities around the US where food science and technology programs are offered Faculty and graduate students food research and development work as part of their work load or graduate training Paul Hudson, former Dean of the Graduate School at The Ohio State University once stated that “research is evidence of creative urge and dissemination of information is the human trait of communication” To me this is most relevant and it truly depicts the ideal type researcher Too many people call themselves r e searchers, but they show little creativity and only communicate as little as need be to get by Any one aspiring to be a researcher must be creative and they must want to contribute to man’s knowledge Research in its simplest definition is doing those things that help build or advance existing knowledge Research in the food industries should go beyond this and reduce costs of food production, costs of food preservation and costs of marketing the food supply Research should strive to improve product quality, nutrient retention, and the shelf life of our food supply Research in the food industries should develop new products, processes, and systems of preservation to continue to satisfy consumer wants New products are needed today to satisfy the changing life style needs, to provide food for the large change in ethnic population, and to meet the needs of the changing demographics, that is, teenagers, the YUPPIES, and the increasing number of the elderly The food industry should look at research as their road to the future not just to solve short term goals R & D/ROLE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY The Scientific Method We learn new fads and ideas by chance, by trial and error, and generalization from experience and by logic, that is, reasoning things out or by using the scientific method of inquiry The scientific method is an orderly system of search for the truth There are six fundamental steps to be followed: 1st step -Identify the problem, establish the objectives or develop the hypothesis, that is, the ‘‘why” 2nd step -Find out “what” has been done to-date, that is, start with a library search of the literature, patents, etc 3rd step -Develop a procedure or establish the approach to solve the problem, that is, the “how” to it 4th step Collect the data or gather the fads, that is, work the plan 5th step -Interpret the data to find the solution to the objectives or test the hypothesis 6th step -Develop conclusions, make recommendations, and summarize your efforts Research is accomplished by people with inquisitive minds seeking the truth and new ideas and concepts, hopefully, to improve the food industry and all foods for mankind Research may be very basic, that is, understanding the fundamentals of change or the reasons why things are different from one another This in the past was accomplished by Federal and State agencies and many non-profit educational and institutional research organizations Research may be very practical or applied, that is, determining the best usage for any given tomato variety Generally, basic research in the food industry is left to the food scientist whether he or she be in academia as a candidate for the Ph D degree or a staff member in an R&D laboratory in the food industry This kind of research is needed to build a base from which to make application by the food technologist to the food industries The technologist applies this basic research to solve industry problems RESEARCH 8z DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Product or process development research can be both basic and applied depending on what is being attempted Development of a new food additive would be basic research while the application of an additive to given food items would be applied research Many researchers both types of research and they not distinguish between either term Frankly, I think too much has been written and made over about these terms in the literature and I think its high time we describe them both as those things that we diligently to search for the truth or new knowledge to solve the problems of the food industries From a researchers standpoint, problems are opportunities and that’s the way I look at food researchopportunities to help the individual food firm help itself to stay ahead of the competition Some Research Objectives The following are some broad areas that may be a part of the objectives or reasons for establishing and R & D program or department To solve existing problems and nuisances in connection with materials, methods (processes), machines, finished products, services (manpower) and environment and to anticipate and prevent such troubles from occurring in the future To reduce costs involved in the use of materials, processes, products, and services To improve the quality of existing materials, products, processes and services To develop new products, new line extensions, or new uses for exisiting materials, products, processes, and servcies To develop suitable substitutes for existing materials, products, processes, and services To develop uses for waste materials thus, creating new byproducts To keep the firm abreast of scientific and technological knowledge in areas of vested corporate interests RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES 158 Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION T A B L E S (Continued) OF Reading in O F or "Cto be converted "C O F Reading in or "C.to be converted OF "C 4-386.6 4-388.4 4-390.2 4-392.0 4-393.8 4-197 4-198 4-199 4-200 4-201 4-91.67 4-92.22 4-92.78 +93.33 4-93.89 4-507.2 4-510.8 4-514.4 4-518.0 +521.6 4-264 4-266 +268 4-270 4-272 4-128.89 4-130.00 4-131.11 4-132.22 4-133.33 +395.6 4-397.4 4-399.2 4-401.0 4-402.8 4-202 4-203 4-204 4-205 4-206 4-94.44 +95.00 4-95.56 +96.11 4-96.67 4-525.2 4-528.8 4-532.4 4-536.0 4-539.6 4-274 4-276 4-278 4-280 4-282 4- 134.4 4-135.56 4-136.67 4-137.78 4-138.89 4-404.6 4-406.4 4-408.2 4-410.0 4-411.8 4-207 4-208 4-209 +210 +211 4-97.22 4-97.78 4-98.33 4-98.89 4-99.44 4-543.2 4-546.8 4-550.4 4-554.0 4-557.6 4-284 +286 4-288 4-290 4-292 4-140.00 4-141.11 4-142.22 4-143.33 4-144.44 4-413.6 4-415.4 4-417.2 4-419.0 +420.8 4-212 4-213 +214 4-215 4-216 +100.00 4-100.56 +101.11 4-101.67 4-102.22 4-561.2 +564.8 4-568.4 4-572.0 4-575.6 +294 +296 4-298 4-300 4-302 +145.56 4-146.67 4-147.78 4-148.89 4-150.00 4-422.6 4-424.4 4-426.2 4-428.0 4-431.6 4-217 4-218 4-219 4-220 4-222 4-102.78 4-103.33 +103.89 4-104.44 4-105.56 4-579.2 4-582.8 4-586.4 t590.0 4-593.6 4-304 4-306 4-308 4-310 4-312 4-151.11 4-152.22 4-153.33 4-154.44 4-155.56 4-435.2 4-438.8 4-442.4 4-446.0 4-449.6 4-224 +226 4-228 4-230 4-232 4-106.67 4-107.78 +108.89 +110.00 4-111.11 4-597.2 4-600.8 4-604.4 4-608.0 4-611.6 4-314 4-316 4-318 4-320 4-322 4-156.67 4-157.78 4-158.89 4-160.00 +161.11 4-453.2 4-456.8 4-460.4 4-464.0 4-467.6 4-234 4-236 4-238 4-240 4-242 4-112.22 4-113.33 -I-114.44 4-115.56 4-116.67 +615.2 i-618.8 i-622.4 4-626.0 +629.6 4-324 4-326 4-328 4-330 4-332 4-162.22 4-163.33 4-164.44 4-165.56 4-166.67 4-471.2 4-474.8 4-478.4 4-482.0 4-485.6 4-244 4-246 4-248 4-250 4-252 4-117.78 4-118.89 4-120.00 4-121.11 4-122.22 4-633.2 4-636.8 4-640.4 4-644.0 4-647.6 +334 +336 4-338 4-340 4-342 4-167.78 4-168.89 4-170.00 4-171.11 4-172.22 4-89.2 4-492.8 +496.4 4-500.0 4-503.6 4-254 4-256 4-258 4-260 4-262 4-123.33 4-124.44 4-125.56 4-126.67 4-127.78 4-651.2 4-654.8 4-658.4 4-662.0 4-665.6 4-344 4-346 4-348 4-350 4-352 4-173.33 4-174.44 -I-175.56 4-176.67 4-177.78 TABLES 159 Table 13 TEMPERAT.URE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) Reading in or "C.to be converted Reading in or "C.to be converted "C 4-669.2 +672.8 +676.4 4-680.0 +683.6 354 +356 +358 +360 +362 +178.89 +180.00 +181.11 +182.22 -I-183.33 +831.2 4-834.8 4-838.4 +842.0 4-845.6 +444 +446 4-448 +450 +452 +228.89 i-230.00 +231.11 +232.22 4-233.33 +687.2 +690.8 +694.4 +698.0 +701.6 +364 +366 +368 +370 +372 4-184.44 +185.56 4-186.67 +187.78 4-188.89 +849.2 4-852.8 +856.4 +860.0 i-863.6 +454 +456 +458 +460 4-462 4-234.44 4-235.56 +236.67 4-237.78 +238.89 +705.2 +708.8 +712.4 4-716.0 +719.6 +374 +376 +378 +380 4-382 +190.00 +191.11 +192.22 +193.33 4-194.44 +867.2 4-870.8 +874.4 +878.0 +881.6 4-464 +466 +468 +470 +472 +240.00 +241.11 4-242.22 4-243.33 4-244.14 4-723.2 +726.8 +730.4 +734.0 4-737.6 +384 +386 +388 +390 +392 +195.56 4-196.67 +197.78 +198.89 +200.00 i-885.2 +888.8 +892.4 +896.0 +899.6 +474 +476 4-478 +480 +482 -I-245.56 -I-246.67 +247.78 +248.89 +250.00 -I-741.2 +744.8 4-748.4 +752.0 +755.6 +394 +396 +398 4-400 +402 +201.11 +202.22 +203.33 +204.44 4-205.56 +903.2 +906.8 +910.4 +914.0 +917.6 4-484 +486 +488 4-490 +492 -I-251.11 -I-252.22 +253.33 +254.44 +255.56 4-759.2 +762.8 4-766.4 +770.0 +773.6 4-404 +406 +408 +410 4-412 +206.67 4-207.78 +208.89 +210.00 +211.11 4-921.2 +924.8 4-932.0 +935.6 +494 +496 +498 4-500 4-502 4-256.67 4-257.78 +258.89 4-260.00 +261.11 +777.2 +780.8 +784.4 4-788.0 +791.6 +414 +416 4-418 +420 +422 +212.22 4-213.33 4-214.44 i-215.56 4-216.67 +939.2 +942.8 +946.4 +950.0 +953.6 +504 +506 4-508 +510 +512 +262.22 +263.33 4-264.44 4-265.56 i-266.67 4-795.2 4-798.8 +802.4 4-806.0 +809.6 4-424 +426 +428 +430 4-432 4-217.78 4-218.89 +220.00 +221.11 +222.22 +957.2 +960.8 4-964.4 +968.0 4-971.6 4-514 +516 +518 +520 4-522 +267.78 +268.89 4-270.00 +271.11 4-272.22 4-813.2 +816.8 +820.4 +824.0 4-827.6 +434 $436 +438 +440 +442 i-223.33 +224.44 +225.56 4-226.67 +227.78 +975.2 +978.8 +982.4 +986.0 +989.6 +524 +526 +528 +530 +532 +273.33 +274.44 +275.56 +276.67 +277.78 OF OF OF OF "C RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES 160 Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) "F Reading in "F or "C.to be converted "C OF Reading in "F or "C.to be converted "C +993.2 +996.8 4-1000.4 +1004.0 4-1007.6 +534 +536 4-538 +540 4-542 -I-278.89 +280.00 +281.11 $282.22 4-283.33 +1155.2 4-1158.8 +1162.4 -I-1166.0 4-1163.6 4-624 4-626 +628 +630 +632 +328.89 +330.00 +331.11 +332.22 4-333.33 +1011.2 4-1014.8 4-1022.0 +1025.6 +544 +546 +548 +552 +284.44 +285.56 +286.67 +287.78 +288.89 +1173.2 4-1176.8 4-1180.4 4-1184.0 4-1187.6 +634 4-636 +638 4-640 4-642 +334.44 +335.56 4-336.67 4-337.78 4-338.89 4-1029.2 4-1032.8 4-1036.4 +1040.0 4-1043.6 +554 +556 4-5-58 +560 +562 4-290.00 +291.11 +292.22 +293.33 +294.44 +1191.2 4-1194.8 +1198.4 +1202.0 4-1205.6 +644 4-646 4-648 4-650 4-652 4-340.00 +341.11 f342.22 +343.33 +344.44 4-1047.2 +1050.8 +1054.4 +1058.0 +1061.6 +564 4-566 4-568 4-570 4-572 +295.56 +296.67 +297.78 +298.89 +300.00 4-1209.2 +1212.8 +1216.4 4-1220.0 +1223.6 4-654 4-656 4-658 +660 +662 4-345.56 4-346.67 4-347.78 +348.89 4-350.00 -I-1065.2 +1068.8 4-1072.4 4-1076.0 +1079.6 +574 4-576 4-578 +582 4-301.11 4-302.22 +303.33 4-304.44 +305.56 4-1227.2 +1230.8 4-1234.4 4-1238.0 -I-1241.6 4-664 +666 +668 4-670 +672 +351.11 -I-352.22 +353.33 +354.44 +355.56 4-1083.2 4-1086.8 +1090.4 +1094.0 +1097.6 +584 +586 +588 4-590 +592 4-306.67 4-307.78 +308.89 +310.00 +311.11 4-1245.2 4-1248.8 4-1252.5 4-1256.0 4-1259.6 4-674 f676 +678 4-680 4-682 4-356.67 4-357.78 +358.89 +360.00 4-361.11 +1101.2 -1104.8 4-1108.4 +1112.0 -I-1115.6 +594 4-596 4-598 4-600 +602 4-312.22 4-313.33 4-314.44 4-315.56 +316.67 +1263.2 4-1266.8 4-1270.4 +1274.0 4-1277.6 +684 +686 4-688 4-690 +692 +362.22 4-363.33 4-364.44 4-365.56 4-366.67 4-1119.2 4-1122.8 4-1126.4 +1130.0 +1133.6 +604 4-606 4-608 +610 +612 +3 17.78 +318.89 +320.00 +321.11 4-322.22 4-1281.2 4-1284.8 4-1288.4 4-1292.0 4-1295.6 +694 4-696 4-698 +700 4-702 4-367.78 4-368.89 +370.00 4-371.11 4-372.22 +1137.2 4-1140.8 4-1144.4 +1148.0 4-1151.6 4-614 4-616 4-618 4-620 +622 4-323.33 4-324.44 4-325.56 +326.67 +327.78 -I-1299.2 4-1302.8 4-1306.4 +1310.0 4-1313.6 +704 4-706 4-708 4-710 4-712 +373.33 4-374.44 4-375.56 4-376.67 +377.78 +550 +580 TABLES 161 Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) OF Reading in "F or "C.to be converted "C "F Reading in "F or "C.to be converted "C 4-1317.2 4-1230.8 4-1324.4 4-1328.0 4-1331.6 4-714 4-716 4-718 4-720 4-722 -I-378.89 4- 380.0 4-381.11 4-382.22 4-383.33 4-1479.2 4-1482.8 4-1486.4 4-1490.0 4-1493.6 4-804 4-806 4-808 4-810 4-812 4-428.89 4-430.00 4-431.11 4-432.22 4-433.33 4-1335.2 4-1338.8 4-1342.4 4-1346.0 4-1349.6 4-724 4-726 4-728 4-730 4-732 4-384.44 +385.56 4-386.67 4-387.78 4-388.89 4-1497.2 4-1500.8 4-1504.4 4-1508.0 4-1511.6 4-814 4-816 4-818 4-820 4-822 4-434.44 4-435.56 4-436.67 +437.78 4-438.89 4-1353.2 +1356.8 4-1360.4 4-1364.0 4-1367.6 4-734 4-736 4-738 4-740 4-742 4-390.00 +391.11 4-392.22 4-393.33 4-394.44 4-1515.2 4-1515.8 4-1522.4 4-1526.0 4-1529.6 4-824 +826 4-828 4-830 4-832 4-440.00 4-441.11 4-442.22 4-443.33 4-444.44 4-1371.2 4-1374.8 4-1378.4 4-1382.0 4-1385.6 +744 4-746 +748 4-750 +752 4-395.56 4-396.67 4-397.78 4-398.89 4-400.00 4-1533.2 4-1536.8 4-1540.4 4-1544.0 4-1547.6 4-834 4-836 4-838 4-840 4-842 4-445.56 4-446.67 4-447.78 4-448.89 4-450.00 4-1389.2 4-1392.8 4-1396.4 4-1400.0 4-1403.6 +754 4-756 4-758 +760 4-762 4-401.11 4-402.22 4-403.33 +404.44 4-405.56 -I-1551.2 4-1554.8 4-1558.4 4-1562.0 4-1565.6 4-844 4-846 4-848 4-850 4-852 4-451.11 4-452.22 4-453.33 4- 454.4 4-455.56 4-1407.2 4-1410.8 4-1414.4 4-1418.0 4-1421.6 4-764 4-766 +768 +770 3-772 4-406.67 4-407.78 4-408.89 4-410.00 4-411.11 4-1569.2 4-1572.8 4-1576.4 4-1580.0 4-1583.6 4-854 4-856 4-858 4-860 4-862 4-456.67 4-457.78 4-458.89 4-460.00 4-461.11 4-1425.2 4-1428.8 4-1432.4 4-1436.0 4-1439.6 +774 4-776 4-778 4-780 4-782 +412.22 4-413.33 4-414.44 4-415.56 4-416.67 4-1587.2 4-1590.8 4-1594.4 4-1598.0 4-1601.6 4-864 4-866 4-868 4-870 4-872 4-462.22 4-463.33 +464.44 4-465.56 4-466.67 4-1443.2 4-1446.8 4-1450.4 4-1454.0 4-1457.6 4-784 +786 4-788 4-790 4-792 +417.78 4-418.89 4-420.00 4-421.11 -6422.22 4-1605.2 4-1608.8 4-1612.4 4-1616.0 4-1619.6 4-874 4-876 4-878 4-880 4-882 4-467.78 4-468.89 4-470.00 4-471.11 4-472.22 4-1461.2 4-1464.8 4-1468.4 4-1472.0 4-1475.6 4-794 4-796 4-798 4-800 4-802 +423.33 +424.44 t425.56 -I-426.67 4-427.78 4-1623.2 +1626.8 4-1630.4 4-1634.0 4-1637.6 4-884 4-886 4-888 4-890 4-892 4-473.33 4-474.44 4-475.56 4-476.67 4-477.78 162 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TAl3LES- (Continued) OF Reading in or "C.to be converted "C OF 4-1641.2 4-1644.8 4-1648.4 4-1652.0 4-1655.6 4-894 4-896 4-898 4-900 4-902 4-478.89 4-480.00 4-481.11 4-482.22 4-483.33 4-1659.2 4-1662.8 4-1666.4 4-1670.0 4-1673.6 4-904 4-906 4-908 4-910 4-912 4-484.44 4-485.56 4-486.67 4-487.78 4-488.89 4-1677.2 4-1680.8 4-1684.4 4-1688.0 4-1691.6 4-914 4-916 4-918 4-920 4-922 4-490.00 4-491.11 4-492.22 4-493.33 4-494.44 4-1695.2 4-1698.8 4-1702.4 +1706.0 4-1709.6 4-924 4-926 4-928 4-930 4-932 4-495.56 4-496.67 4-497.78 4-498.89 4-500.00 4-1713.2 4-1716.8 4-1720.4 4-1724.0 4-1727.6 4-934 4-936 4-938 4-940 4-942 4-501.11 4-502.22 4-503.33 4-504.44 4-505.56 4-1731.2 4-1734.8 4-1738.4 +1742.0 4-1745.6 4-944 4-946 4-948 4-950 4-952 4-506.67 4-507.78 4-508.89 4-510.00 4-511.11 TABLES 163 Table 14 CONTAINER SIZE CONVERSION - TIN AND GLASS Diameter X Can Name 62 Jitney 211 Baby Food 82 Short No 1Picnic 211 Cylinder (1219 No.300 No 300 Cylinder No 1Tall No.303 No Vac (122 Vac) No.2 No.2% No Vac No Cyl (462) No 10 Height 202 211 211 211 211 300 300 301 303 307 307 401 404 404 603 162 (No 303 or 1lb jar) 302 No 2% 642 1282 (1gal Jug) 'Avoir of Water at 68T VOl Fill Cubic Inches 308 9.42 10.38 x200 12.34 X 300 17.06 X 400 x 414 21.28 X 407 23.71 x 509 30.17 25.99 X 411 x 26.31 x 306 22.90 X 409 32.00 X 411 46.45 x 307 37.19 x 700 80.54 x 700 170.71 X GLASS 27.97 48.06 115.20 231.00 Total Capacity' No 303 Can Equiv No 2% Can Equiv 6.00 4.90 7.90 10.90 13.55 15.20 19.40 16.60 16.85 14.70 20.50 29.75 23.85 51.70 109.45 404 395 469 648 809 901 1.147 988 1.000 870 1.216 1.765 1.414 3.061 6.488 229 223 367 455 511 651 561 566 493 689 1.000 801 1.735 3.673 125 139 177 ,152 154 134 187 272 218 472 1.000 1.063 1.827 4.390 8.780 602 1.035 2.487 4.973 164 282 677 1.353 266 No 10 Can Equiv .062 061 072 loo RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES 164 Table 15 TYLERSTANDARDSCREENSCALESIEVES The W.S.Tyler Co., Cleveland, Ohio Meshes per Lineal - inch 2.5 3.5 10 12 14 16 20 24 28 32 35 42 40 60 65 80 100 115 150 170 200 250 270 325 m 0.98 1.18 1.38 1.57 1.97 2.36 2.76 3.15 3.54 3.94 4.72 5.51 6.30 7.87 9.45 11.02 12.60 13.78 16.54 18.90 23.62 25.59 31.50 39.37 45.28 59.06 66.93 78.74 98.43 106.3 128.0 Sieve Opening - inch mm 0.312 0.263 0.221 0.185 0.156 0.131 0.110 0.093 0.078 0.065 0.055 0.046 0.0390 0.0328 0.0276 0.0232 0.0195 0.0164 0.0138 0.0116 0.0097 0.0082 0.0069 0.0058 0.0049 0.0041 0.0035 0.0029 0.0024 0.0021 0.0017 7.92 6.68 5.61 4.70 3.96 3.33 2.79 2.36 1.98 1.65 1.40 1.17 0.991 0.833 0.701 0.589 0.495 0.417 0.351 0.295 0.246 0.208 0.175 0.147 0.124 0.104 0.089 0.074 0.061 0.053 0.043 Wire Diameter - inch mm 0.088 0.070 0.065 0.065 0.044 0.036 0.0328 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.028 0.025 0.0235 0.0172 0.0141 0.0125 0.0118 0.0122 0.0100 0.0092 0.0070 0.0072 0.0056 0.0042 0.0038 0.0026 0.0024 0.0021 0.0016 0.0016 0.0014 2.24 1.78 1.65 1.65 1.12 0.914 0.833 0.813 0.838 0.889 0.711 0.636 0.697 0.437 0.358 0.318 0.300 0.310 0.254 0.234 0.178 0.161 0.142 0.107 0.087 0.066 0.061 0.051 0.041 0.041 0.036 TABLES 165 Table 16 SHELF LIFE IN MONTHS FOR SOME CANNED FOODS Commodity FRUITS Apples, Sliced Applesauce Apricots Blackberries Cherries, RSP Cherries, Sweet Cranberry Sauce jelly Figs Fruit Cocktail Grapefruit Peaches Pears Pineapple Plums Raisons, (seedless) VEGETABLES Asparagus Beans, (green) Beans, ( h a ) Beans, (wax) Beets Shelf Life in Months 30 30 24 18 18 18 24 18 24 23 21 27 28 24 24 14 Chili Sauce Corn, (cream) corn, (whole kernel) Mushrooms Okra Peas Pimentos Potatoes, (sweet) Potatoes, (white) Pumpkin Sauerkraut Spinach Tomatoes Tomato Ketchup Tomato Paste 24 24 36 27 17 33 24 33 33 21 17 18 27 24 21 24 14 24 24 14 18 JUICES Apple Citrus Grape Pineapple Tomato 24 27 14 24 20 Carrots 166 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 17 APPROXIMATE STORAGE LIFE OF FROZEN FOODS AT DEGREE F Beef Breads (Quick) Baked Breads (Yeast) Baked Cakes Candies Cheese (Hard) Cheese (Soft) Cookies (Baked) Eggs Fish (Fatty) Fish (Lean) Fruits (No sugar) Fruits (Sugared) Ice Cream & Sherbets Lamb Milk Pastry (Unbaked) Pork Poultry Sausage Shellfish Soups and Stews Vegetables (Blanched) 1OMo 2Mo 6Mo 6Mo Yr Yr 4Mo 6Mo 8Mo 8Mo 1Yr Yr MYr MYr Yr OMo 2Mo 6Mo 6Mo 6Mo Yr 6Mo 1Yr TABLES 167 Table 18 SPECIFIC AND LATENT HEATS OF SOME FOODS (B.t.u./lb) Food Product Asparagus Bacon Green Beans Beef (lean) Beef (fat) Cabbage CarrOts Eggs (crated) Fish Milk Mutton Oysters Peas (green) Poultry Pork Raspbenies Strawberries Veal Water Before Freezing 0.94 0.50 0.91 0.77 0.60 0.94 0.90 0.76 0.76 0.93 0.81 0.83 0.80 0.79 0.68 0.85 0.92 0.71 1.00 After Freezing 0.48 0.30 0.47 0.40 0.35 0.47 0.46 0.40 0.41 0.49 0.39 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.38 0.45 0.47 0.39 0.53 Latent Heat of h s i o n 134 29 128 100 79 132 126 90 101 124 96 116 108 106 66 122 129 91 144 168 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 19 ENGLISH AND METRIC EQUIVALENTS grain dram gram oz Kg lb 64.79 mg 1.77 g 0.035 oz 28.35 g 2.205 lb 453.6 g floz ml Tsp Tbsp cup 1L Qt Gal 29.57 L 0.0334 fl oz 4.93 ml 14.79 ml 236.6 ml 1.057 Qt 0.946 L 3.785 L In ft yd cm 1M 2.54 cm 30.45 cm 91.44 M ,3937 in 1.0936 yd TABLES 169 Table 20 ENGLISH T O METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS When You Know You Can Find Multiple by LENGTH Inches Feet Yards Miles Millimeters Centimeters Meters Kilometers Millimeters Centimeters Meters Kilometers Inches Inches Yards Miles 25.40 30.48 0.9144 1.6093 0.03937 0.3937 1.094 0.6214 AREA Square Inches Square Feet Square Yards Square Miles Acres Square Centimeters Square Meters Square Kilometers Hectares Square Centimeters Square Meters Square Meters Square Kilometers Hectares Square Inches Square Yards Square Miles Acres 6.452 0.0929 0.8361 2.590 0.4047 0.1550 1.196 0.3861 2.471 MASS Ounces Pounds Short tons Grams Kilograms Metric Tons Grams Kilograms Metric Tons Ounces Pounds Short Tons 28.349 0.4536 0.90718 0.03527 2.2046 1.103 VOLUME Ounces Pints Quarts Gallons Milliliters Liters Liters Liters Millimeters Liters Liters Liters Ounces Pints Quarts Gallons 29.57 0.4732 0.9463 3.785 0.03382 2.113 1.057 0.2642 170 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 21 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS (inches to millimeters) 64ths Decimals Millimeters 0.397 0.794 1.191 33/64 17/32 35/64 5156 5313 5469 13.097 13.494 13.891 0625 078 0938 lo94 1.588 1.984 2.381 2.778 / 16 37/64 19/32 39/64 5625 5781 5938 6094 14.288 14.684 15.081 15.478 1/8 9/64 5/32 11/64 1250 1406 1563 1719 3.175 3.572 3.969 4.366 5/8 41/64 21/32 43/64 6250 6406 6563 6719 15.875 16.272 16.669 17.066 3/16 13/64 7/32 15/64 1875 2301 2188 2344 4.763 5.519 5.556 5.953 11/16 45/64 23/32 47/64 6875 7031 7188 7344 17.463 17.859 18.256 18.653 114 17/64 9/32 19/64 2500 2656 2813 2969 6.350 6.747 7.144 7.541 3/4 49/64 25/32 51/64 7500 7656 7813 7969 19.050 19.447 19.844 20.241 5/16 1/64 11/32 23/64 3125 3281 3438 3594 7.938 8.334 8.731 9.128 13/16 53/64 27/32 55/64 -8125 8281 8438 8594 20.638 21.034 21.431 21.828 3/8 25/64 13/32 27/64 3750 3906 4063 4219 9.525 9.922 10.319 10.716 7/8 57/64 29/32 59/64 8750 8906 9063 9219 22.225 22.622 23.019 23.416 7/16 29/64 15/32 31/64 4375 4531 4688 4844 11.113 11.509 11.906 12.303 15/16 61/64 31/32 63/64 9375 9531 9688 9844 23.813 24.209 24.606 25.003 1/2 so00 12.700 L.0000 25.400 64th~ Decimals 1/64 1/32 3/64 0156 0313 0469 1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64 Millimeters RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES 171 INDEX ANOVA 113, 114 Appert Appraisals 138 Automation Bonaparte Brainstorming 79 Budget 16, 31, 137, 138 Calories 83 CEDAC 103, 104 Chemical laboratory 66 Common cause 98, 100 Communicating 96, 127, 132 Communication 130 Computers 68 Conference/class room 41 Consumer 82 Consumerism Container size 163 Contract research 48 Control chart 105 Control limits 107 Controllers Costs 137 Creative person 77-78 Creativity 79, 81 Data 97 Decimal equivalents 170 Design 37 Design of experiments 111 Development 75 Dinks 131 Distributions 111 Employee 33 English & Metric conv factors 169 English & Metric equivalents 168 Environment Equipment 51, 54-65 72-73 Evaluation, physical 26 F distributions 122-123 Facility 47 Fat 83 Flow chart 101-102 Food Safety Histograms 108- 109 Hudson Human relations 29, 34 Incubation 81 Indicators 99 Information Interviewing 30, 35 Kettering Labeling 1-2 Labor Layout 37, 51 Leader, R & D 29-30 Leadership 36 Library M s of industry 18 Management 12 Manager 14-15, 17, 29, 140 Microbiology Mission 12 Moisture 147 New Product 1, 75, 82 Nutritional requirements 143 Office 41 On-line sensors Organization 9, 11, 21-25 OVAT 112 Packages 2, 87 Packaging 87 Packaging projects 88 Pareto Chart 108, 110 Patents 129-131 People 29, 77 Per capita consumption 142 Personnel 32 pH 144-146 Physical Evaluation Lab 62 Pilot Plant 37-39, 45-46, 51-52 58-66 Plans & Goals 31 Policy statement 12 Popcorn manufacture line 70 Potato chip manufacture line 71 Problems 45 172 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES INDEX Process 1, 98 Productivity 138-139 Programs 137- 138 Progress reports 127 Project 27 Proposals 91-93 Quality R & D classifications 26 R & D Department 13 R & D staff 15 Raw Material Record book 94 Regulations Reports 95 Research & Development 9-10 Research 2-5, 11, 127 Research Objectives RisUBenefit Road blocks 78-79 Salt solutions 150 Scientific Method 4, 91 Scientific paper 128 Screen sizes 164 Sensory evaluation 40, 61 Shelf life canned foods 165 Shop 41 Snap bean line 69 Sodium hydroxide solutions 151 Solid Waste Special cause 98-100 Specific & latent heat 167 Specifications 107 Stable process 99 Staffing 29 Statistical definitions and terms 115-120 Storage Life frozen foods 166 Sugar solutions 149 Supervisors 32 Supply firms 47 System 99 t Distribution 124 Temperature Conversion 153-162 Test Kitchen 67 Time Schedules 27 Tomato 75 Traits 29 Two factor interactions 112 Variable control limit factors 121 Variations 97 Water demand 152 Water hardness 149 Water quality 148 Weight 85 Yuppies 4, 131