Tài liệu quản lý dự án - Project management chapter 4

Tài liệu quản lý dự án - Project management chapter 4

Notes Artto, K A., Martinsuo, M., and Aalto, T (Eds.) (2001), Project Portfolio Management: Strategic Management Through Projects Helsinki: Project Management Association; Artto, K A (2001), "Management of project-oriented organization—Conceptual analysis," in Artto, K A., Martinsuo, M., and Aalto, T (Eds.) (2001), Project Portfolio Management: Strategic Management Through Projects Helsinki: Project Management Association Pinto, J K and Millet, I (1999), Successful Information System Implementation: The Human Side, 2nd ed Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute Saaty, T L (1996), The Analytical Hierarchy Process Pittsburgh, PA: RWS Publications 10 Millet, I (1994), "Who's on first?" CIO Magazine, Feb 15, pp 24-27 11 Mian, S A and Dai, C X (1999), "Decision-making over the project life cycle: An analytical hierarchy approach," Project Management Journal, 30(1), 40-52 12 Foreman, E H., Saaty, T L., Selly, M., and Waldron, R (1996), Expert Choice McLean, VA: Decision Support Software 13 Millet, I and Schoner, B (2005), "Incorporating negative values into the Analytical Hierarchy Process," Computers and Operations Research, (12), 3163-3173 14 Evans, D A and Souder, W E (1998), "Methods for selecting and evaluating projects," in Pinto, J K (Ed.), The Project Management Institute Project Management Handbook San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass 15 Reilly, F K (1985), Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management, 2nd ed Chicago, IL: The Dryden Press 16 Keown, A J., Scott, Jr., D F., Martin, J D., and Petty, J.W (1996), Basic Financial Management, 7th ed Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; Evans, D A and Souder, W E., ibid 125 17 Dixit, A K and Pindyck, R S (1994), Investment under Uncertainty Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Huchzermeier, W and Loch, C H (2001), "Project management under risk: Using the real options approach to evaluate flexibility in R&D," Management Science, 47(1), 85-101 18 Meredith, J R and Mantel, S J (2003), ibid 19 Dye, L D and Pennypacker, J S (Eds.) (1999), Project Portfolio Management: Selecting and Prioritizing Projects for Competitive Advantage West Chester, PA: Center for Business Practices 20 Elton, J and Roe, J (1998), "Bringing discipline to project management," Harvard Business Review, March–April 21 Artto, K A., (2001), ibid 22 Lehtonen, M (2001), "Resource allocation and project portfolio management in pharmaceutical R&D," in Artto, K A., Martinsuo, M., and Aalto, T (Eds.), (2001), Project Portfolio Management: Strategic Management Through Projects Helsinki: Project Management Association, pp 107-140 23 Brown, S L and Eisenhardt, K M (1997), "The art of continuous change: Linking complexity theory and time-paced evolution in relentlessly shifting organizations," Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(1), 1-34 24 Cooper, R and Edgett, S (1997), "Portfolio management in new product development: Lesson from the leaders I," Research Technology Management, 40(5), 16-28; Longman, A., Sandahl, D., and Speir, W (1999), "Preventing project proliferation," PMNetwork, 13(7); Dobson, M (1999), The Juggler's Guide to Managing Multiple Projects Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute Leadership and the Project Manager Chapter Outline PROJECT PROFILE Case—New Product Development at PING Golf, Inc INTRODUCTION 4.1 LEADERS VS MANAGERS 4.2 HOW THE PROJECT MANAGER LEADS Acquiring Project Resources Motivating and Building Teams Having a Vision and Fighting Fires Communicating PROJECT MANAGEMENT RESEARCH IN BRIEF Leadership and Emotional Intelligence 4.3 TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE PROJECT LEADERS Conclusions about Project Leaders PROJECT PROFILE John Parker and A.G Edwards Leading and Time Orientation 4.4 PROJECT CHAMPIONS Champions—Who Are They? What Do Champions Do? How to Make a Champion 4.5 THE NEW PROJECT LEADERSHIP 4.6 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONALISM Summary Key Terms Discussion Questions Case Study 4.1 In Search of Effective Project Managers Case Study 4.2 Finding the Emotional Intelligence to Be a Real Leader Case Study 4.3 Problems with John 126 Project Profile 127 Internet Exercises PMP Certification Sample Questions Notes Chapter Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Understand how project management is a "leader intensive" profession Distinguish between the role of a manager and the characteristics of a leader Understand the concept of emotional intelligence as it relates to how project managers lead Recognize traits that are strongly linked to effective project leadership Understand the implications of time orientation on project management Identify the key roles project champions play in project success Recognize the principles that typify the new project leadership Understand the development of project management professionalism in the discipline PROJECT MANAGEMENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE CORE CONCEPTS COVERED IN THIS CHAPTER Key General Management Skills (PMBoK sec 2.4) Team Development (PMBoK 9.3) Communications Planning (PMBoK 10.1) PROJECT PROFILE Case—New Product Development at PING Golf, Inc Since its founding in 1959 by Karsten Solheim, PING, Inc has been an industry leader in the design and manufacturing of premium golf equipment, including golf clubs (irons, drivers, and fairway metals), soft goods (golf bags), and other ancillary equipment (gloves, travel bags, and so forth) Long known for the innovativeness of its designs and quality of equipment, PING pioneered personalized fitting and customized production processes In fact, its manufacturing systems employ casting processes that are so precise, it is the only golf equipment manufacturer to achieve ISO 9001 certification The privately held company is headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona, where it maintains a large testing center, design laboratories, manufacturing facility, and assembly area PING employs more than 1,200 people worldwide and exports to 65 countries The high-end golf equipment industry is profitable and highly competitive For 2008, total sales of golf equipment were over $2.75 billion, divided between hard goods, golf balls, and soft goods PING's annual revenues position it as the fourth largest manufacturer of golf equipment in the world Innovation is a key to success in this industry A critical component of innovation is constant new product introductions The standard new product development (NPD) life cycle at PING tracks the following stages: (1) Research—this first phase concentrates on the physics of various elements and designs (2) Development— commercial development work begins to occur (3) Design and testing—when a commercially viable concept has been proven out in the development stage, and when that concept is "selected" as something required in a design, then the specific product geometry is worked through Finite Element Analysis and other computer simulation methods are used to confirm the viability of these designs This step includes design prototypes (4) Prototyping and "prove out"—Tooling is created and production prototypes are run This stage includes conformational testing and performance analysis Any failure here indicates root cause failure somewhere in one of the first three stages (5) Full-scale production Experts in the golf club industry note that the average new product has a commercial life of about two years As a result, PING and companies like it are constantly running their NPD processes in support of new product launches, whether the product line consists of hard goods, like golf clubs, or soft goods, such as bags and other products In fact, a successfully launched product simply serves as the springboard for next generation applications and testing New materials, new designs, and geometry changes are all critical and ongoing components of the NPD mind-set All golf club manufacturers are acutely aware of the fact that today's success stories may be tomorrow's failures, if their company becomes complacent or excessively conservative in new equipment introductions (continued) 128 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager Problems and Solutions At the start of the new decade, PING faced a number of significant challenges to its new product development processes Because of a number of factors, including late design changes and delayed introductions, by 2000, PING was averaging only one new product introduction per year In effect, the average time to market for new products was lengthening just as the actual number of new equipment introductions was drying up In 2001, PING promoted John K Solheim, Karsten's grandson, to be the new vice president of Engineering PING opted for a new engineering direction at this time that included a number of important initiatives First, through collaborative engineering, PING formalized its product development processes, creating a common approach that was replicable across product categories Second, PING initiated strict project management practices specifically designed to: (1) control product development cycles by demanding schedule sensitivity, (2) encourage cross-disciplinary communication, and (3) create a high-performance culture Third, PING adopted powerful new computer-assisted design (CAD) technology, which allowed for dramatic time reductions in analysis and testing while promoting better overall document control and knowledge retention Finally, the roles of R&D and Design were clarified and the responsibilities for each department were made clear Thus, R&D's new product development responsibilities were identified and a philosophy of "Test then design" became the new goal within the organization By emphasizing the importance of innovative technical computer simulation approaches like Finite Elements Analysis during product design work, much less time was spent cycling back and forth between the Design and R&D departments, as products were modified Subsequent modifications over the succeeding years have led to a number of additional advantages for PING It developed a Five-Year Product Launch Plan, which promotes the strategic management of new product development processes, improving productivity while maximizing the efficient use of resources Further, as it has gotten more proficient with this new strategy and the relationship between the Design and R&D departments, it has drastically reduced the number of late design changes and improved product modeling times This philosophy is encapsulated in PING's drive to create "a learning organization" that pushes for lean development practices, applies previous lessons, and is constantly looking for ways to adapt and improve its development processes In noting the critical relationship between lean development and best practices, Dan Shoenhair, PING's director of Engineering, puts it succinctly: "Which you need more, your heart or your brain? If you leave either out, you're just as dead It's the same with product development you can't separate lean product development from the concept of a 'learning environment — FIGURE 4.1 PING's Newest Driver— The Rapture V2 4.1 Leaders vs Managers 129 PING's successful upgrading of its new product development processes has been seen in a number of measurable ways Its CAD efficiency has increased over 2,000% and overall engineering efficiency is up by more than five times over the old approaches Time to market for new equipment has been reduced by 63%, while new product introductions have risen by 433% As the figure below demonstrates, since the introduction of its new NPD approach at the start of the decade, PING's average time to market for new products has dropped from 24 months to 8, while new product introductions have risen from per year in 2001 to 17 in 2008 PING's NPD process is also working for its bottom line In 2007 (the last year of available data), PING's product line included the best-selling driver, iron, and bag brand as well as the second-best-selling putter in the golf industry More important, 85% of PING's total sales are from brands that are less than two years old Product innovation pays off When asked the reasons for PING's dramatic improvement in NPD practices, John K Solheim observed, "Looking back at all the improvements we've made, I credit our success to having the right people, providing them the right tools, and creating efficient processes." Solheim continued, "We want to test the 'physics' of a principle and understand the variables and the relationship between those variables Once we understand this 'knowledge landscape,' then we can design with confidence The reverse of this is to pick a design geometry and test it to see if it works In our paradigm of testing the physics first and designing within the parameters we know work, our designs are much more reliable in terms of quality and performance." INTRODUCTION Leadership is often recognized by its accomplishments When Lee Iaccoca took over at Chrysler Corporation, he inherited a company in deep trouble Years of losses and cost cutting had reduced the quality and styling of Chrysler cars to the point where they were no longer competitive with the rest of the auto industry Without the commitment of the U.S government to offer huge loans, it was expected that the company would declare bankruptcy any day Iaccoca hit the floundering organization like a tidal wave, removing dozens of high-paid senior corporate officials, demanding better quality and streamlined development processes, putting his face on television advertising with his personal commitment to fix Chrysler's problems Sales rebounded, morale rose dramatically, and Iaccoca's proudest moment was when he returned to Capitol Hill with a check that repaid, years before it was due, the government loan his company had taken to stave off collapse The situation Jack Welch faced when he took over as CEO at General Electric was very different He inherited a company that was considered a corporate powerhouse, had strong finances, and was a household name around the world Within a couple of years, he stirred up the moribund bureaucracy at GE, ruthlessly selling off underperforming divisions and cutting jobs to the point where his subordinates nicknamed him "Neutron Jack," after the neutron bomb Like the weapon, employees said, he got rid of people and left the building standing His brisk manner, willingness to lead by personal example, and attention to detail all paid remarkable dividends as he transported GE to its highest level of corporate profitability When he retired in 2001, Welch had overseen the transformation of GE into a firm with one of the largest market capitalizations, based on stock price, in the world Leadership is a difficult concept to examine because we all have our own definition of leadership, our own examples of leaders in actions, and our own beliefs about what makes leaders work The topic of leadership has generated more than 30,000 articles and hundreds of books While there are many definitions of leadership, one useful definition that we will employ in this chapter is that leadership is the ability to inspire confidence and support among the people who are needed to achieve organizational goals For the project manager, leadership is the process by which he or she influences the project team to get the job done! True leadership from the project manager has been shown time and again to be one of the most important characteristics in successful project management The impact of good leadership is felt within the team and has an effect on other functional managers and important project stakeholders In fact, project management has been viewed as one of the most "leader intensive" undertakings that occur within organizations 4.1 LEADERS VS MANAGERS Most leaders are quick to reject the idea that they were, by themselves, responsible for the successes attained or the important changes undertaken within their organizations For them, leadership involves an awareness of a partnership, an active collaboration between the leader and the team In project management, successful team leaders are often those who were best able to create the partnership attitude between themselves and their teams As Peter Blocks notes, the idea of leadership as partnership is critical to project management because it highlights the 130 Chapter Leadership and the Project Manager important manner in which all leaders are ultimately dependent upon their teams to achieve project goals Four things are necessary to promote the partnership idea between the project manager and the team: Exchange of purpose Partnerships require that every worker be responsible for defining the project's vision and goals A steady dialogue between the project manager and team members can create a consistent and widely shared vision A right to say no It is critical that all members of the project team feel they have the ability to disagree, to offer contrary positions Supporting people's right to voice their disagreements is a cornerstone of a partnership Losing arguments is acceptable; losing the right to disagree is not Joint accountability In a partnership, each member of the project team is responsible for the project's outcomes and the current situation, whether it is positive or shows evidence of problems The project is shared among multiple participants and the results of the project are also shared Absolute honesty Partnerships demand authenticity An authentic atmosphere promotes straightforwardness and honesty among all participants Because we respect each team member's role on the project, we make an implicit pact that all information, both good and bad, becomes community information Just as honesty is a cornerstone of successful marriages, it is critical in project team relationships Leadership is distinguishable from other management roles in a number of ways A manager is an individual who has received a title within the organization that permits her to plan, organize, direct, and control the behavior of others within her department or area of oversight Leadership may be part of the manager's job but the other management roles are more administrative in nature Leadership is less about administration and more about interpersonal relationships Leadership involves inspiring, motivating, influencing, and changing behaviors of others in pursuit of a common goal Leaders embrace change; managers support the status quo Leaders aim for effectiveness; managers for efficiency Table 4.1 illustrates some of the distinctions between typical management behavior and the kinds of processes with which leaders are engaged Table 4.1 offers us some insights into distinctions between managers and leaders Although leaders need to recognize the importance of managerial duties, it is often difficult for managers to recognize the nonstandard, interpersonal nature of leadership However, this is not to say that leadership is merely an innate characteristic that some of us have and others not Most research and common experience seem to indicate that leadership behaviors can be taught That is the good news: Leadership can be learned And a number of properties and models of leadership are quite relevant for project managers TABLE 4.1 Differences Between Managers and Leaders Concerns Managers Leaders Creation of Purpose Focus on plans and budgets; create steps, timetables for achieving results, look for resources to support goals Establish direction; create a vision and the strategies needed to achieve it Developing a Network for Achieving the Agenda Organize and staff; create structure for achieving the plans; delegate responsibility and authority; develop procedures to guide behavior; create monitoring systems Align people with the target; communicate direction by word and deed to those whose cooperation is needed; create teams that understand and share the project's vision Execution Control and solve problems; monitor results and apply corrective action Motivate and inspire; energize people to overcome obstacles and show personal initiative Outcomes Produce a degree of predictability and order; seek to maintain the status quo Produce change; challenge the status quo Focus Timeframe Efficiency of operations Short-term, avoiding risks, maintaining, and imitating Effectiveness of outcomes Long-term, taking risks, innovating, and originating Source: 1)uBrin, Andrew J., Leadership, 3rd edition Copyright CO 2001 by South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc Reproduced by permission www.cengage.com/permissions 4.2 How the Project Manager Leads 131 Although we will use the term project manager throughout the chapter, we so only because it has become the common designation of the head or leader of a project team A much better image is the idea of the "project leader." Successful project managers are successful project leaders This chapter will examine both the general concept of organizational leadership and the special conditions under which project managers are expected to operate What is it about projects that make them a unique challenge to manage? Why is leadership such an integral role in successful project management? The more we are able to understand about the dynamics of this concept, the better we will be able to effectively manage our implementation projects and train a future generation of managers in the tasks and skills required for them to perform their jobs 4.2 HOW THE PROJECT MANAGER LEADS The wide range of duties that a project manager is expected to take on covers everything from direct supervision to indirect influence, from managing "hard" technical details to controlling "soft" people issues, from developing detailed project plans and budgets to adjudicating team member quarrels and smoothing stakeholder concerns In short, the project manager's job encapsulates, in many ways, the role of a mini-CEO, someone who is expected to manage holistically, focusing on the complete project management process from start to finish In this section we will examine a variety of the duties and roles that project managers must take on as they work to successfully manage their projects Acquiring Project Resources Project resources refer to all personnel and material resources necessary to successfully accomplish project objectives Many projects are underfunded in the concept stage This lack of resource support can occur for several reasons, including: Sometimes a project is kicked off with its overall goals still somewhat "fluid." Perhaps the project is a pure research effort in a laboratory or an information technology project that is designed to explore new possibilities for chip design or computer speed Under these circumstances, companies sponsor projects with a deliberately "fuzzy" mandate, in order to allow the project team maximum flexibility The project lacks a top management sponsor As we will learn, having a project champion in the top management of the organization can be very helpful to project development, particularly in gaining support for the project with sufficient resources On the other hand, when no powerful sponsor emerges for the project, it may face underfunding compared to other projects competing for scarce company resources The project requirements were deliberately understated It is not uncommon for project resource needs to be purposely understated at the outset in order to get them accepted by the organization So many projects may be under development that there is simply not enough money to go around A common reason for lack of resource support for many projects is that the company is constantly developing so many projects that it is impossible to fund them all adequately Instead, the company adopts a "take it or leave it" attitude that presents project managers with the option of accepting either insufficient funding or none at all An attitude of distrust between top management and project managers Sometimes projects receive low funding because top management is convinced that project managers are deliberately padding their estimates to gain excessive funding We will discuss this attitude in Chapter 11, "Critical Chain Project Scheduling." The project's goals are deliberately vague Regardless of the reasons for the lack of project resources, there is no doubt that many projects face extremely tight budgets and inadequate human resources Yet there are some options open to project managers as they seek to supplement their project's resource support If the resource problem is a personnel issue, project managers may seek to find alternative avenues to solve the difficulty For example, suppose that you were the project manager for an upgrade to an existing software package your company uses to control materials flow and warehousing in manufacturing If trained programmers are simply unavailable to work on your upgrade project, you may seek to hire temporary contract employees People with specialized skills such as programming can often be acquired on a short-term basis to fill the gaps in the availability of in-house personnel to the same assignments The key point to remember is that recognizing and responding to resource needs is a critical function of project leadership Another common tactic project managers use in the face of resource shortfalls is to rely on negotiation or political tactics to influence top management to provide additional support Because resources must often be negotiated with top management, it is clear that the ability to successfully negotiate and apply influence 132 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager where the project manager has no direct authority is a critical skill Again, leadership is best demonstrated by the skills a project manager uses to maintain the viability of the project, whether dealing with top management, clients, the project team, or other significant stakeholders Motivating and Building Teams The process of molding a diverse group of functional experts into a cohesive and collaborative team is not a challenge to be undertaken lightly Team building and motivation present enormously complex hurdles, and dealing comfortably with human processes is not part of every manager's background For example, it is very common within engineering or other technical jobs for successful employees to be promoted to project manager They typically become quickly adept at dealing with the technical challenges of project management but have a difficult time understanding and working to master the human challenges Their background, training, education, and experiences have prepared them well for technical problems but have neglected the equally critical behavioral elements in successful project management In considering how to motivate individuals on our project teams, it is important to recognize that motivation ultimately comes from within each of us; it cannot be stimulated solely by an external presence Each of us decides, based on the characteristics of our job, our work environment, opportunities for advancement, coworkers, and so forth, whether we will become motivated to the work we have been assigned Does that imply that motivation is therefore outside of the ability of project managers? Yes and no Yes, because motivation is an individual decision: We cannot make someone become motivated On the other hand, as one career army officer puts it, "In the army, we can't force people to anything, but we can sure make them wish they had done it!" Underlying motivation is typically something that the team member desires, whether it is a challenging work assignment, opportunity for recognition and advancement, or simply the desire to stay out of trouble Successful project managers must recognize that one vital element in their job description is the ability to recognize talent, recruit it to the project team, begin to mold a team of interactive and collaborative workers, and apply motivational techniques as necessary Having a Vision and Fighting Fires Successful project managers must operate on the boundaries Sometimes those boundaries divide technical and behavioral problems, and project managers need to be comfortable with both tasks Another boundary refers to the distinction between being a strategic visionary and a day-to-day firefighter Project managers work with conceptual plans, develop the project scope in line with organizational directives, and understand how their project is expected to fit into the company's project portfolio In addition, they are expected to keep their eyes firmly fixed on the ultimate prize: the completed project In short, project managers must be able to think strategically and to consider the "big picture" for their projects At the same time, however, crises and other project challenges occur on a daily basis These crises usually require the project manager to make immediate, tactical decisions, to solve current problems, and to be detail oriented Leaders are able to make the often daily transition from keeping an eye on the big picture to dealing with immediate, smaller problems that occur almost on a regular basis One executive in a project organization highlighted this distinction very well He stated, "We seek people who can see the forest for the trees but at the same time, are intimately familiar with the species of each variety of tree we grow If one of those trees is sick, they have to know the best formula to fix it quickly." His point was that a visionary who adopts an exclusively strategic view of the project will discover that he cannot deal with the day-today "fires" that keep cropping up At the same time, someone who is too exclusively focused on dealing with the daily challenges may lose the ultimate perspective and forget the overall picture or the goals that define the project That balance represents a key boundary that successful project managers must become comfortable occupying Communicating Former president Ronald Reagan was labeled "The Great Communicator." He displayed a seemingly natural and fluent ability to project his views clearly, to identify his audience and shape his messages accordingly, and not waver or contradict his basic themes Project managers require the same facility of communication In Chapter we examined the role of stakeholder management in successful projects These stakeholders can have a tremendous impact on the likelihood that a project will succeed or fail; consequently, it is absolutely critical to maintain strong contacts with all stakeholders throughout the project's development There is an old saying in project management regarding the importance of communication with your company's top management: "If they know nothing of what you are doing, they assume you are doing nothing." The message 4.2 How the Project Manager Leads 133 is clear: We must take serious steps to identify relevant stakeholders and establish and maintain communications with them, not sporadically but continually, throughout the project's development Communicating also serves other valuable purposes Project managers have been described as "mini billboards," the most visible evidence of the status of their project The ways in which project managers communicate, the messages they send (intentional or unintentional), and the manner in which they discuss their projects sends powerful signals to other important stakeholders about the project Whether through developing good meeting and presentation skills, a facility for writing and speaking, or through informal networking, project managers must recognize the importance of communication and become adept at it One of the most critical means by which project managers can communicate is through their ability to run productive meetings Meeting skills are important because project managers spend a large amount of time in meetings—meetings with team members, top management, clients, and other critical project stakeholders Meetings serve a number of purposes for the project team, including these: They define the project and the major team players They provide an opportunity to revise, update, and add to all participants' knowledge base, including facts, perceptions, experience, judgments, and other information pertinent to the project They assist team members in understanding how their individual efforts fit into the overall whole of the project as well as how they can each contribute to project success They help all stakeholders increase their commitment to the project through participation in the management process They provide a collective opportunity to discuss the project and decide on individual work assignments They provide visibility for the project manager's role in managing the project As a result of the wide variety of uses meetings serve, the ability of project managers to become adept at running them in an efficient and productive manner is critical Meetings are a key method for communicating project status, collectivizing the contributions of individual team members, developing a sense of unity and esprit de corps, and keeping all important project stakeholders up-to-date concerning the project status Two forms of leadership behaviors are critical for effectively running project meetings The first type of behavior is task oriented; that is, it is intended to emphasize behaviors that contribute to completing project assignments, planning and scheduling activities and resources, and providing the necessary support and technical assistance Task-oriented behavior seeks to get the job done At the same time, effective project leaders are also concerned about group maintenance behavior Group maintenance suggests that a project manager cannot act at the expense of concern for the team Group maintenance behavior consists of supportive activities, including showing confidence and trust, acting friendly and supportive, working with subordinates to understand their problems, and recognizing their accomplishments Group maintenance behavior increases cohesiveness, trust, and commitment, and it satisfies all team members' needs for recognition and acceptance Table 4.2 identifies some of the critical task and group maintenance behaviors that occur in productive project meetings Among the important task-oriented behaviors are structuring the flow of discussion to TABLE 4.2 Task and Group Maintenance Behaviors for Project Meetings l° Task-Oriented Behavior Specific Outcome Structuring process Guide and sequence discussion Stimulating communication Increase information exchange Clarifying communication Increase comprehension Summarizing Check on understanding and assess progress Check on agreement Testing consensus Group Maintenance Behavior Specific Outcome Increase and equalize participation Gatekeeping Harmonizing Supporting Setting standards Reduce tension and hostility Prevent withdrawal, encourage exchange Analyzing process Regulate behavior Discover and resolve process problems Source: Yukl, Gary A., Leadership in Organizations, 5th edition, p 329 Copyright © 2002 Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 134 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager TABLE 4.3 Characteristics of Project Managers Who Lead Rank Characteristics of an Effective Project Manager Leads by example Visionary Technically competent Decisive A good communicator A good motivator Stands up to top management when necessary Supports team members Encourages new ideas ensure that a proper meeting agenda is followed, stimulating conversation among all meeting participants, clarifying and summarizing decisions and perceptions, and testing consensus to identify points of agreement and discord The project manager is the key to achieving effective task behaviors, particularly through a clear sense of timing and pacing For example, pushing for consensus too quickly or stifling conversation and the free flow of ideas will be detrimental to the development of the project team and the outcomes of meetings Likewise, continually stimulating conversation even after agreement has been achieved only serves to prolong a meeting past the point where it is productive Among the group maintenance behaviors that effective project leaders need to consider in running meetings are gatekeeping to ensure equal participation, harmonizing to reduce tension and promote team development, supporting by encouraging an exchange of views, regulating behavior through setting standards, and identifying and resolving any "process" problems that cause meeting participants to feel uncomfortable, hurried, or defensive Group maintenance behaviors are just as critical as those related to task and must be addressed as part of a successful meeting strategy Taken together, task and group maintenance goals allow the project manager to gain the maximum benefit from meetings, which are so critical for project communication and form a constant demand on the project manager's time Table 4.3 paints a portrait of the roles project leaders play in project success by ranking the nine most important characteristics of effective project managers in order of importance The data are based on a study of successful American project managers as perceived by project team members.' I Note that the most important is the willingness of the project manager to lead by example, to highlight the project's goals, and to first commit to the challenge before calling upon other team members to make a similar commitment Equally interesting are findings related to the reasons why a project manager might be viewed as ineffective A set of personal quality flaws, as well as organizational factors that could result in ineffectual performance, are uncovered Table 4.4 lists both the most important personal flaws and the organizational factors that render a project manager ineffective These factors are rank ordered according to the percentage of respondents who identified them BOX 4.1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT RESEARCH IN BRIEF Leadership and Emotional Intelligence An interesting perspective on leadership has emerged in recent years as greater levels of research have examined the traits and abilities associated with effective project leadership While characteristics such as technical skill, analytical ability, and intelligence are all considered important traits in project managers, an additional concept, the idea of emotional intelligence, has been suggested as a more meaningful measure of leadership effectiveness Emotional intelligence refers to leaders' ability to understand that effective leadership is part of the emotional and relational transaction between subordinates and themselves There are five elements that characterize emotional intelligence: (1) self-awareness, (2) self-regulation, (3) motivation, (4) empathy, and (5) social skill With these traits, a project manager can develop the kind of direct, supportive relationships with the project team members that are critical to creating and guiding an effective team 138 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager TABLE 4.5 Temporal Alignment and Temporal Skills Temporal Alignment • Timeline orientation—The temporal context or space in time (past, present, or future) in which an individual most often sees himself or herself • Future time perspective—The extent to which the future drives an individual's current behavior • Time span—The amount of future time one is capable of capturing in one's mind • Polychronic./monochronic preference—A desire for doing more than one thing at a time, or only one thing at a time • Time conception—A set of beliefs about the nature of time and life, cyclical (life repeats itself) or linear (life proceeds in a straight line, always forward) Temporal Skills • Time warping—Cognitively bringing the past and future closer to the present • Creating future vision—Creating an image of a project in the future • Chunking time—Creating units of future time to be used for scheduling • Predicting—Generating estimates of what will occur in the future • Recapturing the past—Remembering and using information from the past managing projects; and (3) we need to recognize that effective project management often requires us to be comfortable with other, nonpreferred time orientations Let us consider each of these facts in turn We each have time orientation preferences, either toward the past, present, or future Research in psychology has established the fact that individual personalities differ in terms of time orientation) ; Somefusprtad eimprsctv,whloemainprsto mefnc Having a preference predisposes us to perform some activities well while either avoiding or doing the minimum in other areas Each time orientation has associated strengths and weaknesses for managing projects Research suggests that the preferred time orientation each of us possesses naturally inclines us to perform some project management activities well and others with greater difficulty or unwillingness Table 4.6 illustrates this notion Note that some activities related to past time orientation, such as project problem solving or team member evaluation, directly draw upon our ability to recapture the past Think of a project lessons-learned meeting during the termination phase It is precisely at times such as this that the ability to recapture past events, typically associated with past time orientation, is so valuable Conversely, future time orientation, requiring skills such as time warping or predicting, is critical to our ability to handle contingency planning Effective project management requires that we develop skills in other time orientation modes As Table 4.6 demonstrates, while we may each have preferred time orientations that make certain tasks easier or harder to perform, as leaders we need to develop the full range of our skills, suggesting that we at least TABLE 4.6 Time-Related Project Leader Duties Project Leader Duty A Past-oriented tasks B Present-oriented tasks C Future-oriented tasks Temporal Skill Needed Project problem solving Recapturing the past Team member evaluation Recapturing the past Lessons-learned meetings Recapturing the past Scheduling Time warping Managing multiple project problems Polychronicity Contingency planning Time warping Predicting Creating a vision for the project Creating future vision 4.4 Project Champions 139 develop a basic expertise in all temporal skills The first step in this process often lies in developing a clearer idea of the strengths and weaknesses each of us possesses with regard to temporal orientation Then we can begin to refine our skills in the orientation that is particularly difficult for us For better or worse, successful project managers need to recognize the importance of operating on a perspective that includes past, present, and future time orientations 4.4 PROJECT CHAMPIONS Dr Thomas Simpson (not his real name) came back from a recent medical conference enthusiastic about an innovative technique that he felt sure was just right for his hospital He had witnessed the use of an information system technology that allowed doctors to link wirelessly with patient records, retrieve documentation, and place prescription orders online The doctor could directly input symptoms and treatment protocols on a laptop in the patient's room The benefit of the new system was that it significantly upgraded the hospital's paper records approach to patient record keeping while providing the doctor with more immediate flexibility in treatment options As chief of the medical staff, Dr Simpson has some influence in Grace Hospital, but he could not simply order the hospital to adopt the technology Instead, over a period of six months, he worked tirelessly to promote the system, setting up information seminars with the software designers and question-and-answer sessions with the hospital's administration and other important stakeholders Eventually, his persistence paid off The hospital adopted the technology and has been using it for the past two years In spite of some start-up problems resulting from the need to transfer old records to the system, Grace Hospital now brags that it is "paper record" free, and all because of Dr Simpson's efforts In this example, Dr Simpson displayed all of the qualities of a project champion Champions, sometimes referred to as project sponsors, are well known both in the organizational theory literature and within organizations themselves A champion is an individual who "identifies with a new development (whether or not he made it), using all the weapons at his command, against the funded resistance of the organization He functions as an entrepreneur within the organization, and since he does not have official authority to take unnecessary risks he puts his job in the organization (and often his standing) on the line He (has) great energy and capacity to invite and withstand disapproval." 18 Champions possess some remarkable characteristics First, it is assumed (in fact, it seems almost expected) that champions will be operating without the officially sanctioned approval of their organizations Oftentimes, they set themselves directly at odds with the established order or popular way of thinking Standard operating procedures are anathema to champions, and they are usually unafraid of official disapproval Second, champions have a true entrepreneurial talent for recognizing value in innovative ideas or products; they see things the typical organizational member does not Third, champions are risk takers in every sense of the word Their singleminded pursuit of truth in whatever innovative form it may take often puts them at odds with entrenched bureaucrats and those who not share their enthusiasm for a new product or idea It is difficult to truly capture the enthusiasm and fervor that champions have for their idea Tom Peters, best-selling author, describes champions as "fanatics" in their single-minded pursuit of their pet ideas He states, "The people who are tenacious, committed champions are often a royal pain in the neck They must be fostered and nurtured—even when it hurts." 19 This statement captures the essence of the personality and impact of the champion: one who is at the same time an organizational gadfly and vitally important for project and organizational success Champions — Who are They? Champions not consistently occupy the same positions within the organization While senior managers often serve as champions, many members of the organization can play the role of implementation champion, with different systems or at different times with the same system implementation project Among the specific and most common types of champions are the following: 2° CREATIVE ORIGINATOR The creative originator is usually an engineer, scientist, or similar person who is the source of and driving force behind the idea The fact that the individual who was behind the original development of the idea or technology can function as the project champion is hardly surprising No one in the organization has more expertise or sense of vision where the new information system is concerned Few others possess the technical or creative ability to develop the implementation effort through to fruition 140 Chapter Leadership and the Project Manager Consequently, many organizations allow, and even actively encourage, the continued involvement of the scientist or engineer who originally developed the idea upon which the project is based ENTREPRENEUR An entrepreneur is the person who adopts the idea or technology and actively works to sell the system throughout the organization, eventually pushing it to success In many organizations, it is not possible, for a variety of constraining reasons, for the creative originator or original project advocate to assume the role of the champion Often, the scientist, technician, and/or engineer are limited by their need to perform the specifically demarcated duties of their positions, thereby precluding them from becoming part of the project implementation team In situations such as these, the individual who often steps forward as the implementation champion is someone referred to as an organizational entrepreneur The entrepreneur is an organizational member who recognizes the value of the original idea or technology and makes it a personal goal to gain its acceptance throughout the relevant organizational units that would be employing it Entrepreneurial champions are usually middle- to upperlevel managers who may or may not have technical backgrounds In addition to performing their own duties within the organization, they are constantly on the lookout for innovative and useful ideas to develop "GODFATHER" OR SPONSOR The project champion as godfather is a senior-level manager who does everything possible to promote the project, including obtaining the needed resources, coaching the project team when problems arise, calming the political waters, and protecting the project when necessary A sponsor has elected to actively support acquisition and implementation of the new technology and to everything in his or her power to facilitate this process One of the most important functions of godfathers is to make it known throughout the organization that this project is under their personal guidance or protection In addition to supplying this "protection," the godfather engages in a variety of activities of a more substantial nature in helping the implementation effort succeed Godfathers also use their influence to coach the team when problems arise in order to decrease the likelihood of political problems derailing the project Another member of the organization who may play the role of the champion is the project manager At one time or another, almost every project manager has undertaken the role of champion When one considers the definition of a project champion and the wide range of duties they perform, it becomes clear why the manager of the project is often in the position to engage in championing behaviors Certainly, they are strongly identified with the project, and, to a degree, their career is directly tied to its successful completion The project manager may have limited effectiveness as champion, however, if she or he does not possess some higher, organization-wide status that makes it possible to serve as the project advocate at upper management levels For example, she or he may not have the authority to secure additional project resources or gain support throughout the larger organization PROJECT MANAGER What Do Champions Do? What exactly are the different things that champions to aid the implementation process? Table 4.7 lists the set of championing activities identified by one study's sample of project managers The first set of activities is commonly thought of as the traditional duties of managers The champion can actively aid in the project development process by interpreting technical details, providing strong leadership, helping with project coordination and control, as well as supplying administrative help for the project team It is important that the champion be familiar with the technical aspects of the project Another important "traditional" activity of the project champion is in procurement of necessary resources to enable team members to perform their tasks Champions are often in an excellent position to make available a continual supply of logistical support for the project The second set of activities in which the champion will engage are referred to as the "nontraditional" side of management Nontraditional implies that these are not the usual roles identified in traditional management literature That does not imply that these activities are in any way unnecessary or eccentric Rather, several champions have reported that these duties are equally as important for project success as the more frequently identified, well-known requirements for successful management Performing functions such as cheerleader, visionary, politician, risk taker, and ambassador are important for most managers yet tend to be deemphasized in the literature, job specifications, and training programs for project managers As one champion put it, "We can teach people those (traditional) skills easily enough, but experience is the best teacher for the other (nontraditional) duties No one prepares you for the irrational side of this job You have to pick it up as you go." 4.4 Project Champions 141 TABLE 4.7 Traditional and Nontraditional Roles of Project Champions Traditional Duties Technical understanding Knowledge of the technical aspects involved in developing the project Leadership Ability to provide leadership for the project team Coordination and control Managing and controlling the activities of the team Obtaining resources Gaining access to the necessary resources to ensure a smooth development process Administrative Handling the important administrative side of the project Nontraditional Duties Cheerleader Providing the needed enthusiasm (spiritual driving force) for the team Visionary Maintaining a clear sense of purpose and a firm idea of what is involved in creating the project Politician Employing the necessary political tactics and networking to ensure broad acceptance and cooperation with the project Risk taker Being willing to take calculated personal or career risks to support the project Ambassador Maintaining good relations with all project stakeholders Source: J K Pinto and D P Slevin (1988), "The Project Champion: Key to Implementation Success," Project Management Journal, 20(4), 15-20 Copyright © 1988 by Project Management Institute Publications Reproduced with permission of Project Management Institute Publications via Copyright Clearance Center In many organizations, the majority of a champion's time is not engaged in performing the traditional side of project management duties, but rather is involved in these "nontraditional" activities The champion is often the person with the vision, the cheerleader, or the driving force behind the project Additionally, the champion is expected to take on the key political roles in attempting to play the right kinds of games, make the right contacts, and network with the necessary people to ensure a steady supply of resources necessary for the project to succeed Finally, because, by definition, champions strongly identify with the project, much of their time is spent in networking with other organizational units, top management, and prospective clients (users) of the project As such, they take on an important ambassador/advocate role throughout the organization In many cases, champions put their careers on the line to support and gain acceptance of the new system and, as a result, become committed to aiding the project in every way possible, through both traditional and nontraditional activities One question that is often asked is whether or not this type of behavior really plays an important role in successful project management The answer to this question is an emphatic "yes." Aside from anecdotal and case study information, there are also some compelling research studies that have helped us better understand not only what champions do, but how important champions are for acquiring and gaining organizational acceptance of new projects 21 One study, for example, examined a series of new product developments and start-ups at a variety of organizations 22 Their relationship to the presence or absence of an identifiable organizational champion was studied for 45 new product development efforts (both successful and unsuccessful) Of the 17 successful new product developments, all but one, or 94%, had a readily identifiable champion These ventures were spearheaded by an individual that the majority of those involved in the project could point to and identify as that project's sponsor or champion On the other hand, of the 28 projects that had failed, only one was coupled with an identifiable project champion Clearly, the results of this study seem to point to the enormously important role that a champion can play in new product development How to Make a Champion All organizations differ in terms of the availability of individuals to take on the role of a project champion While some organizations have a supply of enthusiastic personnel at all levels willing to serve as champions, 142 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager the reality for most organizations is not nearly so upbeat The fault, in this case, is not that these organizations have inadequate or unskilled people Very often, the problem is that the organizations have failed to recognize the benefits to be derived from champions Champions and a climate within which they can exist must be developed and nurtured by the organization There are some important principles and options for organizations to recognize in the development and use of project champions: 23 IDENTIFY AND ENCOURAGE THE In many companies, there are individuals who demonstrate the enthusiasm and drive to champion new project ideas It is important for these organizations to develop a culture that not only tolerates, but also actively promotes champions In many organizations, a creative originator who continually badgered upper management with a new project idea would likely offend some of the key top management team However, for a firm to realize the full potential of its internal champions, there must be a culture of support in which champions feel they can work without excessive criticism or oversight ENCOURAGE AND REWARD RISK TAKERS Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric, made it a personal crusade to actively encourage senior, middle, and even junior managers to take risks His argument was that innovation does not come without risk; if one cannot bear to take risks, one cannot innovate The corollary to encouraging risk taking is to avoid the knee-jerk response of immediately seeking culprits for project failures and punishing them Innovations are, by definition, risky ventures They can result in tremendous payoffs, but they also have a very real possibility of failure Organizations have to become more aware of the positive effects of encouraging individuals to take risks, to assume championing roles in innovative projects One project success will often pay for 10 project failures REMEMBER THAT CHAMPIONS ARE CONNECTED Champions bring a great deal of energy and emotional commitment to their project ideas; however, a potential downside of the use of powerful project champions is the fact that often they refuse to give up, even in the face of a genuine project failure As a result, many companies keep funding "dogs" long after any hope for successful completion or commercial success is past Sony Corporation, for example, continued to support its Betamax format for videotape even in the face of clear evidence that the VHS format was the clear industry winner It was simply impossible for strong internal champions within Sony to admit that their project could not succeed DON'T TIE CHAMPIONS TOO TIGHTLY TO TRAMTION,i Project champions and project managers may be the same people, but often are not Classic champions, as Table 4.7 demonstrated, are often more comfortable supporting a project through the nontraditional activities Because they tend to be visionaries, cheerleaders, and risk takers, they approach their goal with a single-minded strength of purpose and a sense of the overall design and strategy for the new technology Rather than supporting the more routine aspects of project management, such as planning and scheduling, allocating resources, and handling the administrative details, their expertise and true value to the implementation process may be in their political connections and contributions, in employing their nontraditional management skills 4.5 THE NEW PROJECT LEADERSHIP Project management requires each of us to harness our abilities to lead others These skills may or ( more likely) may not be innate; that is, for the majority of us, leadership is not something that we were born with However, we know enough about the leadership challenge to recognize that leaders are as leaders 24 The more we begin to recognize and practice appropriate leadership roles, the more naturally these activities will come to us An article by one of the top writers on organizational leadership, Dr Warren Bennis, summarizes four competencies that determine our success as project leaders: 25 The new leader understands and practices the power of appreciation They are connoisseurs of talent, more curators than creators Appreciation derives from our ability to recognize and reward the talent of others Leaders may not be the best, most valuable, or most intelligent member of the project team Their role is not to outshine others but to allow others to develop to their best potential The new leader keeps reminding people what's important This simple statement carries a powerful message for project managers We need to remember that in pursuing a project, a host of other problems, 4.6 Project Management Professionalism 143 difficulties, annoyances, and new technical and human challenges are likely to arise A project can often uncover numerous other problems that were not apparent until after serious work had begun The project manager must remember that one of her most important contributions is reminding people to keep their eyes fixed on the ultimate prize, in effect, continually reminding them what is important The new leader generates and sustains trust The research previously cited by Kouzes and Posner demonstrates a powerful message: The most important characteristic each of us looks for in leaders is honesty 26 If the leader generates trust and behaves with authenticity, fairness, honesty, and caring, he will be successful in creating an environment in which the project team strives to their best Trust plays a critical role in developing productive leader-member relationships 27 It is only through recognizing and applying trustworthiness that we demonstrate the loyalty and commitment to our team as individuals that bring out their best The new leader and the led are intimate allies Earlier in this chapter we examined the concept of a partnership existing between the leader and followers This point is important and should be emphasized in effective leadership behaviors Project management leadership does not arise in order to control and dominate the project team, but as a natural method for supporting the team's efforts As we work to develop leadership abilities it is important to first recognize the reasons why leadership is necessary for project success and then the concrete steps we can begin taking in order to realize the vision of the project, something we can best when leaders work in close harmony with their teams 4.6 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONALISM At the beginning of 2003, the U.S Department of Energy kicked off an internal initiative to create a project management career path within its organization The launch follows similar moves by a variety of organizations, from firms as diverse as Ernst & Young (consulting) to NASA The Department of Energy's Bruce Carnes explains the reasoning for this move: Much of our work is accomplished through projects In fact, our project managers are currently responsible for over 100 projects with a total value in excess of $20 billion, plus another $150 billion in environmental restoration work over the next several decades It's important for us to make sure that our project managers have the best skills possible, and that each person is treated as a critical DoE asset Therefore, we need a cohesive career management plan to develop them, match their skills with assignments, track their performance, and reward them as appropriate.28 Embedded in this explanation are several important points that illustrate the growing professionalism of the project management discipline Let us consider them in turn: 29 First, for more and more organizations, project work is becoming the standard No longer simply additional, nonroutine components of organizational life, projects in many organizations are becoming the principal means by which they accomplish their goals As a result, with the increased recognition of the importance of using project management techniques is the concomitant need to acquire, train, and maintain a cadre of project management professionals who are dedicated to these work assignments Second, there is a critical need to upgrade the skills of those doing project work It would be a mistake to continually apply organizational resources, particularly human resources, to projects without ensuring that they are learning, developing their project skills, and approaching these tasks with a solid foundation of knowledge In short, one of the aspects of professionalism is to recognize that project management professionals are not an ad hoc feature of the organization, but a critical resource to be developed and maintained Therefore, it is important to support these individuals as a resource that requires continual training and skill development Third, project management professionalism recognizes the need to create a clear career path for those who serve as project managers and support personnel Historically, organizations "found" their project managers from among their line management staff and assigned them the responsibility to complete the project, always with the assumption that once the project was finished, they would return to their normal functional duties In short, project management was a temporary assignment that, once completed, returned the manager to "real" duties In the new professionalism model, project management personnel view project work as a permanent career assignment, moving from project to project, but always dedicated to this career path More and more, we are witnessing companies that now officially distinguish between their functional staff and their project management professionals, resisting the urge to move people back and forth from one assignment to the other 144 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager This mentality is typified by the experiences of NASA, particularly in the wake of the 1986 Challenger shuttle disaster Following the lessons learned from that terrible event, NASA determined that there was a permanent need for a dedicated and embedded professional project management group within the organization Ed Hoffman, who serves as the director of NASA's Academy of Program and Project Leadership, makes this point: "The NASA mind-set sees the project approach as the only way to business We are constantly charged with meeting cost and timeline challenges that require the cooperation of a variety of disciplines Frankly, our folks would be confused by a functional approach." 3° What are the practical steps that organizations can take to begin developing a core of project management professionals? Some of the suggested strategies include the following: Research suggests that certain personality types may be more accepting of project work than others 31 For example, outgoing, people-oriented individuals are felt to have a better likelihood of performing well on projects than quieter, more introverted people Likewise, people with a greater capacity for working in an unstructured and dynamic setting are more attuned to project work than those who require structure and formal work rules As a starting point, it may be useful to conduct some basic personality assessment of potential project resources to assess their psychological receptiveness to the work • Formalize the organization's commitment to project work with training programs There is little doubt that organizational members can recognize a firm's commitment to projects by their willingness to support the training and development of personnel in these skills Several elements are necessary for training to be effective, however First, a corporate-wide audit should be conducted to determine what critical skills are necessary for running projects Second, the audit should determine the degree to which organizational members possess those skills Third, where there are clear differences between the skill set needed and the skills available, project management training should first be targeted to reduce these gaps; in effect, to bring project management training into alignment with project management needs • Begin to match personalities to project work • Develop a reward system for project management that differentiates it from normal functional reward schedules The types of rewards, whether promotions, bonuses, or other forms of recognition, available to project management personnel need to reflect the differences in the types of jobs they compared to the work done by regular members of the organization For example, in many project companies, performance bonuses for project team members are common; for their functional personnel, they are not available Likewise, raises or promotions in project firms are often based directly on the results of projects the team members have worked on Thus, in the same organization, some members may be promoted due to the amount of time they have been at one managerial level while their project professional counterparts are promoted solely due to their accumulated performance on multiple projects • Identify a distinct career path for project professionals One rather cynical project manager once noted to me that, "In our organization there are two career ladders Unfortunately, only one of them has rungs!" His point was that excellent performance on projects did not earn these individuals any rewards, particularly in terms of promotions In his firm, "projects were a place where mediocre managers went to die." Contrast this example with that of Bechtel Corporation, in which project management is viewed as a critical resource, project management personnel are carefully evaluated, and superior performance is rewarded Most particularly, the company has a dual-track career path that allows successful project managers the same opportunities to move upward in Bechtel as other functional managers Project professionalism recognizes that the enhanced interest in project management as a discipline has led to the need to create a resource pool of trained individuals for the organization to use In short, we are seeing an example of supply and demand at work As more and more organizations begin to apply project techniques in their operations, they will increase the need for sufficient, trained individuals to perform these tasks One of the best sources of expertise in project management comes from inside these organizations, provided they take the necessary steps to nurture and foster an attitude of professionalism among their project management staff This chapter began with the proposition that project management is a "leader intensive" undertaking; that is, that there are few activities within organizations today that depend more on the performance and commitment of a strong leader Through our understanding of the types of duties project managers must undertake, the characteristics of effective project leaders, the role of emotional intelligence in managing projects well, the concepts of project championing behavior, and the essence of the new project leadership, this chapter painted a picture of the diverse and challenging duties that project managers are expected to undertake as they pursue project success The challenge is significant and the payoffs enormous when we endeavor to develop our leadership skills to their highest potential Summary 145 Summary Understand how project management is a "leader intensive" profession Project management is leader intensive because the project manager, as the leader, plays a central role in the development of the project The project manager is the conduit for information and communication flows, the principal planner and goal setter, the team developer, motivator, and conflict resolver, and so forth Without the commitment of an energetic project leader, it is very unlikely the project will be successfully completed Distinguish between the role of a manager and the characteristics of a leader The manager's role in an organization is characterized as one of positional authority Managers receive titles that give them the right to exercise control over the behavior of others, they focus more on the administration and organization of the project, and they seek efficiency and maintaining the status quo Leaders focus on interpersonal relationships, developing and inspiring others with their vision of the project and the future They embrace change, motivate others, communicate by word and deed, and focus on the effectiveness of outcomes and long-term risk-taking Understand the concept of emotional intelligence as it relates to how project managers lead Five dimensions of emotional intelligence relate to project leadership: (1) self-awareness one's understanding of strengths and weaknesses that provides perspective, (2) self-regulation—the ability to keep oneself under control by thinking before acting and suspending immediate judgment, (3) motivation—all successful leaders demonstrate first their own degree of motivation before they can inspire it in others, (4) empathy— the ability to recognize the differences in each subordinate and treat each team member in a way that is designed to gain the maximum commitment, and (5) social skill—friendliness with a purpose through moving people in a direction thought desirable Recognize traits that are strongly linked to effective project leadership A number of leadership traits are strongly linked to effective project leadership, including: (1) credibility or honesty, (2) problem-solving abilities, (3) tolerance for complexity and ambiguity, (4) flexibility in managing subordinates, (5) communication skills, (6) creativity, (7) decision-making abilities, (8) experience, (9) the ability to work well through the project team, and (10) strong influence skills Understand the implications of time orientation on project management Time orientation suggests that each of us has a preferred temporal orientation, either to past, present, or future perspectives This orientation makes some of the duties of project managers easier to pursue and others more difficult The better our understanding of our own temporal perspective, including its strengths and weaknesses, the more we are capable of recognizing the roles on the project that we are likely to perform well and those that need extra attention to get them done correctly Identify the key roles project champions play in project success Champions are those individuals within an organization who identify with a new project, using all the resources at their command to support it, even in the face of organizational resistance Champions are risk takers because they are willing to work persistently in the face of resistance or hostility to the idea from other members of the company Research strongly supports the contention that projects with an identifiable champion are more likely to be successful than those without Among the traditional roles that champions play are those of technical understanding, leadership, coordination and control, obtaining resources, and administration The nontraditional nature of the champion's behavior includes engaging in activities such as being a cheerleader, project visionary, politician, risk taker, and ambassador, all in support of the project Recognize the principles that typify the new project leadership Warren Bennis's idea of the new project leadership is strongly based on relationship management through creating and maintaining a mutual commitment with each member of the project team The four principles of the new project management include: (1) understanding and practicing the power of appreciation regarding each member of the project team, (2) continually reminding people of what is important through keeping focused on the "big picture," (3) generating and sustaining trust with each member of the project team, and (4) recognizing that the leader and the led are natural allies, not opponents Understand the development of project management professionalism in the discipline As project management has become increasingly popular, its success has led to the development of a core of professional project managers within many organizations Recognizing the law of supply and demand, we see that as the demand for project management expertise continues to grow, the supply must keep pace Professionalism recognizes the "institutionalization" of projects and project management within organizations, both public and private The proliferation of professional societies supporting project management is another indicator of the interest in the discipline 146 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager Key Terms Champions (p 139) Chunking time (p 137) Creative originator (p 139) Future orientation (p 137) Predicting (p 137) Godfather or sponsor (p 140) Present orientation (p 137) Professionalism (p 143) Self-regulation (p 135) Temporal alignment (p 137) Leadership (p 129) Motivation (p 132) Past orientation (p 137) Empathy (p 135) Entrepreneur (p 140) Time orientation (p 137) Time warping (p 137) Discussion Questions What are some key differences between leaders and managers? The chapter stressed the idea that project management is a "leaderintensive" undertaking Discuss in what sense this statement is true Discuss the concept of emotional intelligence as it relates to the duties of project managers Why are the five elements of emotional intelligence so critical to successful project management? Complete the accompanying Future Time Perspective scale After completing it, determine whether you have a future time perspective, present time perspective, or past time perspective What are the implications for the types of tasks you enjoy performing? How will your preferences lead to strengths and weaknesses in managing projects? Consider the studies on trait theories in leadership Of the characteristics that emerge as critical to effective leadership, which seem most critical for project managers? Why? Why are project champions said to be better equipped to handle the "nontraditional" aspects of leadership? Consider the discussion of the "new project leadership." If you were asked to formulate a principle that could be applied to project leadership, what would it be? Justify your answer What is the role of supply and demand in project management professionalism? Future Time Perspective Scale 32 Read each statement and decide the degree to which it is true for you For each statement, circle the number that best matches your feelings using the scale below Strongly Disagree (SD) Neither agree nor disagree (N) Disagree (D) Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) SD D N A SA I never feel as if time is standing still Living for the future is important in my life I always plan things ahead When I try to think of events that may happen in the future, I see a clear picture 5 When I think of my future, a sense of peace and tranquility comes over me Time is moving quickly 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 There aren't enough minutes in a day to list all that I hope to in the future The pace of my life is fast I see the future as being full of countless possibilities 10 I feel that I am facing my future with confidence Scoring for Future Time Perspective Scale Add the scores for each item and divide by 10 This will provide one measure of future time perspective After taking the test, put an X on the scale below to indicate the level of future time perspective Future Time Perspective: Low Medium High Source: Peg Thorns, "Driven by Time, Time Orientation and Leadership," p 25 Copyright (r.) 2004 New York: Praeger Reproduced with permission of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., Westport, CT Case Study 4.2 147 Case Study 4.1 In Search of Effective Project Managers Pureswing Golf, Inc manufactures and sells a full line of golf equipment, including clubs, golf balls, leisurewear, and ancillary equipment (bags, rain gear, towels, etc.) The company competes in a highly competitive and fast-paced industry against better known competitors, such as Nike, Taylor Made, Titleist, Ping, Calloway, and Cleveland Among the keys to success in this industry are the continuous introduction of new club models, innovative engineering and design, and speed to market As a smaller company trying to stay abreast of stronger competitors, Pureswing places great emphasis on the project management process in order to remain profitable At any time, the company will have more than 35 project teams developing new ideas across the entire product range Pureswing prefers to find promising engineers from within the organization and promote them to project manager It feels that these individuals, having learned the company's philosophy of competitive success, are best equipped to run new product introduction projects For years, Pureswing relied on volunteers to move into project management but lately it has realized that this ad hoc method for finding and encouraging project managers is not sufficient The failure rate for these project manager volunteers is over 40%, too high for a company of Pureswing's size With such steady turnover among the volunteers, successful managers have to pick up the slack—they often manage five or six projects simultaneously Top management is worried about burnout among these high-performing project managers and so it has decided that it must develop a coordinated program for finding new project managers, including creating a career path in project management within the organization Questions What qualities and personal characteristics support a higher likelihood of success as a project manager? What qualities and personal characteristics would make it difficult to be a successful project manager? Imagine you are a human resources professional at Pureswing who has been assigned to develop a program for recruiting new project managers Design a job description for the position Case Study 4.2 Finding the Emotional Intelligence to Be a Real Leader Recently, Kathy Smith, a project manager for a large industrial construction organization, was assigned to oversee a multi-million-dollar chemical plant construction project in Southeast Asia Kathy had earned this assignment after completing a number of smaller construction assignments in North America over the past three years This was her first overseas assignment and she was eager to make a good impression, particularly given the size and scope of the project Successfully completing this project would increase her visibility within the organization dramatically and earmark her as a candidate for upper management Kathy had good project management skills; in particular, she was organized and highly self-motivated Team members at her last two project assignments used to joke that just trying to keep up with her was a full-time job! Kathy wasted no time settling in to oversee the development of the chemical plant Operating under her normal work approach, Kathy routinely required her staff and the senior members of the project team to work long hours, ignoring weekend breaks if important milestones were coming up, and generally adopting a round-the-clock work approach for the project Unfortunately, in merely expecting her team, made up of local residents, to change their work habits to accommodate her expectations, Kathy completely misread these individuals They bitterly resented her overbearing style, unwillingness to consult them on key questions, and aloof nature Rather than directly confront her, however, team members began a campaign of passive resistance to her leadership They would purposely drag their feet on important assignments or cite insurmountable problems when none, in fact, existed Kathy's standard response was to push herself and her project team harder, barraging subordinates with increasingly urgent communications demanding faster performance To her bewilderment, nothing seemed to work (continued) 148 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager The project quickly became bogged down due to poor team performance and ended up costing the project organization large penalties for late delivery Kathy might have had many traits that worked in her favor, but she was seriously lacking in the ability to recognize the feelings and expectations of others and take them into consideration Questions Discuss how Kathy lacked sufficient emotional intelligence to be effective in her new project manager assignment Of the various elements of emotional intelligence, which element(s) did she appear to exhibit successfully? What evidence can you cite to support this contention? Case Study 4.3 Problems with John John James has worked at one of the world's largest aerospace firms for over 15 years He was hired into the division during the "Reagan years" when many people were being brought onto the payroll John had not completed his engineering degree, so he was hired as a drafter Most of the other people in his department being hired at the time had completed their degrees and therefore began careers as associate engineers Over the years, John has progressed through the ranks to the classification of engineer Figure 4.2 shows the salary grade classifications at this corporation Many of the employees that John was hired with advanced more rapidly because the corporation recognized their engineering degrees as prerequisites for advancement Years of service could be substituted, but it required a substantial amount of years to offset the lack of a degree John began exhibiting signs of dissatisfaction with the corporation in general several years ago He would openly vent his feelings against nearly everything the corporation was doing or trying to However, he did not complain about his specific situation The complaining became progressively worse John started to exhibit mood swings He would be extremely productive at times (though still complaining) and then swing into periods of near zero productivity During these times, John would openly surf the Internet for supplies for a new home repair project or for the most recent Dilbert comics His fellow employees were hesitant to point out to management when these episodes occurred Most of the team had been working together for the entire 15 years and had become close friends This is why these nonproductive episodes of John's were such a problem; no one on the team felt comfortable pointing the problem out to higher management As time progressed, John's friends evolved into his managers, while John remained at lower salary grades John's mood swings grew more dramatic and lasted longer During the most recent performance appraisal review process, John's manager (a friend of his) included a paragraph concerning his "lack of concentration at times." This was included because of numerous comments made by his peers This issue could no longer be swept under the rug John became irate at the review feedback He refused to acknowledge receipt of his performance appraisal His attitude toward his teammates became extremely negative He demanded to know who had spoken negatively about him, and his work output diminished to virtually nothing Vice President Director G 26 Engineering Manager Salaried Employees G 24 Senior Staff Engineer G 22 Staff Engineer G 20 Senior Engineer G 18 Engineer G 16 Associate Engineer G 14 Senior Drafter Employees G 12 Drafter G 10 Associate Drafter FIGURE 4.2 Salary Grade Classifications at This Corporation Small Salary Gap Large Salary Gap Case Study 4.3 Analysis of the Problem It was clear that John was not happy To understand why, the history of his employment at this company needs to be looked at in greater detail The group of coworkers that started together 15 years earlier all had similar backgrounds and capabilities A group of eight people were all about 22 years old and had just left college The only exception to this pattern was John He still had two years until he achieved his engineering degree All were single and making good money at their jobs The difference in salary levels between an associate engineer and a draftsman was quite small This group played softball together every Wednesday, fished together on the weekends, and hunted elk for a week every winter Lifelong bonds and friendships were formed One by one, the group started to get married and begin families They even took turns standing up for each other at the weddings The wives and the children all became great friends, and the fishing trips were replaced with family backyard barbecues Meanwhile, things at work were going great All of these friends and coworkers had very strong work ethics and above-average abilities They all liked their work and did not mind working extra hours This combination of effort and ability meant rewards and advancement for those involved However, John had not yet completed his degree as he had planned Due to this fact, his promotions were more difficult to achieve and did not occur as rapidly as those of his friends The differences in salary and responsibility started to expand at a rapid rate John started to become less satisfied This large corporation was structured as a functional organization All mechanical engineers reported to a functional department manager This manager was aware of the situation and convinced John to go back for his degree during the evenings Although John had good intentions, he never stayed with it long enough to complete his degree As John's friends advanced more quickly through the corporation, their cars and houses also became bigger and better John's wife pressured him to keep up with the others, and they also bought a bigger house This move meant that John was living above his means and his financial security was threatened Up until this point, John had justified in his mind that the corporation's policies and his functional manager were the source of all of his problems John would openly vent his anger about this manager Then a drastic change took place in the corporation The corporation switched over to a project team environment and eliminated the functional management This meant that John was now reporting directly to his friends Even though John now worked for his friends, company policy was still restrictive and the promotions did not come as fast as he hoped The team leader gave John frequent cash spot awards and recognition in an attempt to 149 motivate him John's ego would be soothed for a short time, but this did not address the real problem John wanted money, power, and respect, and he was not satisfied because those around him had more Although he was good at what he did, he was not great at it He did not appear to have the innate capability to develop into a leader through expert knowledge or personality traits Additionally, due to the lack of an engineering degree, he could not achieve power through time in grade By now, John's attitude had deteriorated to the point where it was disruptive to the team and something had to be done The team leader had to help John, but he also had to look after the health of the team This detailed history is relevant because it helps explain John's attitude slowly deteriorating over a period of time At the start of his career, John was able to feel on a par with his peers When everyone was young and basically equal, he knew that he had the respect of his friends and coworkers This allowed John to enjoy a sense of selfesteem As time passed and he gave up in his attempt at the college degree, he lost some of his self-esteem As the gap grew between his friends' positions in the company and his position in the company, he perceived that he lost the esteem of others Finally, when he became overextended with the larger home, even his basic security was threatened It is difficult to maintain a level of satisfaction in this situation This problem was now distracting the team and starting to diminish their efforts and results Because of the friendships, undue pressure was being placed on the team as they tried to protect John from the consequences of his recent actions The team leader had to try to resolve this problem The challenge is significant: The leader must attempt to satisfy the individual's needs, the group's needs, and the task needs When John's individual needs could not be met, the group atmosphere and task completion suffered It is now time for the team leader to act decisively and approach upper management with a solution to the problem Possible Courses of Action The team leader put a lot of thought into his options Because of the friendships and personal connections, he knew that he could not take this decision lightly He decided to talk individually to the team members who were John's close friends He would then determine the best solution to present to upper management After talking with the team members, the team leader decided on the following list of potential options: Do nothing Bypass company policy and promote John Talk John into going back to college Relocate John to a different project team Terminate John's employment (continued) 150 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager The option to nothing would be the easiest way out for the team leader, but this would not solve any problems This decision would be the equivalent of burying your head in the sand and hoping the problem would go away by itself Surprisingly, this was a common suggestion from the team members There appeared to be a hope that the problem could be overlooked, as it had been in the past, and John would just accept the situation With this option, the only person who would have to compromise was John The second option is to attempt to bypass company policy and promote John to a higher level This would be a very difficult sell to management John was recently promoted to a salary grade 18 (his friends were now 24s and 26s) This promotion was achieved through the concerted efforts of his friends and the team leader The chances of convincing management to approve another promotion so quickly were extremely low Further, if the team leader was successful at convincing management to promote John, what would the longterm benefits be? John would still not be at the same level as his friends and might not be satisfied for long Chances were good that this would only be a temporary fix to the problem After the shine wore off the promotion, John would again believe that his efforts exceeded his rewards It would be nice to believe that this solution would eliminate the problem, but history would seem to indicate otherwise The third option is to try to talk John into going back to college to finish his engineering degree This would be the best solution to the problem, but it is probably the least likely to occur If John could complete his degree, there would be no company policies that could obstruct his path He would then be competing on an even playing field This would allow him to justifiably receive his advancement and recapture his self-esteem If he did not receive the rewards that he felt he deserved, he would then have to look at his performance and improve on his weaknesses, not just fall back on the same old excuse This solution appears to put everything back on the path to job satisfaction The problem with this solution is that it has been tried unsuccessfully several times before Why would it be different this time? Should the corporation keep trying this approach knowing that failure will again lead to dissatisfaction and produce a severe negative effect on the team? This solution is the happy ending to the movie that everyone wants to see, but it does not have a very high probability of success The fourth option is to relocate John to a different team This would attempt to break the ties of competition that John feels with his friends and teammates If this option were followed, John could start with a clean slate with a completely different team This option would also allow John to save face with his friends He could tell them of his many accomplishments and the great job that he is doing, while complaining that his "new" boss is holding him back Although this could be considered "smoke and mirrors," it might allow John the opportunity to look at himself in a new light If he performs at his capabilities, he should be able to achieve the esteem of others and eventually his self-esteem The team would consider this a victory because it would allow everyone to maintain the social relationship while washing their hands of the professional problems The issue won't be resolved, but this option offers the opportunity to make it impersonal It should be clear, however, that this solution does nothing to resolve the true problem Although it does allow John to focus his dissatisfaction on someone other than his friends and gives him a fresh start to impress his new coworkers, who is to say that the problem will not simply resurface? The fifth option, termination of employment, is distasteful to all involved Nothing to this point indicates that he deserves an action this severe This option would sever the social relationships for all involved It would also have the effect of causing guilt for all of the remaining team members This would only cause the team output to deteriorate further This option would only be exercised if other options failed and the situation deteriorated to an unsafe condition for those involved Questions What specific leadership behaviors, mentioned in this chapter, are most relevant to addressing and resolving the problems with John? Consider each of the above options Develop an argument to defend your position for each option As the team leader, you have weighed the pros and cons of all options and prepared a presentation to management on how to address this problem What you suggest? Internet Exercises Go to the Web site www.debian.org/devel/leader and evaluate the role of the project leader in the Debian Project What is it about the duties and background of the project leader that lets us view him as this project's leader? Knut Yrvin functions as the team leader for an initiative to replace proprietary operating systems with Linux-based technology in schools in Norway (the project is named "Skolelinux") Read his interview at http://lwn.net/Articles/47510/ What clues you find in this interview regarding his view of the job of project leader and how he leads projects? Identify an individual you would call a business leader Search the Web for information on this individual What are some of Notes the pieces of information that cause you to consider this individual a leader? Project champions can dramatically improve the chances of project success, but they can also have some negative effects For example, projects championed by a well-known organizational member are very difficult to kill, even when they are failing badly Read the article posted at www.computerworld.com/ managementtopics/management/project/story/0,10801,78274,00 html on "Blind Faith." What does the article suggest are some of the pitfalls in excessive championing by highly placed members of an organization? PMP Certification Sample Questions The project manager spends a great deal of her time commu- nicating with project stakeholders Which of the following represent an example of a stakeholder group for her project? a Top management b Customers c Project team members d Functional group heads e All are project stakeholders Effective leadership involves all of the following, except: a Managing oneself through personal time management, stress management, and other activities b Managing team members through motivation, delegation, supervision, and team building c Maintaining tight control of all project resources and providing information to team members only as needed d Employing and utilizing project champions where they can benefit the project A project manager is meeting with his team for the first time and wants to create the right environment in which relationships develop positively Which of the following guidelines should he consider employing to create an effective partnership with his team? a The right to say no b Joint accountability 151 c Exchange of purpose d Absolute honesty e All are necessary to create a partnership Joan is very motivated to create a positive project experience for all her team members and is reflecting on some of the approaches she can take to employ leadership, as opposed to simply managing the process Which of the following is an example of a leadership practice she can use? a Focus on plans and budgets b Seek to maintain the status quo and promote order c Energize people to overcome obstacles and show personal initiative d Maintain a short-term timeframe and avoid unnecessary risks Frank has been learning about the effect of emotional in- telligence on his ability to lead his project effectively Which of the following is not an example of the kind of emotional intelligence that can help him perform better? a Self-awareness and self-regulation b Motivation c Social skills d Results orientation (work to get the job done) Answers: (1) e—Remember that stakeholders are defined as any group, either internal or external, that can affect the performance of the project (2) c—Leadership requires allowing workers to have flexibility, providing them with all relevant information, and communicating project status and other pertinent information (3) e—All of the above are necessary characteristics in promoting partnership between the project manager and the team (4) c—Energizing people to overcome obstacles is a critical component of leadership, as opposed to a philosophy of management (5) d—While a results orientation can be a useful element in a project leader's skill set, it is not an example of emotional intelligence, which is often manifested through relationship building with others NOTES Interviews of J K Solheim, Peter Samuels, and Dan Shoenhair, PING Golf, Phoenix, AZ, 2007 Kim, W C and Mauborgne, R A (1992), "Parables of leadership," Harvard Business Review, July–August, p 123 Posner, B Z (1987), "What it takes to be a good project manager," Project Management Journal, 18(1), 51-54; Pinto, J K., Thorns, P., Trailer, J., Palmer, T., and Govekar, M (1998), Project Leadership: From Theory to Practice Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute; Slevin, D P and Pinto, J K (1988), "Leadership, motivation, and the project manager," in The Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., D I Cleland and W R King (Eds.) New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 739-70; Geoghegan, L and Dulewicz, V (2008), "Do project managers' competencies contribute to project success?" Project Management Journal, 39(4), 58-67 Pinto, J K and Kharbanda, R (1997), Successful Project Managers New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Block, P (1993), Stewardship: Choosing Service over SelfInterest San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers DuBrin, A J (2000), Leadership: Research Findings, Practice and Skills Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin; Kotter, J P (1990), A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management New York: Free Press; Lussier, R N and Achua, C F (2001), Leadership: Theory, Application, Skill Building Cincinnati, OH: South-Western Verma, V K (1996), Human Resource Skills for the Project Manager Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute Yukl, G (2002), Leadership in Organizations, 5th ed Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; Daft, R L (1999), Leadership Theory and Practice Orlando, FL: Harcourt; Kouzes, J M and Posner, B Z (1995), The Leadership Challenge San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Slevin, D P (1989), The Whole Manager New York: AMACOM 10 Yukl, G (2002), ibid 152 Chapter • Leadership and the Project Manager 11 Zimmerer, T W and Yasin, M M (1998), "A leadership profile of American project managers," Project Management Journal, 29(1),31-38 12 Coleman, D (1998), "What makes a leader?" Harvard Business Review, 76(6), 92-102 13 Kouzes, J M and Posner, B Z (1995), ibid 14 Pettersen, N (1991), "What we know about the effective project manager?" International Journal of Project Management, 9, 99-104 See also: Javidan, M and Dastmachian, A (1993), "Assessing senior executives: The impact of context on their roles," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 29, 328-42; DiMarco, N., Goodson, J R., and Houser, H F (1989), "Situational leadership in the project/matrix environment," Project Management Journal, 20(1), 11-18; Muller, R and Turner, J R (2007), "Matching the project manager's leadership style to project type," International Journal of Project Management, 25,21-32; Turner, J R and Muller, R (2005), "The project manager's leadership style as a success factor on projects; A literature review," Project Management Journal, 36(2), 49-61 15 Einsiedel, A A ( 1987), "Profile of effective project managers," Project Management Journal, 18(5), 51-56 16 Medcof, J W., Hauschildt, J., and Kenn, G (2000), "Realistic criteria for project manager selection and development," Project Management Journal, 31(3), 23-32 17 Thorns, P and Pinto, J K ( 1999), "Project leadership: A question of timing," Project Management Journal, 30(1), 19-26 See also: Das, T K (1986), The Subjective Side of Strategy Making: Future Orientations and Perceptions of Executives New York: Praeger; Das, T K (1991), "Time: The hidden dimension in strategic planning," Long Range Planning, 24, 49-57; Thorns, P and Greenberger, D B (1995), "The relationship between leadership and time orientation," Journal of Management Inquiry, 4,272-92 18 Schon, D A (1967), Technology and Change New York: Delacorte; Maidique, M A (1980), "Entrepreneurs, champions, and technological innovation," Sloan Management Review, 21, Winter, 59-76 19 Peters, T A (1985 ), "A passion for excellence," Fortune, May 13 20 Meredith, J A (1986 ), "Strategic planning for factory automation by the championing process," IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, EM-33(4), 229-32; Pinto, J K and Slevin, 1) P (1988), `The project champion: Key to implementation success," Project Management Journal, 20(4), 15-20; Bryde, D (2008), "Perceptions of the impact of project sponsorship practices on project success," International Journal of Project Management, 26, 800-809; Wright, J N (1997), "Time and budget: the twin imperatives of a project sponsor," International Journal of Project Management, 15,181-186 21 Onsrud, H J and Pinto, J K ( 1993), "Evaluating correlates of GIS adoption success and the decision process of GIS acquisition," Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association, 5,18-39 Chakraharti, A K (1974), "The role of champion in product innovation," California Management Review, XV 11(2), 58-62 23 Royer, I (2003), "Why bad projects are so hard to kill," Harvard Business Review, 81(2),48-56; Pinto, J K and Slevin, D P (1988), ibid 24 Thamhain, H J (1991), "Developing project management skills," Project Management Journal, 22(3), 39-44; Pressman, R (1998), "Fear of trying: The plight of rookie project managers," IEEE Software, January–February, 50-54 25 Bennis, W (2001 ), "The end of leadership: Exemplary leadership is impossible without full inclusion, initiatives, and cooperation of followers," Organizational Dynamics, 28 26 Kouzes, J M and Posner, B Z (1995), ibid 27 Hartman, F (2000), Don't Park Your Brain Outside Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute 28 Ayas, K (1996), "Professional project management: A shift towards learning and a knowledge creating structure," International Journal of Project Management, 14, 131-36; Statement of Bruce Carnes, (2002 ), Chief Financial Officer, United States Department of Energy, Before the Committee on Science—U.S House of Representatives on the FY 2003 Budget Request for the U.S Department of Energy, Feb 13; see also www.nap.edu/openbook/0309089093/html/82-91.htm 29 Ayas, K (1996), ibid 30 Hoffman, E J., Kinlaw, C S., and Kinlaw, D C (2002), "Developing superior project teams: A study of the characteristics of high performance in project teams," in I) P Slevin, D I Cleland, and J K Pinto (Eds.), The Frontiers of Project Management Research Newtown Square, PA: PM I, 237-47; Kezbom, D (1994), "Self-directed team and the changing role of the project manager." Proceedings of the Internet 12th Llarld Congress on Project Management, Oslo, 589-93 31 Wideman, R M and Shenhar, A J (2001 ), "Professional and personal development management: A practical approach to education and training," in J Knutson ( Ed.), Project Management for Business Professionals: A Com/who/sire Guide New York: Wiley, 353-83; Wideman, R M ( 1998), Project teamwork, personality profiles and the population at large: Do we have enough of the right kind of people? Presentation at the Project Management Institute's Annual Seminar/Symposium 32 Thorns, P (2004), Driven by the Future: Time Orientation in Leadership New York: Praeger [...]... the project manager's leadership style to project type," International Journal of Project Management, 25,21-32; Turner, J R and Muller, R (2005), "The project manager's leadership style as a success factor on projects; A literature review," Project Management Journal, 36(2), 49 -61 15 Einsiedel, A A ( 1987), "Profile of effective project managers," Project Management Journal, 18(5), 51-56 16 Medcof,... Engineering Management, EM-33 (4) , 229-32; Pinto, J K and Slevin, 1) P (1988), `The project champion: Key to implementation success," Project Management Journal, 20 (4) , 15-20; Bryde, D (2008), "Perceptions of the impact of project sponsorship practices on project success," International Journal of Project Management, 26, 800-809; Wright, J N (1997), "Time and budget: the twin imperatives of a project sponsor,"... (1987), "What it takes to be a good project manager," Project Management Journal, 18(1), 51- 54; Pinto, J K., Thorns, P., Trailer, J., Palmer, T., and Govekar, M (1998), Project Leadership: From Theory to Practice Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute; Slevin, D P and Pinto, J K (1988), "Leadership, motivation, and the project manager," in The Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed., D I Cleland... bad projects are so hard to kill," Harvard Business Review, 81(2) ,48 -56; Pinto, J K and Slevin, D P (1988), ibid 24 Thamhain, H J (1991), "Developing project management skills," Project Management Journal, 22(3), 39 -44 ; Pressman, R (1998), "Fear of trying: The plight of rookie project managers," IEEE Software, January–February, 50- 54 25 Bennis, W (2001 ), "The end of leadership: Exemplary leadership... are clear differences between the skill set needed and the skills available, project management training should first be targeted to reduce these gaps; in effect, to bring project management training into alignment with project management needs • Begin to match personalities to project work • Develop a reward system for project management that differentiates it from normal functional reward schedules... "Developing superior project teams: A study of the characteristics of high performance in project teams," in I) P Slevin, D I Cleland, and J K Pinto (Eds.), The Frontiers of Project Management Research Newtown Square, PA: PM I, 237 -47 ; Kezbom, D (19 94) , "Self-directed team and the changing role of the project manager." Proceedings of the Internet 12th Llarld Congress on Project Management, Oslo, 589-93... (2002), ibid 152 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager 11 Zimmerer, T W and Yasin, M M (1998), "A leadership profile of American project managers," Project Management Journal, 29(1),31-38 12 Coleman, D (1998), "What makes a leader?" Harvard Business Review, 76(6), 92-102 13 Kouzes, J M and Posner, B Z (1995), ibid 14 Pettersen, N (1991), "What do we know about the effective project manager?"... Project Management, 9, 99-1 04 See also: Javidan, M and Dastmachian, A (1993), "Assessing senior executives: The impact of context on their roles," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 29, 328 -42 ; DiMarco, N., Goodson, J R., and Houser, H F (1989), "Situational leadership in the project/ matrix environment," Project Management Journal, 20(1), 11-18; Muller, R and Turner, J R (2007), "Matching the project. .. types of duties project managers must undertake, the characteristics of effective project leaders, the role of emotional intelligence in managing projects well, the concepts of project championing behavior, and the essence of the new project leadership, this chapter painted a picture of the diverse and challenging duties that project managers are expected to undertake as they pursue project success... enormous when we endeavor to develop our leadership skills to their highest potential Summary 145 Summary 1 Understand how project management is a "leader intensive" profession Project management is leader intensive because the project manager, as the leader, plays a central role in the development of the project The project manager is the conduit for information and communication flows, the principal planner