LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page i Aptara Cell Biology and Histology Leslie P Gartner, PhD Professor of Anatomy (Retired) Department of Biomedical Sciences University of Maryland Dental School Baltimore, Maryland James L Hiatt, PhD Professor Emeritus Department of Biomedical Sciences University of Maryland Dental School Baltimore, Maryland Judy M Strum, PhD Professor (Retired) Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore, Maryland LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page ii Aptara Acquisitions Editor: Crystal Taylor Product Managers: Catherine Noonan and Stacey Sebring Vendor Manager: Alicia Jackson Designer: Holly McLaughlin Compositor: Aptara, Inc Copyright © 2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 351 West Camden Street Baltimore, MD 21201 Two Commerce Square, 2001 Market Street Philadelphia, PA 19103 All rights reserved This book is protected by copyright No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying, or utilized by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyright owner The publisher is not responsible (as a matter of product liability, negligence, or otherwise) for any injury resulting from any material contained herein This publication contains information relating to general principles of medical care that should not be construed as specific instructions for individual patients Manufacturers’ product information and package inserts should be reviewed for current information, including contraindications, dosages, and precautions Printed in the United States of America First Edition, 1988 Second Edition, 1993 Third Edition, 1998 Fourth Edition, 2003 Fifth Edition, 2007 Korean Translation, 2005, published by ShinHeung Medscience, Inc Spanish Translation, 2008, published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gartner, Leslie P., 1943Cell biology and histology / Leslie P Gartner, James L Hiatt, Judy M Strum — 6th ed p ; cm — (Board review series) Includes bibliographical references and index Summary: “BRS Cell Biology and Histology is an outline-format review for USMLE and course exams, with review questions at the end of each chapter and a comprehensive USMLE-format examination at the end of the book Each chapter also features a high-yield section on clinical correlations The book is concise and well illustrated, with line drawings and electron micrographs”—Provided by publisher ISBN 978-1-60831-321-1 (pbk : alk paper) Histology—Outlines, syllabi, etc Cytology—Outlines, syllabi, etc I Hiatt, James L., 1934- II Strum, Judy M (Judy May) III Title IV Series: Board review series [DNLM: Histological Techniques—Outlines Cytological Techniques—Outlines QS 18.2 G244c 2011] QM553.G37 2011 611Ј.018—dc22 2010018178 DISCLAIMER Care has been taken to confirm the accuracy of the information present and to describe generally accepted practices However, the authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for any consequences from application of the information in this book and make no warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the currency, completeness, or accuracy of the contents of the publication Application of this information in a particular situation remains the professional responsibility of the practitioner; the clinical treatments described and recommended may not be considered absolute and universal recommendations The authors, editors, and publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accordance with the current recommendations and practice at the time of publication However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any change in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new or infrequently employed drug Some drugs and medical devices presented in this publication have Food and Drug Administration (FDA) clearance for limited use in restricted research settings It is the responsibility of the health care provider to ascertain the FDA status of each drug or device planned for use in their clinical practice To purchase additional copies of this book, call our customer service department at (800) 638-3030 or fax orders to (301) 2232320 International customers should call (301) 223-2300 Visit Lippincott Williams & Wilkins on the Internet: http://www.lww.com Lippincott Williams & Wilkins customer service representatives are available from 8:30 am to 6:00 pm, EST LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page iii Aptara Preface We were very pleased with the reception of the fifth edition of this book, as well as with the many favorable comments we received from students who used it in preparation for the USMLE Step or as an outline and study guide for their histology and/or cell biology courses in professional schools or undergraduate colleges All of the chapters have been revised and updated to incorporate current information, and we have attempted to refine the content of the text to present material emphasized on National Board Examinations as succinctly as possible while still retaining the emphasis on the relationship between cell structure and function through the vehicle of cell and molecular biology A tremendous amount of material has been compressed into a concise but highly comprehensive presentation, using some new and revised illustrations The relevancy of cell biology and histology to clinical practice is illustrated by the presence of clinical considerations within each chapter as appropriate The greatest change that occurred in the evolution of this book from its previous edition is that we have enhanced the art program by adding four color art to the figures, inserted four color summarizing photomicrographs, as well as numerous electron micrographs to illustrate the histological structures that we discuss in the various chapters As always, we welcome comments, suggestions, and constructive criticism of this book These may be addressed at LWW.com Leslie P Gartner, PhD James L Hiatt, PhD Judy M Strum, PhD iii LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page iv Aptara Acknowledgments We thank the following individuals for their help and support during the preparation of this book: Crystal Taylor, our acquisition editor; and Catherine Noonan and Stacey Sebring, our product managers, who helped us weave all of the loose ends into a seamless whole iv LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page v Aptara Contents Preface iii Acknowledgments iv PLASMA MEMBRANE I Overview—The Plasma Membrane (Plasmalemma; II III IV V Cell Membrane) Fluid Mosaic Model of the Plasma Membrane Plasma Membrane Transport Processes Cell-to-Cell Communication Plasmalemma–Cytoskeleton Association Review Test 11 Answers and Explanations 13 NUCLEUS I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI 14 Overview—The Nucleus 14 Nuclear Envelope 14 Nucleolus 16 Nucleoplasm 17 Chromatin 17 Chromosomes 18 DNA 19 RNA 20 Cell Cycle 23 Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) 26 Meiosis 26 Review Test 29 Answers and Explanations 31 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES 32 I Overview—The Cytoplasm 32 II Structural Components 32 III Interactions Among Organelles 45 Review Test 53 Answers and Explanations 55 v LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page vi Aptara vi Contents EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX I Overview—The Extracellular Matrix II Ground Substance 56 III Fibers 59 56 56 Review Test 64 Answers and Explanations 66 EPITHELIA AND GLANDS I II III IV V 67 Overview—Epithelia 67 Lateral Epithelial Surfaces 69 Basal Epithelial Surfaces 71 Apical Epithelial Surfaces 72 Glands 73 Review Test 76 Answers and Explanations 78 CONNECTIVE TISSUE I II III IV 79 Overview—Connective Tissue 79 Extracellular Matrix 79 Connective Tissue Cells 80 Classification of Connective Tissue 86 Review Test 89 Answers and Explanations 91 CARTILAGE AND BONE I Overview—Cartilage II Bone 95 III Joints 105 92 92 Review Test 106 Answers and Explanations 108 MUSCLE I II III IV V VI VII Overview—Muscle 109 Structure of Skeletal Muscle 109 Contraction of Skeletal Muscle 114 Innervation of Skeletal Muscle 116 Cardiac Muscle 117 Smooth Muscle 120 Contractile Nonmuscle Cells 122 Review Test 123 Answers and Explanations 125 109 LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page vii Aptara Contents NERVOUS SYSTEM I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI vii 126 Overview—Nervous System 126 Histogenesis of the Nervous System 126 Cells of Nervous System 127 Synapses 132 Nerve Fibers 134 Nerves 136 Ganglia 137 Histophysiology of Nervous System 138 Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 139 CNS 140 Degeneration and Regeneration of Nerve Tissue 141 Review Test 144 Answers and Explanations 146 10 BLOOD AND HEMOPOIESIS I II III IV V VI VII 148 Overview—Blood 148 Blood Constituents 148 Blood Coagulation 153 Bone Marrow 154 Prenatal Hemopoiesis 155 Postnatal Hemopoiesis 155 Hemopoietic Growth Factors (Colony-Stimulating Factors [CSFs]) 159 Review Test 160 Answers and Explanations 162 11 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 163 I Overview—Blood Vascular System 163 II Overview—Lymphatic Vascular System 173 Review Test 174 Answers and Explanations 176 12 LYMPHOID TISSUE I II III IV V VI Overview—The Lymphoid (Immune) System 178 Cells of the Immune System 179 Antigen Presentation and the Role of MHC Molecules 185 Immunoglobulins 186 Diffuse Lymphoid Tissue 187 Lymphoid Organs 188 Review Test 193 Answers and Explanations 195 178 LWBK615-FM_pi-x.qxd 05/31/2010 4:21 PM Page viii Aptara viii 13 Contents ENDOCRINE SYSTEM I II III IV V VI VII 196 Overview—The Endocrine System 196 Hormones 196 Overview—Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) 196 Overview—Thyroid Gland 201 Parathyroid Glands 206 Overview—Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands 207 Pineal Gland (Pineal Body, Epiphysis) 211 Review Test 212 Answers and Explanations 214 14 SKIN I II III IV V VI 215 Overview—The Skin 215 Epidermis 215 Dermis 220 Glands in the Skin 220 Hair Follicle and Arrector Pili Muscle 222 Nails 223 Review Test 225 Answers and Explanations 227 15 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 228 I Overview—The Respiratory System 228 II Conducting Portion of the Respiratory System 228 III Overview—Respiratory Portion of the Respiratory System 233 IV Lung Lobules 239 V Pulmonary Vascular Supply 239 VI Pulmonary Nerve Supply 240 Review Test 241 Answers and Explanations 243 16 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: ORAL CAVITY AND ALIMENTARY TRACT I II III IV Overview—The Digestive System 244 Oral Region 244 Divisions of the Alimentary Canal 248 Digestion and Absorption 257 Review Test 259 Answers and Explanations 261 244 LWBK615-exam[346-364].qxd 05/31/2010 11:07 AM Page 360 Aptara 360 BRS Cell Biology and Histology 43 A The pigmented epithelium (layer 1) was separated from the layer of rods and cones (layer 2), which make up the light-sensitive part of the neural retina (See Chapter 21 III E Clinical Consideration.) 44 C The extrinsic pathway is initiated by the release of tissue thromboplastin after trauma to extravascular tissue Platelet aggregation is promoted by von Willebrand factor, which is associated with the intrinsic pathway only Calcium is required in both pathways, and the final reaction—the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin—is the same in both (See Chapter 10 III D 1.) 45 D Eosinophils are increased in parasitic infections and allergic reactions Both eosinophils and basophils have receptors for immunoglobulin E, which seems to be important in the destruction of parasites Both neutrophils and monocytes lack immunoglobulin E receptors (See Table 10.2.) 46 D The inner ear is where sound waves are transduced into nerve impulses that convey auditory information to the brain, and the hair cells of the organ of Corti play a key role in this process Sound waves are initially received by the outer ear and transmitted via the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the middle ear, where ossicles transmit the vibrations to the inner ear The inner ear has an auditory system for hearing (the organ of Corti) and a vestibular system of semicircular ducts that control equilibrium and spatial orientation (See Chapter 21 IV C e 8.) 47 B Plasma fibronectin functions in wound healing, blood clotting, and phagocytosis of material from the blood (See Chapter II C 1.) 48 D Matrix fibronectin mediates cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix by binding to fibronectin receptors on the plasma membrane (See Chapter II C 1.) 49 E Chondronectin has binding sites for type II collagen, proteoglycans, and chondrocyte cell-surface receptors (See Chapter II C 5.) 50 D Plasma cells, which arise from antigen-activated B lymphocytes, produce antibodies and thus are directly responsible for humoral-mediated immunity (See Chapter III G.) 51 B Macrophages, the principal phagocytes of connective tissue, remove large particulate matter and assist in the immune response by acting as antigen-presenting cells (See Chapter III E.) 52 E Mast cells (and basophils) have receptors for immunoglobulin E antibodies on their surface These cells release histamine, heparin, leukotriene C (slow-reacting substance of anaphylaxis), and eosinophil chemotactic factor, which have effects that constitute immediate hypersensitivity reactions (See Chapter III D.) 53 C T lymphocytes initiate cell-mediated immune responses (See Chapter III F.) 54 A Pericytes are smaller than fibroblasts and are located along capillaries When necessary, they assume the pluripotential role of embryonic mesenchymal cells (See Chapter III B.) 55 E G proteins are membrane proteins that are linked to certain cell surface receptors Upon binding of a signaling molecule to the receptor, the G protein functions as a signal transducer by activating a secondary messenger system that leads to a cellular response (See Chapter IV B c.) 56 A Kϩ leak channels are ion channels that are responsible for establishing a potential difference across the plasma membrane (See Chapter III C 1.) 57 A The term “amphipathic” refers to molecules, such as phospholipids, that possess both hydrophobic (nonpolar) and hydrophilic (polar) properties The plasma membrane contains two phospholipid layers (leaflets) with the hydrophobic tails of the molecules projecting into the interior of the membrane and the hydrophilic heads facing outward (See Chapter II A 2.) LWBK615-exam[346-364].qxd 05/31/2010 11:07 AM Page 361 Aptara Comprehensive Examination 361 58 B The glycocalyx (cell coat) is associated with the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane It is composed primarily of proteoglycans, which possess polysaccharide side chains (See Chapter II C 1.) 59 C Membrane carrier proteins are highly folded transmembrane proteins that undergo reversible conformational alterations, resulting in transport of specific molecules across the membrane The Naϩ–Kϩ pump is a carrier protein that mediates antiport transport, the transport of two molecules concurrently in opposite directions (See Chapter II B 1.) 60 B T killer cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) have CD8 marker molecules on their surfaces (See Chapter 12 II B 3.) 61 A T helper cells have CD4 marker molecules on their surfaces (See Chapter 12 II B 3.) 62 E Perforin, which is released by cytotoxic T cells, mediates lysis of tumor cells and virusinfected cells (See Chapter 12 II B 3.) 63 C Interleukin 1, which is produced by macrophages, stimulates activated T helper cells In turn, activated T helper cells produce interleukin and other cytokines involved in the immune response (See Chapter 12 II E 2.) 64 B Interferon-␥ (macrophage-activating factor) stimulates activation of natural killer cells and macrophages, thereby increasing their cytotoxic and/or phagocytic activity (See Chapter 12 II D 3.) 65 B Primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division following deoxyribonucleic acid replication in the S phase The resulting secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division, without an intervening S phase, forming spermatids (See Chapter 20 II D b.) 66 E During spermiogenesis, the manchette is formed This temporary structure aids in elongation of the spermatid (See Chapter 20 II D c.) 67 D Interstitial cells of Leydig produce testosterone when they are stimulated by luteinizing hormone (See Chapter 20 II C 4.) 68 A Sertoli cells are columnar cells that extend from the basal lamina to the lumen of the seminiferous tubules Adjacent Sertoli cells form basal tight junctions, which are responsible for the blood-testis barrier, thus protecting the developing sperm cells from autoimmune reactions (See Chapter 20 II D 2.) 69 A Sertoli cells produce androgen-binding protein, which binds testosterone and maintains it at a high level in the seminiferous tubules (See Chapter 20 II D 2.) 70 B Smooth endoplasmic reticulum possesses mixed-function oxidases that detoxify phenobarbital and certain other drugs (See Chapter II 4.) 71 A The membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribophorins, receptors that bind the large ribosome subunit (See Chapter II A 3.) 72 E The lysosome is the organelle where the degradation of foreign material takes place in the cell The term “heterophagy” refers to the ingestion and degradation of foreign material, in contrast to autophagy, where parts of the cell itself are digested and degraded (See Chapter III C 2.) 73 C The inner membrane of the mitochondrion contains adenosine triphosphate synthase, a special enzyme consisting of a head portion and a transmembrane Hϩ carrier; as Hϩ passes through adenosine triphosphate synthase, the enzyme uses the energy of the proton flow to drive the production of adenosine triphosphate (See Chapter II A d.) 74 A Gastrin, a paracrine hormone secreted in the pylorus and duodenum, stimulates pepsinogen secretion by chief cells in the gastric glands (See Chapter 16 III B 2.) 75 C Urogastrone, produced by Brunner glands in the duodenum, inhibits gastric hydrochloric acid secretion and enhances division of epithelial cells (See Chapter 16 III C 4.) LWBK615-exam[346-364].qxd 05/31/2010 11:07 AM Page 362 Aptara 362 BRS Cell Biology and Histology 76 E Lysozyme, manufactured by Paneth cells in the crypts of Lieberkühn, is an enzyme that has antibacterial activity (See Chapter 16 III C b (3) a) 77 C Motilin, a paracrine hormone secreted by cells in the small intestine, increases gut motility by stimulating smooth muscle contraction (See Table 16.2.) 78 B Somatostatin, produced by enteroendocrine cells in the pylorus and duodenum, inhibits secretion by nearby enteroendocrine cells (See Table 16.2.) 79 A Lysine and hydroxylysine residues within and between tropocollagen molecules form cross-links with each other or with other lysines or hydroxylysines These covalent links add great tensile strength to the newly formed fibril (See Chapter III A 1.) 80 A Lysine cross-links elastin molecules, forming a network Fibrillin is the glycoprotein that organizes elastin into fibers (See Chapter III B 1.) 81 A Simple goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid gland resulting from inadequate dietary iodine (less than 10 g/d) It is common where the food supply is low in iodine (See Chapter 13 IV D Clinical Considerations.) 82 D Addison disease is most commonly caused by an autoimmunity that destroys the adrenal cortex As a result, inadequate amounts of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids are produced Unless these are replaced by steroid therapy, the disease is fatal (See Chapter 13 VI A Clinical Considerations.) 83 B The globular head of the myosin molecule has adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) activity, but interaction with actin is required for the non–covalently bound reaction products adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and Pi to be released This ATPase activity is retained by the S1 fragment resulting from digestion of myosin with proteases (See Chapter II F 2.) 84 C Myoglobin, a sarcoplasmic protein, like hemoglobin, can bind and store oxygen The myoglobin content of red (slow) muscle fibers is higher than that of white (fast) muscle fibers (See Chapter II B 2.) 85 A Troponin C is one of the three subunits of troponin that along with tropomyosin binds to actin (thin) filaments in skeletal muscle Binding of Ca2ϩ by troponin C results in unmasking of the myosin-binding sites on thin filaments (See Chapter II F 2.) 86 C Malignant melanoma, a relatively rare form of skin cancer, arises from melanocytes It is aggressive and invasive Surgery and chemotherapy usually are necessary for successful treatment of this cancer (See Chapter 14 II B Clinical Considerations.) 87 A Epidermolysis bullosa is a group of hereditary skin diseases characterized by the separation of the layers in skin with consequent blister formation (See Chapter 14 II D Clinical Considerations.) 88 B The nasopharynx is the site of the pharyngeal tonsil; when enlarged and infected, this tonsil is known as an adenoid (See Chapter 15 II B.) 89 A The trachea and extrapulmonary (primary) bronchi have walls supported by C-shaped hyaline cartilages (C-rings), whose open ends face posteriorly (See Chapter 15 II D.) 90 D The alveolar duct has alveoli with openings that are rimmed by sphincters of smooth muscle Alveoli more distal than these have only elastic and reticular fibers in their walls (See Chapter 15 III B.) 91 C Terminal bronchioles are lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium containing ciliated cells and Clara cells Clara cells can divide and regenerate both cell types (See Chapter 15 II F 2.) 92 C An ectopic tubal pregnancy occurs when the embryo implants in the wall of the oviduct (rather than in the uterus) Because the oviduct cannot support the developing embryo, the duct eventually bursts, causing hemorrhaging into the peritoneal cavity (See Chapter 19 VI B Clinical Considerations) LWBK615-exam[346-364].qxd 05/31/2010 11:07 AM Page 363 Aptara Comprehensive Examination 363 93 D Breast cancer that originates from the epithelium lining the terminal ductules of the mammary gland is classified as lobular carcinoma (See Chapter 19 X C Clinical Considerations) 94 B Abnormal cells associated with cervical cancer are revealed in a Papanicolaou smear, providing a simple method for the early detection of this cancer (See Chapter 19 V E Clinical Considerations) 95 A Endometriosis is a condition in which uterine endometrial tissue is located in the pelvic peritoneal cavity The misplaced endometrial tissue undergoes cyclic hormoneinduced changes, including menstrual breakdown and bleeding (See Chapter 19 IV A c Clinical Considerations) 96 E Gastric intrinsic factor, which is produced by parietal cells in the gastric glands, is necessary for absorption of vitamin B12 in the ileum (See Chapter 16 III B 2.) 97 B Disaccharidases in the glycocalyx of the striated border hydrolyze disaccharides to monosaccharides (See Chapter 16 IV A 2.) 98 A Digestion of proteins begins with the action of pepsin in the stomach, forming a mixture of polypeptides Activation of pepsinogen to pepsin only occurs at a low pH (See Chapter 16 IV B 1.) 99 D After free fatty acids and monoglycerides in micelles enter the surface absorptive cells of the small intestine, they are reesterified to form triglycerides These are complexed with proteins, forming chylomicrons, which are released from the lateral cell membrane and enter lacteals in the lamina propria (See Chapter 16 IV C 2.) 100 E Parietal cells are responsible for establishing the low pH of the stomach by manufacturing hydrochloric acid Another function of parietal cells is the synthesis and release of gastric intrinsic factor, necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the ileum (See Chapter 16 III B a.) LWBK615-exam[346-364].qxd 05/31/2010 11:07 AM Page 364 Aptara LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 365 Aptara Index Note: Page numbers followed by f denote figure; those followed by t denote table A Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 127, 183 Acromegaly, 105 Acrosomal reaction, 315 Actin filaments, 44 Active transport, ATP-binding cassette transporters, glucose transport, Naϩ–Kϩ pump, 5–6 Adaptive immune system, 178 Addison disease, 208 Adenocarcinomas, 75 Adenoid, 230 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase, 34 Adipose cells, 80 multilocular adipose cells, 82 unilocular adipose cells, 81 Adipose tissue, 87 brown adipose tissue, 88 white adipose tissue, 87 Adipose tumors, 88 ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF), 39 Adrenal glands, 207 adrenal cortex, 207, 208f zona fasciculata, 208, 209f, 210f zona glomerulosa, 208 zona reticularis, 208 adrenal medulla, 209 catecholamine release, 209 chromaffin cells, 209 sympathetic ganglion cells, 209 blood supply to, 210 cortical blood supply, 210 medullary blood supply, 210 cells and hormones, 207t Adrenoleukodystrophy, 42 Age pigment, 43 Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), 334–335 Alzheimer disease, 131 Amyloid -derived diffusible ligands (ADDLs), 266 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), 117 Anabolic steroid use, 112 Anaphylactic shock, 84–85 Androgen-binding protein (ABP), 313, 317 Anencephaly, 127 Aneuploidy, 28 Aneurysm, 168 Angiotensin I, 172 Angiotensin II, 173 Angular cheilitis, 245 Annexins, Annulate lamellae, 34 Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), 185 Anticodon, 20 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 173, 286, 287 Aorta, 164, 165f, 166f Aortic bodies, 172 Apoptosis, 26 Appendicitis, 257 Aquaporins, Areolar tissue, 86 Arginine vasotocin, 211 Arteriosclerosis, 167 Arthritis, 93 Asbestosis, 237 Asthma, 84, 232 Atherosclerosis, 45, 167 ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC-transporters), Atrial natriuretic peptide, 163 Autocrine hormones, Autoimmune diseases, Autophagic vacuoles, 42, 42f, 52 Autosomes, 19 B Bacterial flora of oral cavity, action of, 245 Band proteins, Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH), 321 Bile, 268–270 Bile ducts, 269 Bladder cancer, 20, 289 Blood and hemopoiesis, 148 blood coagulation, 153 bone marrow, 154–155 erythrocytes (red blood cells) general features of, 148–150 hematocrit, 150 hemoglobin (Hb), 150 transport of CO2 and O2 by, 150 hemopoietic growth factors, 158t, 159 leukocytes (white blood cells), 149f, 149t, 151 agranulocytes, 151–152, 152t granulocytes, 151, 151t plasma, 148 plasma proteins, 148 serum, 148 platelets (thrombocytes), 149f, 149t, 153, 153t postnatal hemopoiesis blood formation, initial steps in, 155–156 erythrocyte formation, 156 granulocyte formation, 156 lymphocyte formation, 159 monocyte formation, 156–157 platelet formation, 158–159 precursor cells, 155 progenitor cells, 155 stem cells, 155 prenatal hemopoiesis, 155 review test, 160–161 answers and explanations, 162 Blood-gas barrier, lung, 238–239 Blood vascular system, 163 See also Lymphatic vascular system arteries, 164, 166f arterioles, 167 elastic arteries, 164 metarterioles, 167 muscular arteries, 164, 167 sensory mechanisms in, 172 vasoconstriction, 167 vasodilation, 168 and veins, comparison of, 171, 172f wall, layers of, 164, 165t capillaries, 168, 169f blood flow to capillary beds, 170–171, 170f bypassing capillary bed, 171 capillary endothelial cells, 168 365 LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 366 Aptara 366 Index Blood vascular system (continued) continuous (somatic) capillaries, 168 fenestrated (visceral) capillaries, 168 metabolic functions of, 170 permeability of, 170 sinusoidal capillaries, 170 heart, 163 atrioventricular (AV) valves, 163–164 cardiac layers, 163 fibrous skeleton of, 163 impulse-generating and impulse-conducting system, 164 pericardium, 163 semilunar valves, 164 hormonal control of low blood pressure, 172–173 review test, 174–175 answers and explanations, 176–177 veins, 171 large veins, 171 small and medium-sized veins, 171 venules, 171 walls, layers of, 171, 171t B lymphocytes, 184 Bone, 95 cells osteoblasts, 96 osteoclasts, 96–98, 98f osteocytes, 96 osteoprogenitor cells, 96 classification of, 98 compact (dense) bone, 98 primary bone, 98 secondary bone, 99 spongy (cancellous) bone, 98 formation hormones role in, 105 vitamins role in, 104 fracture, repair of, 104 histogenesis of, 100 calcification of bones, 103 endochondral bone formation, 101–103 intramembranous bone formation, 100–101, 101f zones of epiphyseal plates, 103 organization of lamellae in haversian systems, 99 interstitial lamellae, 99 outer and inner circumferential lamellae, 100 remodeling, 103–104 review test, 106–107 answers and explanations, 108 structure bone matrix, 95–96 endosteum, 96 periosteum, 96 Bone morphogenic protein (BMP) family, 96 Bone repair, 104 Botox, 39, 221 Botulism, 117 Breast cancer, 307 Brown fat cells, 35 Brunner glands, 254 Bullous pemphigoid, 72 Burkitt lymphoma, 152 C Calcitonin, 105 Cancers, oral region, 245 Carbon monoxide poisoning, 239 Carcinoma of cervix, 303 Carcinomas, 75 Cardiac muscle cells, 117, 118t features of, 117–118 intercalated disks, 118–119, 119f structural components of, 118–120 Carotid body, 172 Carotid sinus, 172 Carrier proteins, Cartilage, 92 elastic cartilage, 95 fibrocartilage, 95 hyaline cartilage, 92–95 review test, 106–107 answers and explanations, 108 types of, 92, 93t, 94f Caspases, 26 Cataract, 331 Cell cycle, 23, 23f interphase, 23 control factors, 24 G1 phase, 24 G2 phase, 24 S phase, 24 mitosis, 24, 24f anaphase, 25 metaphase, 25 prometaphase, 25 prophase, 24–25 stages of, 25t telophase, 25 Centriole, ϩ configuration, 74f Centrosome function, 43–44 polymerization of tubulin, 43f structure, 43 Chemiosmotic coupling mechanism, mitochondria, 35, 35f Chloride shift, 150 Cholecystitis, 271 Cholera-induced diarrhea, 255 Cholera toxin, Chondroblasts, 92 Chondrocytes, 92 Chondroitin sulfate, 56 Chronic glaucoma, 330 Chylomicrons, 87 Chyme, 249 Cigarette smoking, and lung cancer, 231 Circulatory System See Blood vascular system; Lymphatic vascular system Clara cells, 232 Cleavage, 304 Coagulation disorders, 154 Coated vesicles caveolin-coated vesicles function, 39 structure, 39 clathrin-coated vesicles, 38f function, 39 structure, 38–39 coatomer-coated vesicles function, 39, 40f structure, 39 Codon, 19 Collagen, 59 fibers, 79 synthesis, 60, 61f extracellular events in, 60, 61f, 62f, 63f intracellular events in, 59–60 type IV collagen, synthesis of, 61–62 types, 60t Colorectal carcinoma, 256 Colostrum, 307 Common variable immunodeficiency, 184 Concentric contraction, 116 Conductive hearing loss, 338 Congenital immunodeficiency disorders, 178 Congenital malformations, 127 Congenital thymic aplasia See DiGeorge syndrome Conjunctiva, 335–336 Conjunctivitis, 336 Connective tissue classification of LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 367 Aptara Chapter Index connective tissue proper, 86–88 embryonic connective tissue, 86 specialized connective tissue, 88 extracellular matrix, 79 fibers, 79–80 ground substance, 79 fixed cells of adipose cells, 80–82 fibroblasts, 80 mast cells, 82–84 pericytes, 80 function, 79 origin of tissue cells, 81f review test, 89–90 answers and explanations, 91 structure, 79 transient cells of, 85 granulocytes, 85–86 lymphoid cells, 85 macrophages, 85 plasma cells, 85 Cornea, 329 Bowman membrane, 329 corneal endothelium, 329 corneal epithelium, 329 corneal stroma, 329 descemet membrane, 329 Cryptorchidism, 311 Crypts of Lieberkühn, 253 C-shaped hyaline cartilages, trachea, 230 Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), 24 Cystinuria, Cytoplasm, 32 cytoskeleton, 44 actin filaments (microfilaments), 44 intermediate filaments, 44, 45t microtubules, 44 inclusions, 43 centrosome, 43–44 glycogen, 43 lipid droplets, 43 lipofuscin, 43 interactions among organelles, 45 intracellular digestion, 51–52 protein synthesis, 46–51 uptake and release of material by cells, 45–46 organelles, 33f annulate lamellae, 34 coated vesicles, 38–39, 38f Golgi apparatus, 36–38, 36f, 37f lysosomes, 39–42 mitochondria, 34–36 peroxisomes, 42 plasma membrane, 32 ribosomes, 32 rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), 32–33, 33f, 34f smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), 34 review test, 53–54 answers and explanations, 53–54 structural components, 32 D Defective Gs proteins, Dense connective tissue, 86 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 14 structure of, 19 Desmin-related myopathy (DRM), 110 Diabetes insipidus, 201, 287 Diffuse axonal injury, 10 Diffuse lymphoid tissue, 187 Diffuse neuroendocrine system (DNES) cells, 196, 205, 219, 231, 250, 253 DiGeorge syndrome, 191 Digestive system, 244 alimentary canal, 248–249 esophagus, 249 histological features of, 248t hormones secreted by cells of, 251t immune system of, 254 large intestine, 254–257 small intestine, 251–254 stomach, 249–251 digestion and absorption carbohydrates, 257 fats, 257–258 proteins, 257 water and electrolytes, 258 function of, 244 oral region dental-supporting structures, 246 lips, 244 palate, 244–245 teeth, 245–246 tongue, 246–247 review test, 259–260 answers and explanations, 261 Diploid zygotes, 26 Down syndrome, 28 Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), 113 Dystrophin, 113 E Ectopic pregnancy, 304 Edema, 86, 173 Effector T cells, 181–182 Ehlers-Danlos type IV syndrome, 61 Elastic fibers, 62 Elastic tissue, 86 Elastin, 62 Emphysema, 238 Endocrine system, 196 adrenal glands (see Adrenal glands) function of, 196 glands of, 196 hormones, 196 lipid-soluble hormones, 196 water-soluble hormones, 196 parathyroid glands, 206, 206f chief cells, 206–207 oxyphil cells, 207 parathyroid hormone (PTH), 207 pineal gland, 211 neuroglial cells, 211 pinealocytes, 211 pituitary gland (see Pituitary gland) review test, 212–213 answers and explanations, 214 thyroid gland, 201–202, 202f follicular cells, 203, 204f parafollicular cells, 205, 205f thyroid follicles, 202–203, 203f thyroid hormones, physiological effects of, 205–206 Endocytic pathways used by cells, 47 Endocytosis, 45 phagocytosis, 46 pinocytosis, 45 receptor-mediated endocytosis, 45 Endometriosis, 302 Enteric nervous system, 249 Epidermolysis bullosa, 220 Epithelia, 67 apical epithelial surfaces, 72–73 cilia, 72–73, 73f microvilli, 72 stereocilia, 72 basal epithelial surfaces, 71–72 basal lamina, 71, 71f basal plasma membrane infoldings, 72 hemidesmosomes, 72 classification, 67, 68f, 68t 367 LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 368 Aptara 368 Index Epithelia (continued ) function, 67 glands, 73 classification, 75 structure, 73 lateral epithelial surfaces, 69–71 gap junction, 71 junctional complex, 69, 70f, 71 lateral interdigitations, 71 pseudostratified epithelia, 67, 69f review test, 76–77 answers and explanations, 78 structure, 67 Epithelial cell tumors, 75 Epitopes, 185, 186 Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), 152 Erythrocyte precursor cells, 156, 156t Estrogen, 299 Examination, comprehensive, 346–355 answers and explanations, 356–363 Exocrine glands, 75 Exocytosis, 46 Exons, 19 Extracellular matrix fibers collagen, 59–62 elastic fibers, 62 functions, 56 ground substance fibronectin receptors, 58–59, 59f glycoproteins, 57–58 glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), 56, 57t proteoglycans, 57 review test, 64–65 answers and explanations, 66 structure, 56, 57f Eye floaters, 332 Eyelids, 336 F Facilitated diffusion of ions, gated ion channels, ionophores, Kϩ leak channels, Factor VIII deficiency (hemophilia A), 154 Familial hypercholesterolemia, 45 Female reproductive system, 294 cervix, 303 fertilization and implantation, 303–304 mammary glands, 305 active, 306–307 nipple, 307 resting, 306 secretions of, 307 ovaries (see Ovaries) oviducts (fallopian tubes), 299 mucosa, 300, 300f muscularis, 300, 300f serosa, 300 placenta, 304 review test, 308–309 answers and explanations, 310 uterus (see Uterus) vagina, 305 vulva, 305 Fibers, connective tissue, 79 collagen fibers, 79 elastic fibers, 80 reticular fibers, 79–80 Fibrillin, 62, 63 Fibroblasts, 80 Fibronectin receptors, 58–59, 59f First-degree burns, 67 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 294, 298 G Gallstones, 271 Gap junctions, 71 Gated ion channels, ligand-gated channels, mechanically gated channels, voltage-gated channels, Gene, 19 Genome, 19 Glands of digestive system, 262 gallbladder, 270–271 liver, 266 blood and bile flow, 268–269, 269f function of, 266 hepatic functions, 270 hepatocytes, 269 liver lobules, 266, 267f, 268 pancreas, 263 digestive enzymes by, 264 exocrine pancreas, 264 exocrine pancreatic secretions, 264 islet cells, 264 islet hormones, 264 islets of Langerhans, 264, 265f, 265t pancreatic acinar cells, 264 pancreatic ducts, 264 review test, 272–273 answers and explanations, 274 salivary glands, 262 ducts, 263 function of, 262 saliva, 263 salivary gland acini, 262–263 structure of, 262–263 Glaucoma, 330 Glucosamine, 56 Gluten enteropathy, 255 Glycocalyx (cell coat), composition, function, Glycogen, 43 Glycogen storage diseases, 52 Glycolipids, plasma membrane, Glycoproteins, 57 chondronectin, 58 entactin, 58 fibronectin, 58 laminin, 58 osteonectin, 58 tenascin, 58 Goblet cells, 253 Goiter, 206 Golgi apparatus, 36f, 37f functions, 38 regions, 36 structure, 36 G protein–linked receptors, 8–9 heterotrimeric G proteins, 8, 8t, 9f monomeric G proteins, Granulocytes, 85 basophils, 86 eosinophils, 85 neutrophils, 85 Graves disease, 7, 203 Gynecomastia, 306 H Hay fever, 84 Hemorrhoids, 256 Hepatitis, 270 Hepatocytes, 269 Hereditary spherocytosis, 10 Herpetic stomatitis, 245 Heterophagy, 41f, 51 Hirschsprung disease, 127 Hodgkin disease, 184 LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 369 Aptara Chapter Index Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 299 Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS), 299 Human Genome Study, 19 Huntington chorea, 133 Hurler syndrome, 52 Hyaline cartilage, 92, 93t, 94f, 95f degeneration of, 93 effects of hormones and vitamins on, 93t histogenesis of, 93 appositional growth, 93 interstitial growth, 93 structure of chondroblasts, 92 chondrocytes, 92 matrix, 92 perichondrium, 92 Hyaline membrane disease, 236 Hyperhidrosis, 221 Hyperparathyroidism, 207 Hyperthermia, 317 I Immotile cilia syndrome, 73 Immunogens, 185 endogenous immunogens, 185–186 exogenous immunogens, 185 Immunoglobulins, 186 classes, 186 IgA, 186 IgD and IgE, 186 IgG, 186–187 IgM, 187 structure, 186 Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS), 236 Infectious mononucleosis, 152 Innate immune system, 178 Inner leaflet, plasma membrane, Insulin, 87 Insulinomas, 266 Integral proteins freeze-fracturing and, 4f plasma membrane, 1, Interchromatin granules, 17 Intermediate filaments, 44 classes of, 45t Internal ear, 337f, 338 auditory function of, 341 bony labyrinth, 338 membranous labyrinth, 338 cochlear duct, 339–341 endolymphatic duct, 339 endolymphatic sac, 339 saccule and utricle, 338–339 semicircular ducts, 339 vestibular function of, 341–342 Intracellular digestion lysosomal digestion, 41f, 51 autophagy, 52 crinophagy, 52 heterophagy, 51 nonlysosomal digestion, 51 Intracellular second messenger system, Introns, 19 Ion channel proteins, Ionophores, Ischemic heart disease, 167 Isometric contraction, 116 J Jaundice, 270 Joints diarthroses (synovial joints), 105 synarthroses, 105 Junctional complex, epithelia, 69, 70f desmosome, 69–71 369 intermediate junction, 69 tight junction, 69 K Kaposi sarcoma, 183 Karyotype, 19 Keloids, 220 Klinefelter syndrome, 28 L Lacrimal apparatus, 336–337 Lactating mammary glands, 306–307 Large intestine, 254 anal canal, 255–256 appendix, 256–257 cecum and colon, 255 function of, 254 rectum, 255 Larynx, 230 Lens, eye, 331, 331f Leptin, 87 and obesity, 88 Leukemias, 152 Ligand-gated ions channels, Lipid bilayer, plasma membrane, 2f fluidity of, 2–3 molecular structure cholesterol, glycolipids, phospholipids, Lipid rafts, Lipid-to-protein ratio, in plasma membranes, Lipofuscin, 43 Lipomas, 88 Lipoprotein lipase, 87 Liposarcomas, 88 Lou Gehrig disease See Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) Lung cancer, 231 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 298, 312 Luteinizing hormone–releasing hormone (LHRH), 298, 316 Lymphatic vascular system, 173 large lymphatic vessels, 173 lymphatic capillaries, 173 Lymph nodes, 188, 188f function, 188 structure, 188–189 Lymphocytes, 151, 152, 152t Lymphoid cells, 85 B lymphocytes (B cells), 85 natural killer cells (NK cells), 85 T lymphocytes (T cells), 85 Lymphoid (immune) system, 178 adaptive immune system, 178 antigen presentation and role of MHC molecules HLA restriction, 186 immunogens, 185–186 MHC, 185 B lymphocytes, 184 cells of, 179, 180f, 181f diffuse lymphoid tissue, 187 immunoglobulins, 186–187 innate immune system, 178 lymphoid organs lymph node, 188–189 spleen, 191–192 thymus, 189–190 tonsils, 192 macrophages, 185 NK cells, 184–185 review test, 193–194 answers and explanations, 195 T lymphocytes, 179 maturation of, 179–180 types and subtypes of, 180–183 LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 370 Aptara 370 Index Lymphoid nodules, 187 primary nodules, 187 secondary nodules, 187 Lysosomal storage diseases, 52 Lysosomes formation, 40 early endosomes, 40–41 late endosomes, 41 structure, 39–40 types, 41 autophagolysosomes, 42 multivesicular bodies, 41 phagolysosomes, 42 residual bodies, 42 M Macrophages, 46, 85 Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 179, 185 Malabsorption disorders, 255 Male reproductive system, 311 accessory genital glands bulbourethral glands, 321 prostate gland, 320–321, 320f seminal vesicles, 320 function of, 311 genital ducts ductuli efferentes, 318 ductus deferens, 319 ductus epididymis, 318–319 ejaculatory duct, 319 extratesticular ducts, 318–319 histology and functions of, 318t intratesticular ducts, 318 penis connective tissue and skin, 322 corpora cavernosa, 322 corpus spongiosum, 322 review test, 323–324 answers and explanations, 325 testes, 311, 312f interstitial cells of Leydig, 312 lobuli testes, 312 regulation of spermatogenesis, 316–317 seminiferous epithelium, 314f seminiferous tubules, 312 Sertoli cells, 312–313 spermatogenesis, 313–314 spermatogenic cells, 314–315 spermatozoon, 315–316 spermiogenesis, 315 testicular tunicae, 311 Marfan syndrome, 63 Mast cells, 82 activation and degranulation of, 84f mediators released by, 83t Matrix, hyaline cartilage, 92 Meiosis, 26, 27f equatorial division (meiosis II), 28 reductional division (meiosis I), 26 anaphase I, 27 metaphase I, 27 prophase I, 27 telophase I, 28 Melatonin, 211 Membrane proteins, plasma membrane functional characteristics of, integral proteins, peripheral proteins, Membrane receptors domains of, functions of, types of catalytic receptors, 7–8 channel-linked receptors, G protein–linked receptors, Membrane recycling, 46 Memory T cells, 180 Ménière disease, 342 Meningitis, 136–137 Menopause, 294 Mesenchymal tissue, 86 Messenger RNA (mRNA), 14, 20 Metaplasia, 75 Microbodies See Peroxisomes MicroRNAs (miRNAs), 23 Microtubules function, 44 structure, 44 Milk, mammary glands, 307 Mitochondria, 33f, 34f ATP synthesis, 35, 35f condensed, 35–36 enzymes and genetic apparatus elementary particles, 34–35 genetic apparatus, 35 Krebs cycle, enzymes of, 34 origin and proliferation, 35 structure, 34 Mitosis See Cell cycle Mixed nerves, 137 Motor nerves, 137 Mucosa alimentary canal, 248 appendix, 256–257 gallbladder, 270, 271f oral cavity, 244 respiratory system, 231 small intestine, 253–254 Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) See Diffuse lymphoid tissue Mucous tissue (Wharton jelly), 86 Multidrug-resistant proteins (MDR proteins), Multipass proteins See Transmembrane proteins Multiple sclerosis (MS), 135–136 Muscle, 109 cardiac muscle, 117–120 contractile nonmuscle cells, 122 review test, 123–124 answers and explanations, 125 skeletal muscle contraction of, 114–116 innervation of, 116–117 structure of, 109–114 smooth muscle, 120–122 Myasthenia gravis, 117 Myocardial infarct, 120 Myoepithelial cells, 122 Myofibroblasts, 122 Myofilaments, molecular organization of thick filaments C protein, 114 myomesin, 114 myosin II, 113–114 titin, 114 thin filaments, 113 F-actin, 113 nebulin, 113 tropomodulin, 113 tropomyosin, 113 troponin, 113 Myostatin, 112 N Naïve T cells, 180 Nephrons, 276 cortical nephrons, 276 distal convoluted tubule, 283–284 JG apparatus, 282–283 juxtamedullary nephrons, 276 loop of Henle, 281f, 282 proximal convoluted tubule, 280–282 LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 371 Aptara Chapter Index renal corpuscle, 276, 278f Bowman capsule, 276–277 podocytes, 277, 279 renal filtration barrier, 279f, 280 renal glomerulus, 279 Nephrotoxic acute tubular necrosis, 284 Nerve deafness, 341 Nervous system, 126 autonomic nervous system (ANS), 139 autonomic nerve chains, 139 parasympathetic system, 140 sympathetic system, 139–140 cells of neuroglial cells, 131–132 neurons, 127–130 central nervous system (CNS), 126, 140–141 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 141 meninges, 141 white matter and gray matter, 140–141 degeneration and regeneration of nerve tissue neuronal death, 141, 143 peripheral nerve regeneration, 142f transection of peripheral axons, 143 ganglia, 137 autonomic ganglia, 137 craniospinal ganglia, 138 histogenesis of, 126, 127f histophysiology of action potential, 138–139 axonal transport of materials, 139 resting membrane potential, 138 trophic function of nervous tissue, 139 nerve fibers, 134 internodes, 135 myelin sheath, 134, 135f nodes of Ranvier, 134–135 nerves, 136, 136f, 137f connective tissue investments, 136 functional classification of, 137 peripheral nervous system (PNS), 126 review test, 144–145 answers and explanations, 146–147 somatic nervous system, 139 synapses, 132–134 Neural crest cells, 126 Neural tube, 126 Neuroglial cells, 131 general characteristics of, 131 types of, 131f astrocytes, 131–132 ependymal cells, 132 microglial cells, 132 oligodendrocytes, 132 Schwann cells, 132 Neuroglial tumors, 127 Neurons, 127 functional classification of interneurons, 128 motor neurons, 128 sensory neurons, 128 morphologic classification of, 128f bipolar neurons, 128 multipolar neurons, 128 pseudounipolar neurons, 128 unipolar neurons, 127 structure of, 129f axons, 130 dendrites, 130 neuronal cell body, 129–130 Neurotransmitters, 133, 134, 134t Neutrophil precursor cells, 157t Nitric oxide, 150, 168 NK cells, 184–185 Nondisjunction of chromosomes, 28 Nonerythroid cells, cytoskeleton of, 9, 10f Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, 183 Nuclear basket, 16 Nuclear localization segments (NLS), 16 Nuclear pore complex (NPC) function of, 16 structure of, 16 cytoplasmic ring, 16 luminal ring, 16 nucleoplasmic ring, 16 transport mechanisms, 16 Nucleocytoplasmic shuttling (NS) signals, 16 Nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), 16 Nucleoplasmic reticulum, 17 Nucleoporins, 16 Nucleotides, 19 Nucleus, 14, 15f chromatin, 17–18 euchromatin, 18 heterochromatin, 18 chromosomes, 18f condensed chromatin, 19 extended chromatin, 19 G-banding, 19 genome, 19 karyotype, 19 structure of, 18–19 DNA, 19 function of, 14 nuclear envelope inner nuclear membrane, 14 nuclear pore complex (NPC), 15f, 16 nuclear pores, 16 outer nuclear membrane, 14 perinuclear cisterna, 14, 16 nucleolus, 16–17 nucleoplasm, 17 nuclear matrix, 17 nuclear particles, 17 review test, 29–30 answers and explanations, 31 RNA, 20–22 structure of, 14 O Obesity, 88 Olfactory cells, 230 Oncogenes, 20 Optic nerve, 328 Osteoarthritis, 93 Osteomalacia, 104 Osteopetrosis, 98 Osteoporosis, 105 Outer leaflet, plasma membrane, Ovarian carcinoid, 304 Ovaries, 294, 295f germinal epithelium, 294 hormonal regulation, 298, 299f dominant follicle, ovulation of, 299 fate of corpus luteum, 298–299 follicle maturation and ovulation, control of, 298 ovarian cortex, 294, 296f atretic follicles, 298 corpus albicans, 298 corpus hemorrhagicus, 297 corpus luteum, 297–298 graafian follicle, 297 growing follicles, 294, 296, 297 ovarian follicles, 294, 296t primordial follicles, 294, 296f ovarian medulla, 298 P Pancreatic cancer, 266 Paneth cells, 253 Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, 303 Paracrine glands, 75 371 LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 372 Aptara 372 Index Paracrine hormones, Parathyroid hormone, 105 Parkinson disease, 133 Passive transport, 5, 5f facilitated diffusion, simple diffusion, Peptidyl transferase, 32 Perichondrium, 92 Perichromatin granules, 17 Pericytes, 80 Peripheral proteins, plasma membrane, 1, 3–4 Pernicious anemia, 151 Peroxisomal diseases, 42 Peroxisomes function, 42 structure, 42 Pertussis toxin, Peyer patches, 253 Phenobarbital, 34 Pheochromocytoma, 209 Phospholipids, plasma membrane, Pituitary adenomas, 200 Pituitary gland, 196, 197f adenohypophysis, 198, 198f pars distalis, 198–200 pars intermedia, 200 pars tuberalis, 200 neurohypophysis, 201 hypothalamohypophyseal tract, 201 pars nervosa, 201 pituicytes, 201 pars distalis, regulation of, 201 pituitary hormones, physiological effects of, 200 vascularization of, 201 Pituitary growth hormone (somatotropin), 105 Plasma cells, 85 Plasma membrane, 1, 32 cell-to-cell communication membrane receptors, 7–9 signaling molecules, fluid mosaic model of, 1–4 glycocalyx (cell coat), lipid bilayer, 1–3 membrane proteins, 3–4 function of, plasmalemma–cytoskeleton association, nonerythroid cells, red blood cells, review test, 11–12 answers and explanations, 13 structure of, transport processes, 4–6 active transport, 5–6 facilitated diffusion of ions, passive transport, Polysome, 32 Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA), 17 Presbyopia, 331 Progesterone, 298 Prolactin, 304 Prostate gland, adenocarcinoma of, 321 Protein synthesis, 46, 48f cytosolic proteins, synthesis of, 51 membrane-packaged proteins, synthesis of, 46 posttranslational modification in RER, 49 protein processing in Golgi complex, 50f, 51 protein transport from RER to cis Golgi, 49–51 sorting of proteins in TGN, 50f, 51 translation of mRNAs, 46 transport of peptide into RER cisterna, 46, 49, 49f transmembrane proteins, synthesis of, 51 Proteoglycans, Proto-oncogenes, 20 Psoriasis, 218 Pupil, 330 Purkinje fibers, 120, 164 Pus, 85 R Receptor-mediated endocytosis, of ligand, 37f, 45 Red blood cell, cytoskeleton of, 9, 10f Red marrow, 154–155 Relaxin, 299 Respiratory system, 228 bronchial arteries and veins, 239 components of, 229t conducting portion of, 228 intrapulmonary bronchi, 231, 232f larynx, 230 nasal cavity, 228, 230 nasopharynx, 230 primary bronchioles, 232, 233f terminal bronchioles, 232 trachea and extrapulmonary bronchi, 230–231 lung lobules, 239 pulmonary artery, 239 pulmonary nerve supply, 240 pulmonary veins, 239 respiratory portion of, 233, 234f alveolar ducts, 233, 235f alveolar macrophages, 237 alveolar sacs, 233, 235f alveoli, 233, 236 blood-gas barrier in lung, 238 interalveolar septum, 238–239 respiratory bronchioles, 233, 235f type I pneumocytes, 236 type II pneumocytes, 236, 237f review test, 241–242 answers and explanations, 243 Reticular tissue, 86–87, 87f Retina, 332–333, 332f detachment of, 335 external limiting membrane, 335 ganglion cell layer, 335 inner limiting membrane, 335 inner nuclear layer, 335 inner plexiform layer, 335 optic nerve fiber layer, 335 outer nuclear layer, 335 outer plexiform layer, 335 photoreceptor layer, 334 cones, 333f, 334 rods, 333f, 334 retinal pigment epithelium, 333 Rheumatic heart valve disease, 164 Rheumatoid arthritis, 93 Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 20 mRNA, 20, 21f rRNA, 21, 22f tRNA, 20 Ribophorins, 33 Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), 14, 21, 22f Ribosomes, 14 composition, 33t function, 32 polyribosome, 32 structure, 32 Rickets, 104 Rigor mortis, 115 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), 33f, 34f function, 33 structure, 32–33 S Saliva, 263 Salivary calculus, 263 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), 34, 110 Scurvy, 60 Seminiferous tubules, 312, 313f Sertoli cells, 312–313 function of, 313 spermatogenic cells, 312 Sense receptors, special, 326 ear, 337, 337f LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 373 Aptara Chapter Index external ear, 337–338 internal ear, 338–342 middle ear, 338 eye, 328–329 accessory structures of, 335–337 anatomy of eyeball, 328f external anatomy of, 336f iris, 330 refractive media of, 330–332 retina, 332–335 tunica fibrosa, 329 tunica vasculosa, 329–330 function of, 326 review test, 343–344 answers and explanations, 345 specialized diffuse receptors, 326, 327f proprioceptive receptors, 328 temperature and pain receptors, 327 touch and pressure receptors, 326–327 Sensory nerves, 137 Serotonin, 211 Sex chromosomes, 19 Sickle cell anemia, 150–151 Signal hypothesis, 46, 49, 49f Signaling molecules example of, function of, hydrophilic, lipid-soluble, Sinoatrial (SA) node, 164 Sjögren syndrome, 263 Skeletal muscle, 111f contraction of, 114, 115f Huxley’s sliding-filament model, 114, 115f initiation and regulation of, 114 muscle cells of motor unit, 116 and relaxation, 115 innervation of, 116 Golgi tendon organ, 117 muscle spindles, 117 myoneural junctions, 116–117 structure of connective tissue investments, 109 cross-striations, 112–113 myofilaments, 113–114 red and white muscle fibers, characteristics of, 110t satellite cells, 110 skeletal muscle cells, 109–110, 111f, 112f types of skeletal muscle cells, 109 Skin, 215, 222f arrector pili muscle, 223, 223f cancers, 217 dermis, 220 dermal papillary layer, 220 dermal reticular layer, 220 epidermis, 215 Langerhans cells, 219 layers of, 215, 216f, 216t, 217 long melanosome-containing processes, 218–219 melanocytes, 218 Merkel cells, 219 nonkeratinocytes in, 218–219 stratum basale, 217 stratum corneum, 217, 218f stratum granulosum, 217 stratum lucidum, 217 stratum spinosum, 217 functions of, 215 glands in apocrine sweat glands, 221 eccrine sweat glands, 220–221, 221f sebaceous glands, 222 hair follicle, 222–223, 223f histological features of, 216t nails, 223–224 review test, 225–226 answers and explanations, 227 thick and thin skin, distinction between, 219 UV radiation and, 217 Small cell (oat cell) carcinoma, 231 Small intestine external layer of, 254 function of, 251 luminal surface of, 251 intestinal villi, 251, 252f, 253 microvilli, 253 plicae circulares, 251 mucosa of epithelium of, 253 lamina propria, 253–254 muscularis mucosae, 254 muscularis externa of, 254 regions of, 251 submucosa of, 254 Small nuclear RNPs (snRNPs), 17 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) function, 34 structure, 34 Smooth muscle, 118t cells, structure of cytoplasmic densities, 121 cytoplasmic organelles, 120–121 filaments, 121 gap junctions, 121 nucleus, 120 contraction of, 121–122 innervation of, 122 SNARES, 39 v-SNARES and t-SNARES interaction, 39 Spectrin, 4, 9, 10 Spermatogenesis, 313–314 meiosis, 313 regulation of, 316–317, 317f spermatocytogenesis, 313 spermiogenesis, 314 Spermatogenic cells, 314 spermatids, 315 spermatocytes, 315 spermatogonia, 314 Spermatozoon, 316f head of, 315 tail of, 315–316 Sperm count, normal, 319 Spina bifida, 127 Spleen function of, 191 marginal zone, 191, 191f, 192 red pulp of, 192 smooth capsule of human spleen, 191f vascularization of, 191–192 white pulp of, 192 Spontaneous pneumothorax, 236 Squamous cell carcinoma, 231 SRY gene, 303 Stomach, 249 gastric glands, 250 cardiac and pyloric glands, 251 fundic glands, cells of, 250–251 gastric juice, 251 gastric pits, 249, 249f gastric mucosa, 249–250 gastric muscularis externa, 250 gastric submucosa, 250 serosa, 250 gastric secretion, regulation of, 251 Struma ovarii, 304 Synapses, 132 classification on basis of method of signal transmission, 133 site of synaptic contact, 132 neurotransmitters, 134, 134t synaptic morphology, 133–134 373 LWBK615-IND[365-374].qxd 05/31/2010 4:25 PM Page 374 Aptara 374 Index Synapsin I, Synaptic ribbons, 211 T Taste sensation, 247 Tay-Sachs disease, 52 T-cell receptors (TCRs), 179 Teeth, 245 cementum, 246 crown formation, 246 dental pulp, 246 dental-supporting structures, 246 dentin, 246 enamel, 245 root formation, 246 Teratomas, 304 Testicular cancer, 316 Testosterone, 312, 317 Tetany, 207 Tetralogy of Fallot, 163 Thymus, 189, 189f thymic cortex, 189 blood–thymus barrier, 190 epithelial reticular cells, 190 thymocytes, 190 thymic medulla, 190 Toll-like receptors (TLRs), 178, 179t Tongue, 246 lingual papillae, 246 lingual tonsil, 247 muscular core of, 247 taste buds, 247 Tonsils, 192 lingual tonsil, 192, 247 palatine tonsils, 192 pharyngeal tonsil, 192, 230 Transfer RNA (tRNA), 14, 20 Transformed cells, 26 Transmembrane proteins, Tumor diagnosis, 44 Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), 26 Turner syndrome, 28 Type I diabetes mellitus (IDDM), 266 Type II diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), 266 U Urethra, 290 female urethra, 290 male urethra, 290 Urinary system, 275 excretory passages, 287–288, 289t ureter, 288 urethra, 290 urinary bladder, 288, 290f function of, 275 kidneys, 275, 276f renal cortex, 275 renal hilum, 275 renal interstitium, 276 renal lobe and lobule, 276 renal medulla, 275 renal pelvis, 275 renal blood circulation, 284, 285f arterial supply to kidney, 285–286 venous drainage of kidney, 286 review test, 291–292 answers and explanations, 293 urine concentration, regulation of, 286 collecting tubules, role of, 287 countercurrent exchange system, 287, 288f countercurrent multiplier system, 286–287, 286f effect of urea, 287 uriniferous tubules, 277t collecting tubules, 284 nephrons (see Nephrons) Uterus, 300 endometrium, 301, 301f layers of, 301 vascular supply of, 301 external covering, 302 menstrual cycle menstrual phase, 302 proliferative (follicular) phase, 302 secretory (luteal) phase, 302 myometrium, 302 uterine wall, 301 V Varicose veins, 171 Vasectomy, 321 Venoms, Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), 87 Vesicular–tubular clusters (VTC), 36 Vinca alkaloids, 26 Viral hepatitis A, 270 Viral hepatitis B, 270 Viral hepatitis C, 270 Vitamin B12, malabsorption of, 255 Vitamin K, role in clotting process, 151 Vocal cords, 230 von Willebrand disease, 154 W Warts, 224 Wound healing, 58 X Xenobiotics, X-linked agammaglobulinemia, 178 Y Yellow marrow, 154 Z Zellweger syndrome, 42 Zygote, 303 [...]... attachment of some cells (e.g., fibroblasts but not epithelial cells) to extracellular matrix components It binds antigens and enzymes to the cell surface It facilitates cell- cell recognition and interaction It protects cells from injury by preventing contact with inappropriate substances It assists T cells and antigen-presenting cells in aligning with each other in the proper fashion and aids in preventing... Nondividing cells G G00 Resting cells G1 RNA and protein synthesis G2 RNA and protein synthesis S DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis FIGURE 2.6 Stages of the cell cycle in dividing cells Differentiated cells that no longer divide have left the cycle, whereas resting cells in the G0 state may reenter the cycle and begin dividing again (Adapted with permission from Widnell CC, Pfenninger KH: Essential Cell Biology. .. growth and sexual development, and decreased responses to certain hormones V PLASMALEMMA–CYTOSKELETON ASSOCIATION The plasmalemma and cytoskeleton associate through integrins The extracellular domain of integrins binds to extracellular matrix components, and the intracellular domain binds to cytoskeletal components Integrins stabilize the plasmalemma and determine and maintain cell shape A Red blood cells... the cell and maintains its structural and functional integrity 2 It acts as a semipermeable membrane between the cytoplasm and the external environment 3 It permits the cell to recognize macromolecules and other cells as well as to be recognized by other cells 4 It participates in the transduction of extracellular signals into intracellular events 5 It assists in controlling interaction between cells... diagnosis and treatment of cancer IX CELL CYCLE (Figure 2.6) A The cell cycle varies in length in different types of cells but is repeated each time a cell divides It is composed of a series of events that prepare the cell to divide into two daughter cells 1 It is temporarily suspended in nondividing resting cells (e.g., peripheral lymphocytes), which are in the G0 state Such cells may reenter the cycle and. .. is permanently interrupted in differentiated cells that do not divide (e.g., cardiac muscle cells and neurons) B Two major periods, interphase (interval between cell divisions) and M phase (mitosis, the period of cell division) compose the cell cycle 1 Interphase is considerably longer than the M phase and is the period during which the cell doubles in size and DNA content is Telophase hase Anap se se... and to another protein, called talin, which, in turn, attaches to the integrin in the plasma membrane LWBK615-c01[01-13].qxd 05/31/2010 10:07 AM Page 10 Aptara 10 BRS Cell Biology and Histology Band 3 Actin oligomers A Ankyrin Spectrin Band 4.1 Integrin α β β α Plasma membrane Vinculin Talin α-Actinin B Actin FIGURE 1.7 Plasmalemma–cytoskeleton association in red blood cells (A) and nonerythroid cells... AM Page 24 Aptara 24 BRS Cell Biology and Histology a Interphase is divided into three separate phases (G1, S, and G2) during which specific cellular functions occur (1) G1 phase (gap one phase) lasts for hours to several days (a) Occurring after mitosis, it is the period during which the cell grows and proteins are synthesized, restoring the daughter cells to normal volume and size (b) Certain trigger... initiate and/ or induce progression through the cell cycle (1) During the G1 phase, cyclins D and E bind to their respective CDKs; these complexes enable the cell to enter and advance through the S phase (2) Cyclin A binds to its CDKs, thus enabling the cell to leave the S phase and enter the G2 phase as well as to manufacture cyclin B (3) Cyclin B binds to its CDK, inducing the cell to leave the G2 phase and. .. al.: Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3rd ed New York, Garland Publishing, 1994.) Luminal spoke ring Nuclear ring Nuclear basket Distal ring LWBK615-c02[14-31].qxd 05/31/2010 10:18 AM Page 16 Aptara 16 BRS Cell Biology and Histology 2 It is continuous with the cisterna of the RER 3 It is perforated by nuclear pores at various locations D Nuclear pores 1 Nuclear pores average 80 nm in diameter and number