An increasing number of global threats such as climate change, poverty, declining agricultural production, scarcity of water, fertilizer shortage and the resulting social and political unrest seem overwhelming. The urgency to address these threats creates an ever increasing demand for solutions that can be implemented now or at least in the near future. These solutions need to be widely implemented both locally by individuals and through large programmes in order to produce effects on a global scale. This is a daunting and urgent task that cannot be achieved by any single technology, but requires many different approaches
Biochar for Environmental Management Biochar for Environmental Management Science and Technology Edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph London • Sterling,VA First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2009 Copyright © Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, 2009 All rights reserved ISBN: 978-1-84407-658-1 Typeset by MapSet Ltd, Gateshead, UK Cover design by Susanne Harris For a full list of publications please contact: Earthscan Dunstan House 14a St Cross Street London, EC1N 8XA, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7841 1930 Fax: +44 (0)20 7242 1474 Email: earthinfo@earthscan.co.uk Web: www.earthscan.co.uk 22883 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling,VA 20166-2012, USA Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Biochar for environmental management : science and technology / edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-84407-658-1 (hardback) Charcoal Soil amendments Environmental management I Lehmann, Johannes, Dr II Joseph, Stephen, 1950TP331.B56 2009 631.4'22—dc22 2008040656 At Earthscan we strive to minimize our environmental impacts and carbon footprint through reducing waste, recycling and offsetting our CO2 emissions, including those created through publication of this book For more details of our environmental policy, see www.earthscan.co.uk This book was printed in the UK by MPG Books, an ISO 14001 accredited company.The paper used is FSC certified and the inks are vegetable based Contents List of figures, tables and boxes List of contributors Preface Foreword by Tim Flannery List of abbreviations Biochar for Environmental Management: An Introduction Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph What is biochar? Biochar terminology The origin of biochar management and research The big picture Adoption of biochar for environmental management Physical Properties of Biochar Adriana Downie, Alan Crosky and Paul Munroe Introduction Biochars: Old and new Relevance of extended literature Caution on comparing data Origin of biochar structure Influence of molecular structure on biochar morphology Loss of structural complexity during pyrolysis Industrial processes for altering the physical structure of biochar Soil surface areas and biochar Biochar nanoporosity Biochar macroporosity Particle-size distribution Biochar density Mechanical strength Future research Characteristics of Biochar: Microchemical Properties James E Amonette and Stephen Joseph Introduction and scope Formation and bulk composition Surface chemistry xi xix xxiii xxv xxvii 1 13 13 14 14 15 15 17 19 20 22 22 24 26 27 29 29 33 33 33 43 vi BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Characteristics of Biochar: Organo-chemical Properties Evelyn S Krull, Jeff A Baldock, Jan O Skjemstad and Ronald J Smernik Introduction Elemental ratios 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy Oulook Biochar: Nutrient Properties and Their Enhancement K Yin Chan and Zhihong Xu Introduction Nutrient properties of biochars and crop production responses Factors controlling nutrient properties of biochar Improving the nutrient value of biochars: Research opportunities and challenges Conclusions Characteristics of Biochar: Biological Properties Janice E.Thies and Matthias C Rillig Introduction Biochar as a habitat for soil microorganisms Biochar as a substrate for the soil biota Methodological issues Effects of biochar on the activity of the soil biota Diversity of organisms interacting with biochar Conclusions Developing a Biochar Classification and Test Methods Stephen Joseph, Cordner Peacocke, Johannes Lehmann and Paul Munroe Why we need a classification system? Existing definitions and classification systems for charcoal, activated carbon and coal Proposed classification system for biochar Biochar Production Technology Robert Brown Introduction History of charcoal-making Mechanisms of biochar production from biomass substrates Opportunities for advanced biochar production Biochar Systems Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph Introduction Motivation for biochar soil management Components of biochar systems Biochar systems Outlook 53 53 54 58 63 67 67 68 74 79 81 85 85 86 89 91 92 95 102 107 107 108 112 127 127 128 133 139 147 147 148 149 154 164 CONTENTS 10 11 12 13 14 Changes of Biochar in Soil Karen Hammes and Michael W I Schmidt Introduction Mechanisms of incorporation and movement of biochar in soil Physical changes of biochar in soil Chemical changes of biochar in soil Biotic changes of biochar in soil Conclusions Stability of Biochar in Soil Johannes Lehmann, Claudia Czimczik, David Laird and Saran Sohi Introduction Extent of biochar decay Biochar properties and decay Mechanisms of biochar decay Stabilization of biochar in soil Environmental conditions affecting biochar stability and decay A biochar stability framework Biochar Application to Soil Paul Blackwell, Glen Riethmuller and Mike Collins Introduction Purpose of biochar application Biochar properties and application methods Methods of application and incorporation: Specific examples Comparison of methods and outlook Biochar and Emissions of Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases from Soil Lukas Van Zwieten, Bhupinderpal Singh, Stephen Joseph, Stephen Kimber, Annette Cowie and K Yin Chan Introduction Evidence for reduced soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions using biochar Biological mechanisms for reduced GHG emissions following biochar application Abiotic mechanisms influencing GHG emissions using biochar Conclusions Biochar Effects on Soil Nutrient Transformations Thomas H DeLuca, M Derek MacKenzie and Michael J Gundale Introduction Nutrient content of biochar Potential mechanisms for how biochar modifies nutrient transformations Direct and indirect influences of biochar on soil nutrient transformations Conclusions vii 169 169 170 172 174 177 178 183 183 184 188 188 191 196 198 207 207 208 214 217 222 227 227 228 232 239 243 251 251 252 254 255 265 viii BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 15 Biochar Effects on Nutrient Leaching Julie Major, Christoph Steiner, Adriana Downie and Johannes Lehmann Introduction Evidence for relevant characteristics of biochar Magnitude and temporal dynamics of biochar effects on nutrient leaching Conclusions and research needs 16 17 18 19 Biochar and Sorption of Organic Compounds Ronald J Smernik Introduction Sorption properties of ‘pure’ biochars Influence of biochar on the sorption properties of soils Effects on sorption of adding biochar to soil Direct identification of organic molecules sorbed to biochar Conclusions and directions for future research Test Procedures for Determining the Quantity of Biochar within Soils David A C Manning and Elisa Lopez-Capel Introduction Biochar quantification methods Routine quantification of biochar in soils Conclusions Biochar, Greenhouse Gas Accounting and Emissions Trading John Gaunt and Annette Cowie The climate change context Greenhouse gas emissions trading How biochar contributes to climate change mitigation What mitigation benefits are tradable in a pyrolysis for biochar and bioenergy project? Greenhouse gas balance of example biochar systems Issues for emissions trading based on pyrolysis for bioenergy and biochar Conclusions Economics of Biochar Production, Utilization and Greenhouse Gas Offsets Bruce A McCarl, Cordner Peacocke, Ray Chrisman, Chih-Chun Kung and Ronald D Sands Introduction Pyrolysis and biochar Examination of a biomass to pyrolysis feedstock prospect Sensitivity analysis Omitted factors Conclusions 271 271 273 279 282 289 289 290 292 293 294 296 301 301 303 311 312 317 317 318 321 324 325 333 336 341 341 342 343 354 355 356 CONTENTS 20 21 22 Index Socio-economic Assessment and Implementation of Small-scale Biochar Projects Stephen Joseph Introduction Developing a methodology Model scenario of a hypothetical village-level biochar project Conclusions Taking Biochar to Market: Some Essential Concepts for Commercial Success Mark Glover Introduction Biochar’s positioning in the sustainability and climate change agendas The sustainability context for biomass generally Inherent characteristics of the biomass resource Lessons from the first-generation liquid biofuels sector Biochar commercialization framework Commercial factors and business modelling Policy to Address the Threat of Dangerous Climate Change: A Leading Role for Biochar Peter Read The tipping point threat Beyond emissions reductions Carbon removals The economics of biosphere C stock management (BCSM) and biochar A policy framework for carbon removals:The leaky bucket Food versus fuel and biochar Conclusions ix 359 359 360 365 371 375 375 377 378 379 380 381 388 393 393 394 395 396 398 400 401 405 402 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ment can hang from Article 3.3 of the UNFCCC, thus avoiding the need for timeconsuming consensus that afflicts the Kyoto process This framework involves bilateral, sectoral or regional agreements that commit energy-sector players in fuel-importing countries to invest in sustainable land-use improvements in prospective biofuel-exporting countries The latter will deploy biochar soil improvement widely and yield rising supplies of ‘good’ biofuels, as advanced by the Sustainable Biofuels Consensus Based on the comparative advantage of many landrich but otherwise impoverished countries, gains from trade will yield sustainable rural development and other objectives of the Millennium Development Goals Prospective exporting partners in bilateral or wider agreements will commit to objective standards of environmental sustainability that will be enforced on energy-sector players by conditions on their imports of biofuels and of bioenergy-based products that require them to be produced using ‘good’ technologies Making use of comparative advantage and gains from trade, this framework shifts from sharing the burden of emissions reduction that causes geopolitical conflict to sharing the mutual benefit of soil improvement of a biochar sequestration Pursued energetically, ‘C removals’ offer the prospect to escape from climatic catastrophe through the rapid uptake of biochar soil improvement and other C-storing activities The role of biochar in a climate change regime that is based on C removals could be very large, bringing worldwide benefits to soil quality and to the livelihoods of the people who live on the land But biochar is in direct competition with CO2 capture and sequestration and, with its many co-benefits, presents a complex picture that policy-makers and industry managers may find difficult to grasp Accordingly, it is critical to communicate the concept of biochar sequestration, clarifying where (and where not) it has a role, and developing cost estimates that take account of the prices of the various co-products, as well the costs of inputs, under different production systems With the primary objective of avoiding climatic catastrophe secured, the numerous other environmental and socio-economic benefits that accrue from biochar sequestration in soils can be realized However, from the perspective of the policy-maker, these benefits may be seen as a complication, involving many dimensions of social interaction, in contrast with the one-dimensional solution presented by BECS Accordingly, if the potential of biochar is to be realized, it requires research and clarification – quantification, where possible – of these benefits References ACIA (2005) Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Bettelheim, E (2008) ‘The UNFCCC in Bali: What does it mean for us?’, in Carbon and Communities in Tropical Woodlands: An International Interdisciplinary Conference, 16–18 June, 2008, University of Edinburgh School of Geosciences, Edinburgh, UK, pp86–87 Blanch, F., Schels, S., Soares, G., Haase, M and Hynes, D (2008) ‘Biofuels driving global oil supply growth’, Global Energy Weekly, June 2008, Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner and Smith, Inc Bot, A J., Nachtergaele, F O and Young, A (2000) Land Resource Potential and Constraints at Regional and Country Levels, Land and 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clearing and the biofuel carbon debt’, Science, vol 319, pp1235–1238 GRIP (1993) ‘Climate instability during the last interglacial period recorded in the GRIP ice core’, Nature, vol 364, pp203–207 Grubb, M.,Vrolijk, C and Brack, D (1999) The Kyoto Protocol, RIIA and Earthscan Publications Ltd, London, UK Hansen, J (2007) ‘Huge sea level rises are coming – unless we act now’, New Scientist, vol 2614, pp30–34 Haszeldine, R S (2006) ‘Deep geological CO2 storage: Principles, and prospecting for bioenergy disposal sites’, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, vol 11, pp369–393 Hearty, P J., Hollin, J.T., Neumann, A C., O’Leary, M J and McCulloch, M (2007) ‘Global sea-level fluctuations during the last interglaciation (MIS 5e)’, Quaternary Science Review, vol 26, pp2090–2112 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1996) Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change.The Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental 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Winjum, J K., Corvallis; O R., Brown, S and Schlamadinger, B (1998) ‘Forest harvests and wood products: Sources and sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide’, Forest Science, vol 44, pp272–284 Worldwatch Institute (2007) Biofuels for Transport, Earthscan, London, UK Index Note: Bold page numbers refer to figures; italic page numbers refer to tables abiotic decay 107, 176 Abrams, M D 73–74 absorption 292 acacia biochar 165 Acacia mangium bark biochar 69, 72 Accardi-Dey, A 292 acrolein 90 actinomycetes 25, 86 activated carbon 3, 14, 20, 24, 29, 48, 256 cellular structure of 16 classified 108, 109, 110, 116 and heavy metals 40 sorption of 290 WHC of 87 Adams,W A 234 additives/amendments 38, 172 ADE see Amazonian Dark Earths see also Terra Preta adsorption/adsorbents 14, 23, 24, 33, 108 in classification of biochars 108, 113–114, 290–291 isotherm 15 and soil biota 87, 90 see also WHC AEC (anion exchange capacity) 75 aeration 22, 25 Africa 5, 161–163, 170, 400 agglomeration 26 aggregation 85, 324 aging process 55 agrichar 2, 108 agriculture 2, machinery for 208, 215 productivity in sustainable agrochemicals see also fertilizers; pesticides agro-ecosystems air in soil 13, 22 alcohols 90, 134, 136 aldehydes 90, 136 alder biochar 24, 120 Alfisols 170 algae 25, 95 algorithms 23 aliphatics 43, 75, 139, 189–190, 242 alkali carbonates 38 alkaline metals 251, 262 alkanes 43 alkenes 43 alkyl C 61 alkyls 62 Almendros, G 59 almond shell biochar 29, 39 aluminium (Al) 39, 40, 73, 122, 194, 194, 195, 212, 262 AM (arbuscular micorrhizal) fungi 85, 86, 87, 99–101, 102, 183, 210, 212–213, 254 Amazon region 4, 208, 273, 279, 282 Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) 4, 86, 89, 92, 96, 178, 186, 279 see also Terra Preta amines 46, 121 ammonia volatization 259 ammonium carbonation process 80 Amonette, J 120 amorphous C 36, 37, 108, 109 amphoteric sites 47, 48 ancient/fossil biochar 14, 169, 171, 173, 174, 177–178, 184, 197 measurement problems with 184–186, 189 see also Terra Preta Anders, E 307 Anderson, A 107 anhydroglucose 74 anhydrosugars 35, 74, 136 anilines 48 animal feed 221 animal manures see livestock waste anions 116, 122, 261–262 Antal, M J 36, 117, 136, 138, 141 Anthrosol 193 Antonietti, M 38 application of biochar 207–222 carbon sequestration by 208, 214 climactic factors 212 comparison of methods 222, 222 and composts/manures/slurries 218–219, 222 deep banded 218, 219–220, 220, 222 density and 207, 214–215 dust fraction and 207, 215 field experiments in 209–211 fire hazard of 214, 215, 216 health risk of 207, 214, 216–217, 364, 365 land re-vegetation by 208, 214 methods of 214–222 and pollution/eutrophication 208, 213–214 profitability of 208–213 purpose of 208–214 top-dressing 219 topsoil mixing 217–218, 222 for trees 208, 220–221, 222 via animal feed 221 apricot stone biochar 30 aqueous phase sorption 48 Aragosa, D 260 archaea 95–97, 254, 255 aromatic compounds 1–2, 17, 18, 53, 61, 139, 171 and GHGs 242–243, 243 and microbes 90, 178 and nutrients 75 and sorption 48 aromatic rings 46, 58 Arora sample 92–93 arthropods 95 aryl C 54, 63, 174 aryl structures 59, 61 Asada,T 80 ash 1, 3, 15, 36, 38, 55, 90, 108 in classification systems 108, 109–110, 116, 117, 134 commercial use of 380, 387 406 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT and density 29 fusion/sintering 16, 19 and mechanical strength 30 in various biochars 39, 107, 257 and yield 137 Asia 5, 6, 212 ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) 110, 116 ATP (adenosine tri phosphate) 91 Australia 79, 170, 174, 185, 197–198, 384 biochar application in 211, 212, 221, 221 emissions trading in 319 safety standards in 216, 216 Australian Standard for Compost 110–111 autotrophic bacteria 254, 255 Avdeev,V I 242 Baclight fluorescent staining 96 bacteria 25, 85, 86, 87, 95–97, 188 autotrophic 254, 255 denitrifying 232 nitrifying 259 rhizobia 85, 96–97, 98 see also microbes bagasse biochar 39, 56, 69 Bagreev, A 46, 76, 119, 122 Baldock, J A 58, 59, 61, 186, 198 Ball,W P 291 bamboo biochar 72, 80, 87, 214 bananas 210, 212, 217 barbecue char 57 bark biochar 209, 210, 214, 221, 238 barley straw 57 basidiomycetes 177, 188 BCSM (biosphere C stock management) 395–398 bean crops 260 BECS (bioenergy with carbon storage) 397, 398, 402 beech biochar 24, 34 Beer,T 330 benzines 43, 305 Berglund, L.M 232–233, 237 Bernal, John D BEST Energies pyrolysis 26 BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller) surface area 16, 17, 20, 23 Bhupinderpal Singh 236–237 Biagini, E 19 biochar defined/terminology 1–3, 53, 108, 127 longevity of 7, 8, 113–114 management/research origins 3–5 biochar changes in soil 169–178 biochar cycle biochar production technology 127–143, 382, 384–385 advanced 139–143 biochar reference materials 14 biochar sequestration 8–9 biochar stability 169 biochar systems 147–166 case studies 154–165 components of 149–154 and cultivation practices 159–161 external factors for 154 household-/farm-scale 156–159, 161–164, 359–371 large-scale 155–156, 165, 341–356 subsistence-level 161–163 for sustainable agriculture 164 village-scale see village-scale systems bioenergy power plants 3, 5, 6, 7–8, 68, 153–154, 165–166, 342 commercial aspects of 379–380, 384–385 crops for 53 farm-scale 156–157 household scale 158–159 large-scale 155–156 location-/scale-specific 166 yields/costs 348–349, 349, 350 bioethanol plant 153–154 biofuels 380–381, 400–401 see also bioenergy Biolog Ecoplate 90 biological properties of biochar 85–102 analysis of, methodology 91–92 diversity of organisms 95–102 effect on soil biota 92–95 microorganisms in see microbes pore size factor 85 soil fauna 95, 101, 102, 190 substrate features of 89–90 biomass 1, 4, 8, 14, 15, 149–150 carbon stored in 332–333 chemical composition of 133–139 collection/processing of 151–153, 343–348 economic/GHG study see maize residue case study bio-oils 3, 35, 37, 41–45, 86, 89, 90, 115 and GHG emissions 324 production 141, 154 yields/costs 348–349, 349, 354 bioturbation 172–173 black carbon (BC) continuum 53 black carbon (black C) 3, 14, 54, 89, 171, 176 in quantification methods 301–312 Black Carbon Steering Committee 14 black locust wood biochar 175 blood and bone fertilizer 70 Boehm titration 46, 122 Bolivia 164 bone biochars 38, 39 Borlaug, Norman 5–6 Bornemann, L C 291 Bossio, D A 239 Boston Harbor pore waters 292 Bourke, J 37, 61, 242 BPCAs (benzine polycarboxylic acids) 305–306, 306, 312 Bradshaw, B 217 Braida,W J 291 Brame, J S S 110 Brazil 159–161, 210–211, 212, 400 Brennan, J K 45, 121 brick kilns 129–130, 130, 132, 165 Bridle,T R 71, 78 broccoli crop 331, 332, 334 Brodowski, S 176, 186, 198, 304, 305 broiler litter see chicken litter Brønsted acids 45, 121 Brown, R A 17, 19, 23 Bueno-López, A 241 bulk/apparent density 27–28, 114–115, 274 bulk surface area 13, 25 Burgoyne,T 260 burning burn-off 16, 20 butenolide 45 Byrne, C E 17, 29–30 13C solid state NMR spectroscopy see NMR cadmium (Cd) 80 calcium (Ca) 1, 39, 39, 40, 74, 77, 252 California Climate Action Registry 325 INDEX Calliandra callothyrsus biochar 231 Canada 185 canola biochar 331, 332, 401 carbocyclics 43 carbonates 69, 71 carbon (C) 1–2, 69 storage 1, 108 carbon cycle 8, carbon dioxide (CO2) 8–9, 14, 37, 183, 215 atmospheric levels of 317, 394–396, 395, 396 capture/storage (CCS) 396–398 and microbes 91 and mineral content 39 and pore collapse 20 carbon emissions carbonization 19, 36–38 carbon monoxide (CO) 35, 131, 342 carbon sequestration 2, 7, 8–9, 38, 80, 128, 147, 336, 380 and biochar application 208, 213, 214, 341, 342–343 and biochar decay 187 see also GHG carbon sinks 178, 184, 317, 396–397 carbon taxes 318 carbon trading 154, 318 carbonyl C 61 carbonyls 35, 45, 90 carboxyls 35, 45, 115, 121, 136, 173, 242, 305 carrot crop 209 Castaldi, S 260 catalysts 14, 16, 239 cations 13, 75, 77, 169 Cavigelli, M A 235 CBA (cost–benefit analysis) 343–353, 367–371 CCS (CO2 capture and storage) 396–398 CCX (Chicago Climate Exchange) 319 CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) 321, 335, 398–399 CEC (cation exchange capacity) 75, 116, 121–122, 176, 178, 208, 253 and nutrient leaching 273, 276, 281 cedar wood biochar 191 cell structure 19 cellulose 16, 35, 36, 55, 112 gasification of 137 primary/secondary reactions of 138 pyrolysis of 135, 135, 135–136, 136, 138, 139 structure of 133, 133 see also hemicellulose cellulose biochar 56–57 cell walls 39 see also lignin cement kiln see concrete kiln Ceratonia biochar 37 Cetin, E 19, 20, 24, 26–27 Chan, K.Y 68, 71, 237, 324, 332 char 1, 2–3, 53, 293, 296 defined 108, 109, 127 charcoal 1, 2–4, 14, 72 applications 2, 128 brick kilns 129–130, 130, 132 concrete/Missouri kiln 130, 131, 132, 155 defined 108–110, 109, 127 metal/TPI kiln 130, 130, 132 multiple hearth kiln 130–131, 131 pit/mound kiln 128–129, 129, 132 and pollution 131 production 127–132 sorption of 291 yields of 131–132, 132 charcoal pits/mounds 128, 129 char precursors 14, 21 charred grass 57 charring process chelates 38, 263–264 chemical activation 16, 21 Chen, B 48 Cheng, C H 55, 174, 176, 187, 196 Chernozem biochar 192 Chernozem soil 171 chicken litter biochar 40, 68, 277 see also poultry chicken manure biochar 40, 45, 46, 47, 119 Chile 218 China 4, 394 Chiou, C.T 292 chlorinated hydrocarbons 110 chlorine (Cl) 39, 43 chromenes 45 chromium (Cr) 71 CIMMYT (International Centre for Maize and Wheat Improvement) 5–6 407 Clarke, K 108 classification system for biochar 107–123 carbon/volatiles content in 116–119 CEC/functional groups in 121–122 existing 108–111 four biochar properties in 116 MNS content in 119–120 need for 107–108 proposed 112–123, 122 surface area/pore size in 120–121 clay 22, 92, 94, 100, 117, 148, 242, 274 climate change 5, 6–7, 8–9, 148, 227, 317–318, 383 catastrophic potential of 393–394 policy, biochar and 393–402 tipping points in 317 see also carbon dioxide; carbon sequestration; GHGs C monoliths 17 C/N ratios 56–58, 61, 70, 198, 258–259 coal 2, 3, 98, 110, 127, 241, 302 cellular structure of 16 GHG emissions of 324, 327, 329 varieties of 303 coalification 38 cocksfoot biochar 57, 60, 61, 62 coconut coir biochar 39 coconut shell biochar 24, 39, 57, 69 Cohen-Ofri, I 36, 46, 175 coir pith biochar 39 coke 137 Colombia 210, 212 co-metabolism 188–190 commercialization of biochar 375–389 business model 382, 388–389 framework for 381–388 justification of demand 382 lessons from biofuels sector 380–381 market/growth opportunities 382–384 supply 382, 385–388 sustainability context 375, 376, 377–379, 382, 385–388 technology issues 382, 384–385 urban waste agenda 376, 387–388 comminution 16 408 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT compost 213, 218–219, 222, 387 C stabilization in 322 standards for 107, 110–111 compressive strength see mechanical strength concrete/Missouri kiln 130, 131, 132, 155 condensation tower 36 conducting phase 17 Conti, L 215 continuous slow pyrolysis 26 cooking technology 7, 142–143, 143, 153, 159, 359, 363, 368, 371 copper (Cu) 71, 80 Cornelissen, G 292 cotton gin waste biochar 39 Cowie, A L 236–237 cow manure biochar 236 cow manure fertilizer 70 cresols 90 crop residues 7, 9, 344 crop varieties cross-polarization (CP) NMR 60, 295, 295 crowberry twig biochar 195 crystalline C 20, 21 CTO-375 technique 293 Cui, X J 38 cutans 61 Czimczik, C I 59 Dale, B E dark earth date palm leaf biochar 24 date pit biochar 24 Day, D 80 DEA (denitrifying enzyme activity) 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 260 decarbonylation 74 decarboxylation 74 decay 5, 107, 185 see also stability of biochar decolourization 29 deep banding 218, 219–220, 220, 222 degassing 23 dehydration 36 dehydroxylation 47, 75, 76 DeLuca,T H 232–233, 237–238, 252, 258, 261, 262–263 demineralization 38 demolition wood biochar 39 denitrification 232–234, 238, 244, 259–260 density of biochars 27–29, 207, 214–215, 274 bulk/apparent 27–28, 114–115, 274 in classification system 107, 112, 113, 114–115 and mechanical strength 29–30 depolymerization 36, 74 devolatization 19, 20 DFID (Dept for International Development, UK) 361 diatrophs 96–97 disordered C 38 distillation 131 diuron 293 DNA 91 DOC (dissolved organic carbon) 90, 91, 91, 171 Doubly Green Revolution douglas fir biochar 24, 237–238, 252, 253, 258, 261 Downie, A 279 DP (degree of polymerization) 133, 134 drought 361, 364, 366 drum pyrolyser 140 DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) 309–310, 311 Dünisch, O 277, 279, 281 dust formation 9, 207, 215, 217, 220 earthworms 102, 172–173, 193 eastern red maple biochar 34 EC (electrical conductivity) 252, 253 EDS (energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) 77 EELS (electron energy loss spectroscopy) 36 electricity generation see energy production electrochemical properties 33, 114 see also pH electronic effects 18 elemental ratios 53, 54–58 EM (ectomycorrhizae) fungi 99–100 emissions 7–9 balance 8–9 from industry emissions tax 318 emissions trading 318–337 baseline-and-credit approach 319 cap-and-trade approach 318–319 Kyoto Protocol see Kyoto Protocol life-cycle approach 334–335 offsets markets 319 see also GHG mitigation Emmett, P H 28 Empetrum nigrum biochar 90 Emrich,W 53–54 energy, global demand for energy production see bioenergy power plants Entisols 164 environmental management 5, 5, 9–10, 213–214 enzymes 88–89, 94, 95, 98, 171, 177, 188, 190 denitrifying see DEA EPR (electron paramagnetic resonance) spectroscopy 35 ethanol 7, 379, 400 ETS (EU Emissions Trading Scheme) 318 eucalyptus biochar 21, 24, 58, 60 Eucalyptus deglupta biochar 69 Eucalyptus grandis biochar 58 eucalyptus kraft lignin 19 Eucalyptus saligna biochar 58 eucalyptus sawdust 20 eutrophication 212, 213–214, 271 exotherms/endotherms 136, 138–139 extractives 134 Ezawa,T 100 Fakoussa, R M 188 FAO 108, 128 Farrington, J.W 292 fast pyrolysis 25, 26–27, 34, 34 feedstocks 14, 15, 33–34 costs for 150, 343–345, 355 minerals in 38 Ferralsol 70 Ferrosol 211, 212 fertilizers 6, 67, 70, 71, 73, 80, 154, 342, 344, 350 in biochar application 212, 221 and GHGs 183, 323–324, 330, 331 fertilizer value of biochar 157, 183, 376 FFTC 71 Fielke, J M 220 Fierer, N 88 Fife, L 344 filtration 1, 2, financial capital 362 INDEX fire, wild/forest 14, 53, 90, 98, 177, 184, 186, 194, 199, 258 and GHGs 232–233 and nutrients 255, 257–258 quantifying method for 311 fission 74 Flash Carboniser 141 flash pyrolysis 34, 89 fluidized sand-bed reactors 21 food security/prices 5, 9, 400–401 forest floor mesocosms 258 forest residue biochar 39, 72, 159–161 forests/forestry 7, 14, 222, 251, 255, 256–258, 344 and emissions trading 319, 324–325, 396 formaldehyde 90 FoRTS (Forest Residues Transportation Model) 345 fossil biochar see ancient/fossil biochar fossil fuels 3, 7, 53, 387 biochar offset 324, 325, 327, 328–330, 341, 347, 352, 378–379 Franklin, Rosalind 2, 17–18, 38–39, 53 free radicals 34–35, 116, 242–243 freeze-thaw cycles 13, 172, 190–191 Freitas, J C C 61 French, B C 345 Freundlich equation 290–291 fruit stone biochar 24, 30 fuel 116, 400–401 charcoal as 2–3, 108–109 see also bioenergy; biofuels fullerenes 191–192, 192 fulvic acid 120 fungi 25, 85, 87, 93, 95, 97, 98–102, 171 AM/micorrhizal see AM (arbuscular micorrhizal) fungi basidiomycete 177, 188 and biochar changes 172, 177 and biochar decay 188 effects of 100–102 pathogenic 99 saprophytic 98–99, 101, 254 furans 43, 191 furfural 135 fusinites 303 fusion 16, 19, 20 gases adsorption 24, 28, 29, 108 and microbial respiration 88, 91–93 gas (fossil fuel) gasification 3, 20, 26–27, 34, 342 gasifiers 141–142, 142 gasoline gas pressure 21 gas purge rate 35, 138, 138 gas sorptometry 15 Gavin, D G 185 Gélinas,Y 307 Germany 176, 192, 276 Ghana 161–163, 400 GHG mitigation and biochar 317–337, 341, 351–353, 365, 368, 394–395 BCSM and 395–398 biomass conversion study see maize residue case study biomass C stability 322–323, 325, 333 biomass feedstock usage 321, 325, 326–330 efficiency/yield benefits 324, 326 fertilizer/agricultural inputs 323–324, 326, 330–333 fossil fuel displacement 324, 325, 328–330, 341 future projects/goals of 336–337, 355 global context for 317–319 and Kyoto Protocol see Kyoto Protocol leakage issue 334, 353 life-cycle approach to 334–335, 342, 343 and MEAs 400–401 monitoring/verification of 325, 334–336 N2O emissions see under nitrous oxide policy framework for 398–400 production/utilization costs 341–357 sensitivity analysis 354–355 and soil emissions 323 tradable benefits in 324–325 uncertainty issue 333, 334 see also emissions trading GHGs (greenhouse gases) 85, 113, 114–115, 183, 227–244 abiotic reduction in 239–243 409 and biochar, evidence for reduction 228–231 biological reduction in 232–239 and conventional biomass use 321 factors controlling 227–228 global emissions 227–228, 322 and pH 235–236 and redox potential 238–239 soil and 227–228, 234–235 see also carbon dioxide; methane Glaser, B 67, 71, 305 global biochar production 184 global warming see also climate change glucomannans 133 glycine 256, 257, 258 Gonzalez, M.T 21 government policy 154, 335–336, 361, 362–363 Graetz, R D 54 grain husk biochar 38 graphene packets 36–37 graphene sheets 17, 36, 37, 41, 109, 173, 191 and sorption 48 and temperature 239–240 graphite 1–2, 2, 3, 17–18, 18, 28, 54, 139, 192 classified 109 graphite black C grass biochar 14, 38, 55, 57, 60–61, 62, 117 quantifying methods for 303, 305, 305 see also specific grasses Gray, E 14 greenhouse gases see GHGs Green Revolution 5–6 green waste biochar 72, 73, 119, 150, 155, 211 and GHG reduction 229–231, 230, 231, 235–236, 327, 329 GREET (GHGs, Regulated Emissions and Energy Use in Transportation) 352–353 Grønli, M 34, 117 Grossman, J M 95 ground nut shell 39 Gschwend, P M 292 Gundale, M J 232–233, 237–238, 252, 258, 261, 262–263 gunpowder 14 Guo, J 19, 28 Gustafsson, Ö 292, 304, 306 410 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT haigoe 208 Haloclean reactor 140–141 Hamer, U 186, 187, 198 Hamilton, K 319 Hammes, K 14, 171, 185, 292 on quantification methods 303, 307, 308, 309 Han,Y 308 Hapludox 279 hardwood biochar 57, 133, 134, 175 harvesting costs 343–344 haulage costs 344–345, 350, 351, 354 Hayhurst, A.M 241 hazelnut shell biochar 19, 30 H/C ratios 54–55, 55, 56–58, 63, 175 health hazards of biochar 9, 94, 152, 207, 216–217, 220, 364, 365 environmental monitoring 308 see also pollution heating rates 16, 19, 21, 24, 46 and density 28–29 and nutrient properties 74, 79, 252 and yield 35 see also HTT heavy metals 7, 41, 71, 79–80, 94 in biosolids standards 110, 111, 119 helium-based density 28, 28, 29 hemicellulose 16, 133–134, 134 pyrolysis of 135–136, 135, 135 heteroatoms 18, 45 heterocyclic structures 59 heterotrophs 236, 238, 259 Hockaday,W C 98–99, 171, 173 hold time 16, 76 holm-oak biochar 21, 24, 34 homolytic cleavage 34 H/O ratios 56–58 horitculture horizontal furnaces 21 Hoshi,T 71–72 household-scale biochar systems 158–159, 359–371 HTP (hydrothermal processing) 142 HTT (highest treatment temperature) 16, 17, 18, 19, 36–37 and mineral content 39 and particle size 26 and surface area 23, 24 human capital 361 human waste 208 humic acids 54–55, 58, 120 humus 87, 90, 94 hydrogen 3, 45, 342 hydrology 13, 22, 25, 73, 87, 107 hydrolytic enzymes 188 hydrophobic soil/biochar 169, 190, 277 hydrothermal conversion 34, 38 hydroxyapatite (Ca(PO)(OH)) 40 hysteretic sorption 291 IBI (International Biochar Initiative) 108 incubation 55, 79 Indonesia 165, 209, 210, 212, 212–213 industrial waste industry charcoal in energy use/emissions of inertinite 303 infrared spectroscopy 36, 302, 311, 312, 312 inoculants 97, 99, 100, 258 invertebrates 95, 102, 172, 172–173, 193 ionic phenoxides 77 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 317, 324, 328, 393 IRMS (isotope ratio mass spectrometry) 310–311 iron (Fe) 39–40, 41, 43, 96, 122 as additive 38 and biochar stability 194, 194, 195 iron production 2, 196 irrigation 6, 350 Jackson, R B 88 James, G 291 Janik, L J 311 Japan 3, 4, 85, 98, 208 Jonker, M.T O 291 kaolin 93 kaolinite 21 Kenya 158, 190 Kercher, A K 37, 38, 239–240 Kernebone, F E 220 kerogen 292, 302, 307 ketones 90, 136, 242 kikuyu grass biochar 57, 60, 61, 62 kilns/ovens advanced 139–143 charcoal see under charcoal traditional 14, 29, 128–129, 129, 132 Kim, B 241 Kim, J.-S 96 Kim, S King, J G 110 Kishimoto, S 73 Klason, P 138 Klose,W 140 Knicker, H 54 Knowler, D 217 Knudsen, J N 46, 77–78 Koelmans, A A 291 KOH 21 Kollmus, A 321 Koutcheiko, S 45, 46 Krull, E.S 60–61 Kyoto Protocol (1997) 317, 318, 319–321, 324–325, 335, 393, 394 CDM 398–399 labile compounds 116, 118–119, 236, 396 Laborda, F 98 labour issues 346, 348, 361, 362, 366 Laird, D A 192 lamellae 21 landfill 321, 325, 326, 327, 343 land reclamation 214 land use 350–351 sustainable 6, 385, 386, 399 Langmuir equation 290–291 Lang,T 76 Laos 171 large-scale biochar systems 155–156, 165, 341–356 Latin America 5, Lawrence, A D 241 leaching see nutrient leaching leaf biochar 1, 62, 236 legumes 260 Lehmann, J 73, 115, 198, 213, 278, 279, 281, 322–323, 349 Leifeld, J 171, 311 levoglucosan 35, 136, 139, 306, 306 Lewis, A C 19–20 Liang, B 89, 93, 186, 192 lichens 25 Liebig, Justus lignin 16, 19, 29, 37, 80, 112 structure of 134, 134, 135 lignite 54, 98 INDEX lignocellulosic biomass 34, 133–139 see also cellulose; hemicellulose lignocellulosic pyrolysis 34–36 three pathways of 34–35 Lima, I M 68–70 lime/liming effect 67, 71, 73, 183, 383 lipids 61 liptinite 303 liquefaction liquid adsorption 24 and porosity/density 28 livestock waste 6, 7, 376 see also manures Li, X.-Y 241 Lopez-Ramon, M.V 122 Lua, A C 16, 19 Lurgi-Ruhrgas reactor 140 lysimeters 273, 279 macadamia nut shell biochar 19, 30 McCarl, B A 345 McClellan, A.T 89 McGroddy, S E 292 Macias-Garcia, A 15 macro-cracks 17 macro-pores 16, 17, 24–26, 25, 27 magnesium (Mg) 1, 39, 39, 40, 252 maize cob biochar 24, 39, 43, 61 maize crop 210, 211 maize hull biochar 20–24, 24 maize residue case study 341, 343, 344, 345, 346–348 omitted factors 355 pyrolysis inputs/outputs 347, 347 sensitivity analysis 354–355 yields 346 maize stalk biochar 39, 117, 117, 119, 120, 186 maize stover biochar 20, 21, 24, 24, 120, 133, 153–154 minerals in 43 malnutrition manganese (Mn) 39–40, 98, 252 manures 1, 34, 117, 119, 150, 218–219, 376 collecting/processing 152 and GHGs 236, 321, 325, 326–328, 327–328, 329 minerals in 38 and nutrient transformations 260 odour reduction 218, 219 maple biochar 24, 34, 173 market see commercialization of biochar Marshall,W E 68–70 Marsh, H 15 Marumoto,T 100 mass loss 15, 16, 20, 36, 59 mass-transfer rates 35 Matsubara,Y.-I 99 MEAs (multilateral environmental agreements) 400–401 meat biochar 39 mechanical strength of biochars 29, 112, 115 melting 19, 24 meso-pores 22, 24 metabolites, toxic secondary 94 metals 45–46, 77, 119 as catalysts 239, 240–242 transition/non-transition 48 see also heavy metals methane (CH4) 7, 88, 183, 227, 321, 342 emissions, and biochar 231, 234, 238–239, 323, 327, 329 global emissions of 227–228 and pH 236 and redox potential 238–239 and soil properties 235 methanol 131 methanotrophs 234, 239 microbes 13, 25, 75, 85–102, 114, 118, 169, 183, 208, 322 and biochar changes 176–178, 184, 195 and compost/manure 213 effects of 85 enzymes of see enzymes and GHGs 96–97, 231, 232–239 methodology for study of 91–92 and nutrient transformation 254–255, 259–261, 264 oxidation by 176, 177–178 and pH 88 pore size factor 85, 86–87, 86, 87, 100, 255 respiration of 91–93 and sorption 88, 91, 94–95 and surface chemistry 88, 89–90, 93 and WHC 87, 89 microbial decay 5, 107 micro-chemical properties of biochar 33–48, 101–102 carbon-based phases 36–38, 46–48 changes in 174–176 411 mineral phases 38–40, 48 molecular bonds 94, 109 non-aromatic functionality 174, 175 oils/tars see oils; tars oxidation 175 pH see pH solid phases 35–40 sorption 33, 47–48 surface chemistry see surface chemistry micronutrients 73 micro-pores 14, 15, 18, 22–24, 23, 25, 37, 139 for gas adsorption 28 Mikan, C J 73–74 Millennium Development Goals 394, 400, 402 Miller, R O 70 Miller,W 344 millet husk 39 mineralization 77, 79, 118, 177, 255–259 and biochar stability 184, 185–186, 185, 187, 187, 189, 191, 196 and toxin neutralization 293 mineralization–immobilization reaction 70 minerals 38–40, 119–120, 169, 176 and biochar stability 192, 193–195 morphologies/distribution of 40, 42–45 in pores 18 solubility of 114 see also specific minerals miscanthus biomass 133 Missouri kiln 130, 131, 132 Mitra, A 197 Miyazaki,Y MNS (minerals, nitrogen and sulphur) 120–121 moisture content 151, 331 Mok,W S L 136, 138 molecular bonds 94, 109, 133, 191 Mollisols 170, 194–195, 276 Money, N P 172 montmorillonite 22, 94 Morley, J 3–4 mound kiln 128, 129, 129, 132 muffle furnaces 135 multiple hearth kiln 130–131, 131, 132 mushroom cultivation 220–221 412 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT NaCl 38 Nagle, D C 17, 29, 37, 38 nano-porosity 22–24, 75, 139 NaOH 21 natural capital 362 natural gas 324, 327, 329 nematodes 85, 87, 95 Neue, H U 234 New Jersey Pine Barrens 171 NEXAFS analysis 61, 89, 193 NGOs 361, 365, 370, 400 Nguyen,T H 48, 291 N-heterocyclics 43 nickel (Ni) 71, 260 Nishio, M 100 nitrates 41 nitric acid 55 nitrogen flow rates 16 nitrogen (N) 36, 41, 46, 251, 255–261 ammonification 255, 258 biochar depleted in 252 denitrification 232–234, 238, 244, 259 fixing 96–97, 98 immobilization 70, 259 mineralization see mineralization nitrification 255, 257 as nutrient 68, 76–77, 76, 80, 198 in surface chemistry 46 volatilization 259 see also MNS nitrous oxide (N2O) 88, 183, 227 emissions, and biochar 228–231, 235–236, 237–244, 244, 323, 326, 327, 329, 330 global emissions of 227 and pH 235–236 and soil properties 235 three processes for 232 trading 318 NMHC (non-methane hydrocarbons) 131 NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy 53, 58–62, 63, 122, 173 CP 60, 295, 295 in quantification methods 302, 304, 307, 308–309, 311 in sorption studies 294, 296 Noack, A G 53, 54 NOM (natural organic matter) 174 Nos enzyme 235, 237 NSW EPA (New South Wales Environment Protection Authority) 110, 111 NSWGGAS (New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme) 319, 320 nutrient leaching 67, 73, 80, 196–197, 251, 259, 271–284 and biochar 273–283, 284 and biochar properties, chemical 276–278 and biochar properties, physical 273–276 and crop/fertilizer management 272 future research on 282–283 and GHG emissions 328, 331 and pH/CEC 273, 276 and rainfall patterns 272–273 and soil biology/nutrient cycles 273 and soil biota 278–279 and soil chemistry 273 and soil structure/texture 272 water pollution and 271–272 nutrient properties of biochar 67–81, 183, 252–254 crop responses to 71–74 elemental composition 68, 69 factors controlling 74–78 fertilizer-use efficiency 67, 73 GHG implications of 341, 351–352 improvements in 79–81 indirect 71–74 microbes and 85, 94, 100 negative 73–74 temperature factors 74–78, 79 nutrient retention/take-up 4–5, 6, 67, 108 nutrient transformations and biochar 251–266 ammonification 255, 258 biological nitrogen fixation 260–261 denitrification see denitrification future research on 266 immobilization 70, 259 manure-enhanced 260 mechanisms of 254–255 nitrogen 255–261 and pH 252, 253, 254, 262–263, 265 phosphorous 261–264 sulphur 251, 264–265 and surface area/porosity 254, 262 temperature factor in 252, 254, 257–258 volatilization 259 nut shell biochar 30 oak biochar 20, 21, 24, 34, 39, 186 O-alkyls/O-alkyl C 59, 61, 62 oat hull biochar 119 O/C ratios 54–55, 55, 56–58, 58, 175 off-gases Ogawa, M 4, 86, 89, 90, 97, 98, 208, 220 O’Grady Rural 218 oil mallee biochar 61, 62, 62, 69 oil palm stone biochar 19 Oka, H 213 Okano, S 100 olive pit biochar 16, 20, 24, 29, 39 O’Neill, B E 93 opal phytoliths 39 organic acids 39 organic carbon (OC) 56–58, 114 organic farming 213, 218–219 organo-chemical properties of biochar 53–63, 101–102 and combustion temperatures 53 elemental ratios 53, 54–58 future research in 63 NMR spectroscopy 53, 58–63 OTC (over-the-counter) market 319 Oviedo, J 240 oxidation/oxides 35, 47–48, 54, 116, 173, 175, 187, 197 microbial 176, 177–178 Oxisol 190, 211, 279, 280 oxygen 18, 34, 43, 45 and free radicals 34–35 sub-stoichiometric 33 in surface chemistry 46 Pacala, S PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) 174, 289, 291, 292 palm branch biochar 24 paper 7, 380 paper sludge biochar 6, 72, 73, 112, 150, 150, 376 and GHGs 236 Paris, O 36, 37 particle size 26–27, 74, 79, 213 changes in 176, 190 in classification system 112, 113, 115 and nutrient leaching 275, 276, 281 INDEX Pastor-Villegas, J 21, 28, 29 pathogens 7, 99 Pattey, E 328 PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) 296 pea biochar 55, 57 peanut husk biochar 310, 310 pea-straw biochar 57, 60 peat 4, 54, 57, 59, 61 peds 25 pelleted biochar 215, 216, 218 permafrost 171–172 pesticides/herbicides 6, 169, 296 petrol pH 68, 69, 71, 73–75, 76, 208, 253, 273 in biochar classification 111, 114, 116 changes in 169, 175–176, 178 and GHGs 235–236 and nutrient transformations 252, 253, 254, 262–263 and soil biota 88, 97 Phalaris biochar 57, 60, 61, 62 phenols 43, 45, 48, 121–122, 173, 237–238, 255 phenoxides 41, 77 phosphates 41 phospherous (P) 39, 39, 43, 45, 119, 212–213 complexation 262–264 and microbes 264 as nutrient 68, 70, 71, 76, 78, 78, 251, 252, 261–264 soluble/exchangable 261–262 as water pollutant 271 phosphoric acid 21 photosynthesis physical activation 20 physical capital 362 phytoliths 41, 291 Pietikäinen, J 87, 90, 95, 98 Pignatello, J J 48, 173, 291, 295 pine biochar 19, 24, 28, 77, 120, 186, 187, 191, 278 and GHGs 237–238 quantifying method for 310, 310 see also ponderosa pine biochar pistachio nut shell biochar 17, 19, 24, 24 plant litter 184, 190, 196 plants, and microbes 85 plastic deformation 19 plastics 112 PLFA profiles 90, 95 PM (particulate matter) 131 pollution 111, 213–214, 215 and chemical activation 21 reduction 5, 6–8, 74, 97, 131, 208 see also health hazards of biochar ponderosa pine biochar 237–238, 252, 253, 256, 258, 261 poplar biochar 43, 133 pore collapse 19–20 porosity/pore size 13, 15–16, 16, 17, 19, 22–26, 139, 173, 254 changes in 173–174 in classification system 107, 112, 113, 114, 120–121 and density 28 and gas pressure 21 and GHGs 20, 21, 235 macro- 16, 17, 22, 24–26, 27 and microbes 85, 86–87, 86, 87, 100, 255 nano- 22–24 and nutrient leaching 274–275, 279 and reactor types 21 potassium (K) 21, 39, 39, 40, 43, 119 as nutrient 68, 71, 76, 77 and redox potential 239 potting mixes poultry litter biochar 24, 25, 26, 71, 74, 117 bioenergy from 156–157 and GHGs 229–231, 230, 231, 235–236, 242 nutrient content 69 poultry manure biochar 24, 69, 192 poultry manure fertilizer 70 pre-Columbian Indians 14 precursors, char 14, 21 pressure factors 20, 35, 36, 39, 138 Preston, C M 185 pre-treatment 16, 19, 26, 27 priming 188–190 Pritchard, D 71, 76–77, 78 protozoa 85, 87, 95, 264 proximate analysis 110 pseudomorphous char 109 PSRE (proton spin relaxation editing) 294 pumice 87, 90, 95 pyridines 43, 46 pyroligneous acids (PAs) 90, 93, 131, 132 pyrolysis 3, 6, 7–8 CBA of 343–353 and classification of biochars 413 112, 113 economic/GHG study see maize residue case study fast/slow 25, 26–27, 34, 34, 341, 342, 348–349, 350, 353, 354, 356 flash 34 and GHGs 327, 341–356 HTT 16 of manure/sewage and microbes 89 operating perameters of 16 ovens 14 and particle size 26 primary/secondary reactions 137–138 pyrones 45 pyrophoric biochars 35 pyrroles 43 pyrrolic amines 43, 46 Q10 196 QMS (quadrupole mass spectrometry) 310 quantification of biochar 301–312 acid dichromate method 307 biomarker analysis/BPCA method 302, 304, 305–306, 312 challenges of 301, 302–303, 302 chemical oxidation method 302, 304, 307–308 chemo-thermal oxidation method 302, 304, 306–307 importance of 301 methods overview 303–305, 304, 305 routine/inexpensive 301, 311, 312 sodium hypochlorite method 308 TG-DSC method 302, 304, 309–311 TOT/R method 302, 303, 304, 305, 308 UV oxidation method 302, 304, 305, 308–309 quartz (SiO) 40 R&D radicals 34–35, 116 radish crop 73 Radovic, L R 48 rain erosion see water erosion rainfall 272–273 see also water erosion 414 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Raman spectroscopy 36 Ramirez, F 80 rapeseed cake 57 reaction times 14, 15, 16 reaction vessels 16 Read, P 399 recalcitrance 191–192 redox reactions 116, 120, 234, 238–239, 241 red pine biochar 175 redwood biochar 19–20 redwood gum biochar 61, 62 rendering wastes 34 resins 134, 342 retention times 19, 23, 27 RGGI (Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative) 318, 324 rhizobia bacteria 85, 96–97, 98 rhizosphere 85, 101 Rhodes, A H 293 rice crops 71, 210, 211, 279, 280 rice husk biochar 24, 39, 55, 72, 192, 208, 209, 290 rice straw biochar 39, 57, 69, 77, 119, 344 Ringer, M 342 river erosion/transport 197 Robertson, G P 235 Rock-Eval instrument 309, 311 rodents 172 Rodríguez-Mirasol, J 19 Rondon, M A 72, 97, 229, 231, 260 rotary kiln 140 rotating hammer spreaders 220 Rothlein, B 38 Russia 185 Rutherford, D.W 139 ryegrass biochar 57, 60, 61, 62, 186, 198–199 Saito, M 100 sand 22 sand-bed reactors 21 Sander, M 291, 295 Sang, C 240–241 Sanz, J F 240 sawdust biochar 20, 26, 27, 39, 117, 190 SAXS (small-angle X-ray scattering) 36, 37 Schaetzl, R 107 Schmidt, M.W I 53, 54, 185 Schnitzer, M I 43, 45 Schuller, P 218 Scotford, I M 219 Scots pine 256 screw pyrolyser 140, 141 seedlings sesquiterpenes 43 sewage sludge biochar 7, 46, 57, 119, 150, 155 nutrient content 68, 69, 74, 76, 77, 78, 252 Shafizadeh, F 34, 74 sheet erosion 186 Sheng, G 291 Shinogi,Y 76, 120 shocks, external 361, 364, 366 Siberia 171–172, 196 silica/silicates 38, 40, 43, 47, 122, 291 silicon (Si) 39, 39, 194 sintering 16, 19 SIR (substrate-induced respiration) 93 Skjemstad, J O 54, 60–61, 304, 308 slash-and-burn 159, 162–163 see also Terra Preta slash-and-char system 159–163 Slattery, M G 220 slow pyrolysis 25, 26, 34, 34 slurries see manures Smernik, R J 58, 59, 61, 186, 198, 294 Smith, S C 90 smoke smoke vinegar 45 social capital 361–362 Socolow, R 9, 395 sodium (Na) 39, 43 softwood 133, 134 soil acidity 67, 71 soil analysis see quantification of biochar soil biota see biological properties of biochar; microbes soil chemistry soil cover soil erosion 9, 13, 170, 171–172, 197 soil fauna 95, 101, 102, 190, 193 soil fertility 1, 4–5, 5, 13, 67, 147, 159–161, 377–378 loss of and microbes 85 soil horizons 13 soil management ancient practices of soil porosity see porosity/pore size soil remediation soil structure 13, 73 soil water 13, 171 percolation/filtration of solid density 27–29 Song, J 307 soot 3, 54, 57, 291, 292, 302 Sorensen, C G 213 sorghum crops 210 Soriano-Mora, J M 241 sorption 47–48, 170, 177, 255, 289–296 affinity/capacity 291 CTO-375 technique 293 ‘dual-mode’ theory 292–293 future research on 296 hysteretic 291 linear/non-linear 290–291, 292, 293 measuring 289, 294–296 PAH 174, 289, 291, 292 properties of biochars 290–292 and soil biota 88, 91, 94–95, 97 of soils, biochar and 292–293 see also adsorption South America 212 South Asia South-East Asia 212 Southern Africa 170 soybean cake biochar 57, 68, 69 soybean crop 73, 209 spectroscopy 122 see also NMR spinning disc spreaders 215 spontaneous combustion 215, 216 Srivastava, A K 220 stability of biochar 183–201 abiotic decay 190 assessing/monitoring 198–201 biological decomposition 188 co-metabolism/priming 188–190 environmental factors in 196–198 erosion and 197 estimation of 184–187 long-term decay 184–186 minerals and 193–195 physical decay 190–191 and recalcitrance 191–192 short-term decay 186–187 soil cultivation and 197–198 and soil fauna 190, 193 and spatial separation 192–193 stabilization mechanisms 191–195 temperature and 196 transport/burial and 196–197 INDEX standards 107, 110, 111, 119, 216, 385 steam 16, 20, 34, 39 Steiner, C 89, 93, 95 steric effects 18 stirring regimes 16 Stopes, M C 303 straw biochar 38, 39, 60, 326 structure of biochar 13–30 altering, processes for 20–21 complexity, loss of 19–20 data comparison issues 15 density 27–29 extended literature on 14–15 future research in 30 and molecular structure 17–18 origin of 15–17 particle size see particle size pilot studies of 14 porosity see porosity subabul wood biochar 39 sub-Saharan Africa 5, 400 subsistence agriculture 161–163 sub-stoichiometric oxygen 33 sugarcane bagasse biochar 56, 69 sugars 90 Sugiura, G 73 sugi wood biochar 24 Sullivan, D M 70 sulphur dioxide (SO4) 318 sulphuric acid 71 sulphur (S) 39, 43, 45, 77–78, 80 biochar depleted in 252 and nutrient transformation 251, 264–265 in surface chemistry 46–47 see also MNS super-active carbons 21 surface area 20, 22, 107, 170, 254 BET see BET bulk 13, 25 changes in 174 and fixed C burn-off 16, 20 and nutrient leaching 274–275, 275 and pore size 23–24, 25, 25, 116, 120–121 surface chemistry 45–48, 107, 114 carbon-based phases 45–47 and microbes 88, 89–90, 195 mineral phases 47 nitrogen/sulphur in 46–47 oxygen in 46 and sorption 47–48 see also pH sustainability 375, 376, 377–379, 382, 385–388, 400 Sustainable Biofuels Consensus 400, 402 Suuberg, E M 138 Suzuki plant biochar 175 Sweden 318 sweep gas 138 swelling/shrinking dynamics of soil 13, 190–191 Swiatkowski, A 46, 48 switchgrass biochar 21, 77, 133, 343 Switzerland 171 sylvite (KCl) 40 syngas 3, 324, 342, 346, 348 Syria 98 tannery wastes 71 tars 18, 34, 35, 115, 135–136 temperature factors 16, 17, 21 in classification of biochars 115, 117 in nutrient properties 74–78, 79, 252, 254, 257–258 in organo-chemical properties 53–54, 59, 59, 61, 63 in porosity 23–24 Q10 196 and sorption 170 see also heating rates; HTT TEM (transmission electron microscopy) 36, 37 Terra Mulata 208 Terra Preta 4, 29, 67, 70, 169, 176, 178, 208, 279 soil biota of 86, 89, 92, 95–96 stability of 184, 186 themeda biochar 57, 60, 61, 62 thermoplastic properties 19 thiophene 46 Three Stone Stove 158 tillage 170, 217, 218, 218, 343, 344, 353 time scale of biochar change 169–178, 183 ancient/fossil biochar 169, 171, 173, 174, 177–178 biotic changes 176–178 chemical changes 174–176 erosion 13, 170, 171–172, 197 estimation problems 184–186, 187 physical changes 172–174 tillage 170 transport in solution 171, 197 turbation 170–171 415 titanium (Ti) 40 Titirici, M M 38 Tognotti, L 19 top-dressing 219 topsoil mixing 217–218, 222 torrefaction 34 toxins/toxicity 9, 94, 107, 212, 289 neutralization 73, 293 see also pollution TPI kiln 130, 130, 132 trace elements 71, 251, 260 traditional biochar manufacture 4, 14 transportation costs 9, 114–115, 150–152, 152, 161, 363 and GHG offsets 341–342, 343–345, 351, 352 and packing density 215 see also haulage costs trees 208, 212, 220–221, 222 and nutrient leaching 272 Trimble,W H Troeh, F R 22, 25 Trompowsky, P M 54–55, 63 Tschakert, P 213 tubular flow reactors 138 tulip poplar biochar 29–30 turbation 170–171, 172–173 turbostratic C 17, 18, 29, 191, 192 turf 4, Typic Hapludox soil 158 Ultisols 159 unburnt materials 54 UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change) 317, 319, 393, 399, 401–402 United Nations (UN) and climate change see Kyoto Protocol Food and Agriculture Organization see FAO Millenium Development Goals 394, 400, 402 United States 85, 171, 174, 198, 271, 303, 345 emissions trading in 318, 319, 325, 394 Iowa maize case study see maize residue case study safety standards in 216–217 unsaturated C 58 urban waste 6, 53, 149–150, 151, 153, 155, 343 commercialization of 376, 416 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 387–388 GHG emissions from 321 urea 220–221 UV (ultraviolet) oxidation 302, 303, 304, 305, 308–309 Van, D.T.T 221 van Krevelen diagrams 54 van Noort, P C M 291 Van Zwieten, L 72, 221 Varhegyi, G 138 Vattenfall report (2007) 317 VCS (Voluntary Carbon Standard) 320, 325 vegetation/forest fires 53, 57, 60, 108, 170 see also char vermicast 111 vertical furnaces 21 Vertisols 170, 191, 197–198 village-scale systems 156–159, 161–164, 359–371 analysis methodologies 359, 363–365 capitals assessment 361–362 CBA of 367–371, 369–370 community assets in 366, 367 context for 365 cooking technology in 359, 363, 368, 371 gender issues in 364, 366, 371 health/environmental issues 364, 365 impact indicators for 363 increaced production in 368–370 policies/processes in 362–363 project design 359, 360–365, 360 socio-economic assessment for 361–363, 366–368 structures/processes assessment 362–363 vulnerability context assessment 361, 362, 366 women in 364 VOCs (volatile organic compounds) 131 voids 17, 18, 37 volatile matter (VM) 90, 109 volatiles 16, 17, 76 and density 28 and melting/swelling 19 and particle size 27 volatization 35 vulnerability context 361, 362, 366 walnut shell biochar 30 Wang, B 241 Wang, X 291 Wardle, D A 94, 186, 198 Warnock, D D 100, 101, 192–193, 264 waste management 6–7 waste wood biochar 39, 150 water, in thermal degradation 34 water erosion 9, 197, 217–218, 219, 400 water pollution 6, 271–272, 292 weathering 9, 172, 174 WHC (water-holding capacity) 13, 22, 25, 73, 87, 107, 108, 112, 120–121, 183, 208 see also moisture content wheat crops 211 wheat straw biochar 39, 46–47, 77, 119, 133, 290 and GHG emissions 326, 327, 329, 331 Wiest,W 140 Willmann, G 188 willow biochar 39, 133 wind erosion 9, 172, 217–218, 219 Wolbach,W.S 307 women 364, 366, 371 wood alcohol (methanol) 131 wood biochar 1, 14, 60, 62, 72, 194, 209–211, 216 ash/minerals in 38, 43, 117, 119 cellular structure of 16 cracks in 17 density of 29 elemental ratios of 55, 56, 57 endotherms/exotherms in 138 nutrient content 69, 71 porosity of 25, 25, 87, 87, 120, 121, 173–174 quantifying methods for 303–305, 305, 312 and soil biota 87, 87, 93 WHC of 87 see also specific woods woodchip biochar 26, 27 wood-gas stoves 142–143, 143 wood tar 131 Wornat, M J 77 Wright, M M 342 Xing, B 291 X-ray measurement 17, 28, 36 XRD (X-ray diffraction) 36 xylan 133 see also hemicellulose xylenols 90 Yamabe,Y 98 Yamato, M 71–72 Yanai,Y 228, 323 Yang, H 135 Yang,Y 291 yield 35, 131–132, 132, 137–138, 346, 382, 385–388 and biochar application 207, 209–211, 212, 354 and GHG emissions 324 and moisture content 151 Young, A Zabaniotou, A 16 Zackrisson, O 90, 93, 173, 177 Zhang,T 20, 24 Zimbabwe 186 zinc salts 21 zinc (Zn) 40, 71, 80 [...]... Categories of biochar systems List of published field experiments regarding the application of biochar to soil for growing agricultural crops Summary of methods of incorporating biochar within soil, their characteristics and current need for information Source, pyrolysis conditions and biochar characteristics Nitrate and ammonium concentration in soils following incubation with various biochars for 47 days... of biochar (natural biochar, lab-generated biochar or activated carbon) on nitrogen mineralization and nitrification from studies performed in different forest ecosystems Proposed biochar characteristics affecting nutrient leaching, related mechanisms and degree of certainty associated with each process Summary of key methods for determining black C in environmental samples and their relevance to biochar. .. study 5:Traditional biochar- based management of tropical soil in subsistence agriculture 9.6 Case study 6: Biochar production from dedicated plantations for sustainable agriculture 9.7 Case study 7: Biochar as a waste or bio-product management tool 11.1 Terminology for quantification of decay 12.1 Safe handling of biochar in Australia 18.1 Concepts of relevance for emissions trading with biochar 113 155... international meetings, but also in providing a face for biochar research and outreach efforts as the authoritative organization with respect to information and policy on biochar Over the past decade, scientific and technological information on biochar has been steadily increasing.The objectives of this first book on the subject are to capture this information in a comprehensive way in order to make it... Kenya Production of biochar using simple earthen mound kilns Highly diverse cropping system (maize, yam) with secondary forest in Ghana managed with rotational slash-and-char for 20 years Batch kiln for production of biochar without energy capture Case study from Sumatra, Indonesia A basic model of a complex biochar particle in the soil, containing two main distinguished structures of biochar: crystalline... fitted to hypothetical data of biochar decay 11.9 Conceptual model of C remaining from biomass using a double-exponential decay model with a mean residence time of 10 years for the labile C pool and 1000 years for the stable C pool, but different proportions of labile C 12.1 Spreading biochar into planting holes for banana near Manaus, Brazil 12.2 Rotary hoeing to mix biochar uniformly in field plots in... graphite Under temperatures that are used for making biochar, graphite does not form to any significant extent Instead, much more 2 BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Figure 1.1 Structure of graphite as proven for the first time by J D Bernal in 1924 Source: Bernal (1924), with permission from the publisher and the estate irregular arrangements of C will form, containing O and H and, in some cases,... research on the effects of biochar on seedling growth (Retan, 1915) and soil chemistry (Tryon, 1948) yielded detailed scientific information In Japan, biochar research significantly intensified during the early 1980s (Kishimoto and Sugiura, 1980, 1985) The use of biochar has, for some time, been recommended in various horticultural contexts – for example, as a substrate for potting mix (Santiago and... representation of proposed biochar effects on nutrient leaching 16.1 Comparison of sorption properties of biochar (ash containing char), plant residues and soil for the pesticide diuron 16.2 13C cross-polarization (CP) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of 13C-benzene sorbed to four different biochars exposed to 100mg L–1 of 13C-benzene 16.3 13C CP-NMR spectra of mixtures of biochar L-450 and biochar L-850... phases in chicken manure biochar and their energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) spectra 3.6 Distribution of non-C elements on the surface of wood biochar determined by microprobe analysis 3.7 SEM micrographs and associated EDS spectra for mineral phases in maize-cob biochar prepared by flash pyrolysis 3.8 SEM micrographs and associated EDS spectra for mineral phases in white oak biochar prepared by