This page intentionally left blank TREATY CONFLICT AND THE EUROPEAN UNION Jan Klabbers questions how membership of the European Union affects treaties concluded between the Union’s member states and third states, both when it concerns treaties concluded before EU membership and treaties concluded after joining Following a discussion of the public international law rules on treaty conflict, the author analyses the case-law of the European Court of Justice and examines how such conflicts are approached in state practice jan klabbers studied international law and political science at the University of Amsterdam, before teaching international law and EU law at the same university Since 1996 he has taught international law at the University of Helsinki He was visiting professor at Hofstra University (New York) in 2007 and at the Graduate Institute of International Studies and Development (Geneva) in 2008 He also directs the Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence in Global Governance Research TREATY CONFLICT AND THE EUROPEAN UNION JAN KLABBERS CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521455466 © Jan Klabbers 2009 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-46370-9 eBook (EBL) ISBN-13 978-0-521-45546-6 hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-72884-3 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate CONTENTS Preface page ix Table of cases and official materials xii Table of treaties and instruments part i Setting the scene Introduction xx Opening words Treaty conflict and fragmentation Article 307 TEC and international law The argument of this book 12 An assumption and a caveat 15 Understanding treaty conflict Introduction 18 Theory in international law 19 A single general theory? 20 Normative conflict in jurisprudence Clashing values 33 Systems theory? 35 Different approaches 39 Conclusion 45 part ii International law 10 18 24 47 The pre-Vienna Convention regime Introduction 49 The classics 52 The classic cases 55 Doctrine 61 Conclusion 67 v 49 vi contents Drafting the Vienna Convention Introduction 69 Lauterpacht’s ambivalence 70 Fitzmaurice’s analysis 74 Waldock’s approach 77 The ILC’s apprehensions 79 The Vienna Conference’s acceptance Conclusion: ambivalence 87 69 85 Post-Vienna Convention developments 88 Zuleeg and the principle of political decision 88 Narrowing the scope 90 A different option: hierarchy? 94 A different option: lex specialis? 96 Inescapable 98 Avoidance strategies: conflict rules 101 Avoidance techniques: judicial escapism 104 A Using discretion 104 B Alternative options 105 C Non-conflict 105 D Declining jurisdiction 106 Courts and the principle of political decision 108 Conclusion 110 part iii EC law 113 The EC and anterior treaties 115 Introduction 115 Article 307 116 Setting the standard: Commission v Italy 120 Application between member states inter se 125 Application involving actual, non-abstract rights 126 Anterior treaties with new member states 130 Multipolar treaties 131 When is a treaty concluded? 133 A separate story: the second paragraph 135 Possible explanations 140 To conclude: some general issues 148 contents vii The UN Charter and the European Convention Introduction 150 The UN Charter before the EC Court 151 The European Convention before the EC Court The Strasbourg attitude 167 Escherian images 173 Conclusion 174 Posterior treaties: conceptual issues Introduction 175 The time of conclusion 177 Classifying the problem 178 Powers and institutional law 183 A domestic law paradigm? 194 Conclusion 198 Posterior treaties: practice 200 Introduction 200 A (brief) methodological note 201 Nordic cooperation 203 Inter se agreements 205 Posterior treaties with third parties 211 The disconnection clause 219 Community agreements 223 Conclusion 225 10 Conclusions 227 Bibliography 232 Index 249 163 175 150 246 bibliography Stein, Peter, Roman Law in European History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) Summers, Robert S., Lon L Fuller (London: Edward Arnold, 1984) Tell, Olivier, La ‘Disconnecting Clause’/Disconnection Clause, unpublished seminar paper, 2001 (on file with the author) Timmermans, Christiaan, ‘The EU and Public International Law’, European Foreign Affairs Review, (1999), 181–94 Tomuschat, Christian, ‘Annotation’ (Kadi and Yusuf cases), Common Market Law Review, 43 (2006), 537–51 Trachtman, Joel P., ‘Institutional Linkage: Transcending “Trade and ”’, American Journal of International Law, 96 (2002), 77–93 Tuori, Kaarlo, Critical Legal Positivism (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002) Tuytschaever, Filip, Differentiation in European Union Law (Oxford: Hart, 1999) Ustor, Endre, ‘Working Paper on the Most-Favoured-Nation Clause in the Law of Treaties’, Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1968/II), 165– 70 Vallely, Patrick J., ‘Tension between the Cartagena Protocol and the WTO: The Significance of Recent WTO Developments in an Ongoing Debate’, Chicago Journal of International Law, (2004–05), 369–78 Vanhamme, Jan, Volkenrechtelijke beginselen in het Europees recht (Groningen: Europa Law Publishing, 2001) de Vattel, Emeric, The Law of Nations (New York: AMS Press, reprint of 1863 edn, Chitty trans., first published 1758) Vedder, Christoph and Hans-Peter Folz, ‘A Survey of Principal Decisions of the European Court of Justice Pertaining to International Law in 1993’, European Journal of International Law, (1994), 448–63 Verwey, Delano, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties (The Hague: TMC Asser Press, 2004) Verzijl, J H W., ‘La validit´e et la nullit´e des actes juridiques internationaux’, Revue de Droit International (1935), 3–58 Vierdag, E W., ‘The Time of the Conclusion of a Multilateral Treaty: Art 30 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties and Related Provisions’, British Yearbook of International Law, 59 (1988), 92–111 Oorlogsverklaring (inaugural address, University of Amsterdam, 1992) Vitta, Edoardo, La validit´e des trait´es internationaux (Leiden: Brill, 1940) Vollenhoven, C van, De drie treden van het volkenrecht (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1918) Voon, Tania, ‘UNESCO and the WTO: A Clash of Cultures?’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 55 (2006), 635–52 Vranes, Erich, ‘Lex Superior, Lex Specialis, Lex Posterior – Zur Rechtsnatur der “Konfliktsl¨osungsregeln”’, Zeitschrift f¨ur auslandisches o¨ ffentliches Recht und V¨olkerrecht, 65 (2005), 391–405 bibliography 247 ‘The Definition of “Norm Conflict” in International Law and Legal Theory’, European Journal of International Law, 17 (2006), 395–418 Waldock, Sir, Humphrey, ‘Second Report on the Law of Treaties’, Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1963/II), 36–94 ‘Third Report on the Law of Treaties’, in Yearbook of the International Law Commission (1964/II), 5–65 Walker, Neil, ‘Flexibility within a Metaconstitutional Frame: Reflections on the ´ Future of Legal Authority in Europe’, in Gr´ainne de Burca and Joanne Scott (eds.), Constitutional Change in the EU: Between Uniformity and Flexibility? (Oxford: Hart, 2000), pp 9–30 Wallach, Lori and Patrick Woodall, Whose Trade Organization? A Comprehensive Guide to the WTO (New York: New Press, 2004) Walzer, Michael, Just and Unjust Wars, 3rd edn (New York: Basic Books, 2000) Warbrick, Colin, ‘Coherence and the European Court of Human Rights: The Adjudicative Background to the Soering Case’, Michigan Journal of International Law, 11 (1989–90), 1073–96 Watson, Geoffrey R., ‘The Death of Treaty’, Ohio State Law Journal, 55 (1994), 781–853 Weiler, J H H., ‘Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Boundaries’, in J H H Weiler, The Constitution of Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp 102–29 ‘The External Legal Relations of Non-Unitary Actors: Mixity and the Federal Principle’, in J H H Weiler, The Constitution of Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp 130–87 and Andreas Paulus, ‘The Structure of Change in International Law or Is There a Hierarchy of Norms in International Law?’, European Journal of International Law, (1997), 545–65 Wendt, Frantz, The Nordic Council and Co-operation in Scandinavia (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1959) Wessel, Ramses, ‘The EU as Black Widow: Devouring the WEU to Give Birth to a European Security and Defence Policy’, in Vincent Kronenberger (ed.), The EU and the International Legal Order: Discord or Harmony? (The Hague: TMC Asser Press, 2001), pp 405–34 Wet, Erika de, ‘The International Constitutional Order’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 55 (2006), 51–76 and Andr´e Nollkaemper (eds.), Review of the Security Council by Member States (Antwerp: Intersentia, 2003) Wightman, John, Contract: A Critical Commentary (London: Pluto, 1996) Wildhaber, Luzius, ‘The European Convention on Human Rights and International Law’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 56 (2007), 217–32 Wilting, Wilhelm Heinrich, Vertragskonkurrenz im V¨olkerrecht (Cologne: Carl Heymans Verlag, 1996) 248 bibliography Witte, Bruno de, ‘Internationale verdragen tussen lidstaten van de Europese Unie’, in Ramses Wessel and Bruno de Witte, De plaats van de Europese Unie in het veranderende bestel van de volkenrechtelijke organisatie (The Hague: TMC Asser Press, 2001, mededelingen van de Nederlandse Vereniging voor Internationaal Recht no 123), pp 79–131 ‘Old-fashioned Flexibility: International Agreements between Member States ´ of the European Union’, in Gr´ainne de Burca and Joanne Scott (eds.), Constitutional Change in the EU: From Uniformity to Flexibility? (Oxford: Hart, 2000), pp 31–58 ‘Retour a` Costa: La primaut´e du droit communautaire a` la lumi`ere du droit international’, Revue Trimestrielle de Droit Europ´een, 20 (1984), 425–54 Wolfrum, R¨udiger and Nele Matz, Conflicts in International Environmental Law (Berlin: Springer, 2003) Wood, Gordon S., The American Revolution: A History (New York: Modern Library Chronicles, 2002) Wouters, Jan, Frank Hoffmeister and Tom Ruys (eds.), The United Nations and the European Union: An Ever Stronger Partnership (The Hague: TMC Asser Press, 2006) Wright, Quincy, ‘Conflicts Between International Law and Treaties’, American Journal of International Law, 11 (1917), 566–79 Wyatt, Derrick, ‘New Legal Order, or Old?’, European Law Review, (1982), 147–66 Zuleeg, Manfred, ‘Vertragskonkurrenz im V¨olkerrecht Teil I: Vertr¨age zwischen souver¨anen Staaten’, German Yearbook of International Law, 20 (1977), 246– 76 INDEX AB:AC conflicts 18, 33, 98 abortion legislation 190 acquiescence 78, 79, 81 administrative agreements 50 ADR standards 216 Ago, Roberto 69n air traffic agreements see Open Skies cases Alexy, Robert 30 Amado, Gilberto 69n, 83 amendment of treaties article 307 TEC 133–5, 177 Open Skies cases 134, 178, 212 Vienna Convention 179 see also inter se agreements; modification of treaties analytical theory 24–5 Angola 137, 138 Arbelaiz-Emazabe case 184–6, 192 armed forces 103 jurisdiction 108–10 see also war assurances, system of 93 asylum lawyers Atiyah, Patrick 20–1 Atlantic Charter 50 audiovisual agreement 224 Aufricht, Hans 50n, 64–6, 67, 68, 72 Aust, Anthony 50n Austria 139, 201 Austro-German Customs R´egime opinion 56–7 avoidance strategies 101–3 avoidance techniques 104 see also judicial escapism Ayadi case 162 Barclay’s 156–7 Belgium 108, 125–6, 138, 139, 143, 202 Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) 136–7 Berlin, Isaiah 46 Bermann, George 192n bilateral investment treaties (BITs) 214–15 bilateralisation 77, 92 Binder, Guyora 11, 100, 219 biodiversity 101 Borgen, Christopher J 93 Bosphorus case 154, 156, 168, 170–2, 173, 174 Brierly, J.L 70–1 Brownlie, Ian 19, 81n Bryan-Chamorro Treaty 60–1 Budvar case 149 bureaucracies 45 segmentation 12, 50 Burgoa case 127–9, 130, 148–9, 150, 229 Burton, Steven J 31–2 Ca˜nas-Jerez Treaty 60–1 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 101 Castr´en, Erik 81 Centro-Com case 156–8 child maintenance 105 China 218 Christianity subsidiarity and 192 Churchill, Winston 50 classic cases 55–61 classic writers 52–5 249 250 index Commission v Austria 139 Commission v Belgium 138, 139 Commission v Italy 120–5, 126–7, 128, 132, 135, 153, 229 Commission v Portugal 137–9 compensation 24, 37n, 72 conditioned territorial application clause 224–5 Conf´ed´eration Francaise D´emocratique du Travail (CFDT) v European Communities 167–8 conflict clauses 12 conflict rules 101–3 consent to be bound 21–2 contract law 20–1, 31, 51, 75 freedom of contract 43, 99 racial discrimination 31 contractual conception of treaty law 24, 51, 52, 53, 66–7 Convention on Insider Trading, 1989 Protocol disconnection clause 220 Convention on Mutual Administrative Assistance on Tax Matters 1988 disconnection clause 220 Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism 2005 disconnection clause 222–3 Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919 57–9 coordination mechanisms 12, 66, 92–3 coordination problems 13, 18, 28–9, 33 clashing values and 13–14, 33–5, 39–42 resolution 33 Corpus iuris 49 Costa Rica 60–1 Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism 102–3 Court of First Instance (CFI) 4–5, 112, 173, 174 jurisdiction 112, 158–63 Croatia 216 cultural cooperation agreements 125–6 customs duties 120–5 Czechoslovakia 66 Da Costa and Schaake case 145–6 damages 75, 76, 77 Davies, Gareth 192 de lege ferenda 71 death penalty extradition and 39, 104, 109–10 deceit 49–50 decision-making 31–2 Denmark 183 Nordic cooperation 203–5 designations of origin 130–1 desuetudo 50, 98 diplomatic assurances disconnection clause 219–23, 224 discrimination gender 129–30 nationality 213 race 31 divisibility of multilateral treaties 92 doctrine 61–7 double taxation agreements 18, 204, 205, 207–9, 214, 216 Draft Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe 118–19 Dworkin, Ronald 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 34 Ebony Maritime case 144, 155–6, 158 economic liberties 43 economic sanctions article 301 TEC 160 see also sanctions Economid`es, Constantin P 221 ECSC Treaty 117, 167 emissions trading 39 environmental agreements 217–18 conflicting agreements 33 economic agreements and 35 emissions trading 39 environmental law index environmental obligations investment protection and source trade agreements and 7, 9, 12, 13, 36–7, 50 trade and 29n environmental problems systems theory 39 equal treatment directive 129–30 erga omnes obligations 94, 95 ERTA case 11, 187–8, 189, 211, 225–6 Espoo Convention 218 Estonia 208, 209, 217–18 estoppel 21, 78, 81 Euratom Treaty 117–18 European Commission of Human Rights 167–8 European Community acquis communautaire, protection of 118, 200, 203, 216, 217, 223, 225 competences 115, 147, 157, 186–92 shared competences 189 conditioned territorial application clause 224–5 disconnection clause 219–23 division of powers 176, 188–92 domestic law paradigm 194–8 legal order 16 new legal order 195 Nordic cooperation and 204 powers and institutional law 183–93 pre-emption doctrine 191–2, 213 regulations 195–7 scope of powers 186–92 as successor to member states 160 as sui generis 198 supremacy of EC law 119, 174, 228 disconnection clause and 221 European Convention and 163–7 Strasbourg attitude 167–72, 174 UN Charter and 151–63 251 WTO law and 16, 197, 219 see also European Union European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) 16, 105–1 article 307 protection 163–4 before the EC Court 16, 163–7 death penalty 104, 109 extradition of criminal suspects first Protocol 34 freedom of expression 33–4 property rights 34 ratification 151, 163 relationship with Community law 5, status 150–1 supremacy 115, 151 European Convention on Transfrontier Television disconnection clause 220 European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) declining jurisdiction 106–7 perspective 5–6 Soering decision 5, 104 on supremacy of EC law 167–72 European Court of Justice (ECJ) article 307 case law 20, 120–49, 226 actual rights in issue 126–30 amendment of treaties 133–5, 177 inter se agreements 120, 125–6 interpretation and application distinction 146–8 multipolar treaties 131–3 with new member states 130–1 obligation to bring treaty commitments into conformity with EC law 124, 135–9 private parties 136 protection under EC Treaty time of conclusion 133–5 ECHR before 16, 163–7 expertise in international law 140–2 implementation of UN sanctions 15–16, 156–8, 170 252 European Court of Justice (cont.) international law and 15–16, 139, 140–8 jurisdiction 108, 112, 142–8 agreements with third parties 144 article 234 TEC 143–6 high seas 158 mixed agreements 145n, 148 UN Security Council sanctions 15–16, 156–8, 170 members 140–3 preliminary rulings 144, 145–6 supremacy of EC law 46 UN Charter before 151–63 article 297 TEC 152, 153–4 article 307 TEC 151, 152, 153–4, 155, 157, 159, 174 WTO law and 16 European Parliament elections 168–9 European Space Agency 170–1 European Union Acts of Accession 119–20, 183, 204 federalism 191 international law and 15–17 lawyers 142–3 priority of EU law 102 separate legal order 16–17 subsidiarity 192 Terrorism Convention 102 see also European Community Exclusive Economic Zones 127 Exportur case 130–1 extradition death penalty and 39, 104, 109–10 extradition agreements 5, 18, 33, 40 diplomatic assurances EU-US agreement 224–5 human rights and 12, 40 judicial discretion 104 federalism theory 191 see also pre-emption doctrine fidelity principle see Gemeinschaftstreue Finland 201–2 index air services agreements 217 bilateral investment treaties (BITs) 214–15 double taxation agreements 216 inter se agreements 209–11 Nordic cooperation 203–5 posterior treaties with third parties 213–19 protection of classified information 209 road traffic agreements 216 Finnish Treaty Series 201–2, 214 Fischer-Lescano, Andreas 35–9 Fish, Stanley 142 fisheries regime 127–30, 148–9, 228 catch quotas 183–5 Fitzmaurice, Sir Gerald 74–7, 79, 80n, 82, 92, 180 France 49, 118, 130–1, 151, 209 free elections 168–9 free movement of capital free movement of goods 39, 131–3, 164–6 free trade 44 Atlantic Charter negotiations 50 as a value 29, 41–2 freedom of assembly 164–6 freedom of contract 43 freedom of establishment freedom of expression 26, 28, 33–5, 44, 164–6 racial hatred and 26, 34–5 freedom to provide services 190 Fuller, Lon 25–6, 27–8, 40 fundamental rights see human rights Gemeinschaftstreue 4, 10, 188, 193, 209, 211, 229 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 42, 121, 122, 123 GATT 1947 133 GATT 1994 133–4 genocide convention 23 Germany 49, 65–6, 125–6, 143, 209 UN Charter 151, 153 Gibraltar 168–9 good faith 21, 73, 99, 193 index Gottardo case 213 Grana-Novoa case 213 Great Powers 65, 66 greenhouse gases 217 Grotius, Hugo 49, 52–3, 54, 55, 69 Hague Child Maintenance Convention 105 Hart, H.L.A 25, 27, 37n Harvard Draft Convention on the Law of Treaties 64, 66, 75 Henn and Darby 131–3, 148, 229 hierarchy of norms 94–6, 99 Hitler, Adolf 49 Hobbes, Thomas 96 human rights conflicts 26, 34–5 diplomatic assurances extradition treaties and 12, 40 freedom of contract 43 hierarchy of norms 40, 94–6 international cooperation and 170–2 principles 34 systems theory 36, 37, 39 trade and 29n, 42–4 trade treaties and 7, 9, 35, 94–5 WTO law and 42 see also European Convention on Human Rights; United Nations Charter Hurd case 145 implied powers doctrine 11 In Re P.K 106 institutionalised rationalities 36 instruments treaties as 22–3, 70, 85, 99, 227 integral treaties 75, 76–7, 82–3, 84, 92, 180 integration theory 44 intent 21–2, 112 inter se agreements 9–10, 64, 200, 202 anterior treaties 120, 125–6 disconnection clause and 222 double taxation agreements 205, 207–9 253 integral treaties 75, 76 interdependent treaties 75, 76 Oscar Chinn case 57, 58 posterior treaties 116, 176, 179, 181, 182–3, 184, 198, 205–11 reciprocating treaties 75, 76 interdependent treaties 75, 76–7, 82–3, 84, 92 interim obligations 24 International Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) panels International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism 102 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 6–7, 21, 74, 77, 95 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 34 International Fruit Company case 144, 160 International Labour Organization (ILO) Conventions 129–30, 139, 147 international law 5, 51, 100 Article 307 TEC and 10–11 contract law and 51 courts and 5–7, 11 ECJ and 15–16, 139, 140–8 ECJ lawyers and 140–2 environmental law EU and 15–17 fragmentation 8–9, 222 humanitarian law 102–3 invalidity and 21 nature 60 self-contained regimes supremacy 159, 161, 212 theory in 19–20 values and 13–14 Vienna Convention and 210–11 International Law Commission (ILC) 62, 68 drafting the Vienna Convention 70, 79–85 Study Group on the Fragmentation of International Law 8, 110– 11 254 index International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea interpretation 25, 50, 53, 54, 73, 74, 92, 93, 97 concretisation of norms 92 reconciliatory 26, 85 of rules 27 Vienna Convention 69–70 WTO and 108 interpretive community 142 invalidity 21, 73, 76, 81, 82 investment protection Iran 7, 111–12 Ireland 127, 154–5, 170–2 abortion legislation 190 Act of Accession 183 Iron Rhine arbitration 108 Italy 120–5, 202 Jenks, C Wilfred 51, 64, 66–7, 68, 74 Jim´enez de Ar´echaga, Eduardo 84 Jones, Kent 41–2 judicial escapism 104–8 alternative options 105 declining jurisdiction 106–8 non-conflict 105–6 using discretion 104 jurisdiction armed forces 108–10 Court of First Instance 112, 158–63 declining 106–8 European Court of Justice 108, 112, 142–8 agreements with third parties 144 article 234 TEC 143–6 high seas 158 mixed agreements 145n, 148 UN Security Council sanctions 15–16, 156–8, 170 International Court of Justice limited 106–8 jurisprudence 18 analytical theory 24–5 decision-making 31–2 normative conflicts 24–33 rules 25–7 rules and principles distinguished 27, 29–30 jus cogens 21, 59, 77, 80, 99, 161, 162 jus dispositivum 58 just war 52, 54–5 Kadi case 162, 163, 173–4, 219 Karl, Wolfram 33 Kearney, Richard 85 Kelsen, Hans 25 Kolliopoulos, Alexandros G 221 Koskenniemi, Martti 37n, 96, 112 Koutrakos, Panos 118 Kramer case 183 Kr¨uck, Hans 175n, 197 Kyoto Protocol 217 labour agreements 7, 12 Latvia 6, 106–7, 218 Lauterpacht, Sir Hersch 60, 71–4, 75, 77, 79, 80n Law of the Sea Convention law of treaties 13, 14, 18–46, 227 AB:AC conflicts 18 codification 22, 23 contractual conception 24, 51, 52, 53, 66–7 customary law 23 intent 21–2 interim obligations 24 law of state responsibility and 22–3, 24, 63, 82, 99–100 reservations, rules on 24 systems theory 35–9 treaties as instruments 22–3, 70, 85, 99, 227 treaties as obligations 22, 23, 85, 99, 227 League of Nations Covenant 63, 66 article 20 152 desuetudo 50n legal systems 36–9 Levy case 129, 145, 147 lex constuctionis 36 lex ferenda 71 lex mercatoria 36 lex posterior 54, 90, 91–2, 97–8, 100, 118, 123, 181, 219 index classic cases 55–61 doctrine 63, 64–6, 67 human rights conflicts 34–5 lex prior 67, 90, 100, 169 classic cases 55–61 lex specialis 54, 67, 90, 97–8, 99 article 297, 153 human rights conflicts 35 Lockerbie cases London Fisheries Convention 127, 148–9, 184 Lucarno Treaty 1925 49 Lugano Convention disconnection clause 223 Luxembourg 136–7 Maastricht Treaty 154, 164, 169, 170, 192 Machiavelli, Niccolo` 49, 52 McNair, Lord Arnold Duncan 22n, 230 Marceau, Gabrielle 42, 43 Matteuci case 125–6, 210 Matthews case 168–70, 177 Matz, Nele 92–3 Mavrommatis Jerusalem Concessions 55–6 maxim pacta sunt servanda 118 memoranda of understanding 50 military alliances 62, 83 mixed agreements 116, 188–9, 191, 200 disconnection clause 220 ECJ jurisdiction 145n, 148 modification of treaties Vienna Convention 69, 179, 181–2, 222 see also amendment of treaties; inter se agreements Montenegro 156–7 Montreal Protocol 42 most-favoured-nation (MFN) clauses 62, 215 Mox Plant case 6, 147–8 multipolar treaties 131–3 Munich Agreement 1938 65 Mus, Jan 91, 94 255 Namibia opinion 95 nationality claims 106 nationality discrimination 213 NATO Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) 109–10 neo-functionalist integration theory 44–5 Netherlands 106, 108–10, 118, 184, 202, 208–9 New York Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 129 Nicaragua 60–1 Nikula case 204 Nordic cooperation 203–5 normative conflicts 18 conflict of rights compared 26 hierarchy of norms 25, 40 in jurisprudence 24–33 North Atlantic Treaty Reform Treaty 2007 and 119 Norway Nordic cooperation 203–5 nuclear energy 117 nuclear weapons 95 nullity 59, 64, 80, 81, 82 obscene materials, importing 131–3 Oil Platforms case 6–7, 111–12 Open Skies cases 4, 11, 211, 215 amendment of treaties 134, 178, 212 British case 212–13 exclusive Community competence and 186–8, 191, 192 international law and 5, 11, 218–19 Opinion 1/76 187, 188 oral agreements 23 Organisation des Modjahedines du peuple d’Iran v Council 162 Oscar Chinn case 57–60, 65 pacta sunt servanda 23, 62, 65, 71, 89n, 99 pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt 88–9, 95, 98 256 Pal, Radhabinod 81 Panhuys, van H F 80n Paolillo, Felipe 99n Pauwelyn, Joost 96–8, 99, 100, 107–8, 177n Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) 21, 55–7 Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich 43–4 pluralism 111 pornography, importing 131–3 Portugal 5, 137–9 postal services 131, 132–3 posterior treaties 10, 14, 116, 175–7 article 307 and 10–11, 176 bilateral investment treaties (BITs) 214–15 classification problems 178–83, 198 Community agreements 223–5 conditioned territorial application clause 224–5 disconnection clause 219–23, 224 domestic law paradigm 194–8 double taxation agreements 204, 205, 207–9, 214, 216 inter se agreements 116, 176, 179, 181, 182–3, 184, 205–11 international law and 11 Nordic cooperation 203–5 powers and institutional law 183–93 practice 200–26 Spanish Protocol 179–82 substantive revision 177 with third parties 200, 202, 206, 211–19 time of conclusion 177–8 Vienna Convention 178–9 pre-emption doctrine 191–2, 213 principle of maximum effectiveness 91–2 principle of the more favourable position 91–2 principle of political decision 33, 46, 88–90, 227, 228, 229 courts and 108–10 meaning 18–19, 88 narrowing the scope 90–3 index principle of systemic integration 110–12 principles rules distinguished 27, 29–30, 34 property rights 34, 35, 44, 100, 170 provisional measures public morals 131 Puissochet, Jean-Pierre 158n quaestio juris 39 racial discrimination 31 racial hatred freedom of expression and 26, 34–5 Reciprocal Holding of Crude Oil and Petroleum Products 208 reciprocating treaties 75, 76 Reform Treaty 2007, 119–20, 229 Refugee Convention purpose 180 Spanish Protocol and 180–1 Vienna Convention and 181–2 renegotiated treaties 133–5 res inter alios acta 70, 75, 77, 78–9, 82, 89, 99, 117, 227 reservations, rules on 24 Reuter, Paul 84 rights conflicting 26, 29, 34 property rights 34, 35, 44, 100, 170 values and 29 see also human rights road traffic agreements 11, 216 Roosevelt, Franklin D 50 Rosenne, Shabtai 22, 70, 80–1, 83, 84 Roucounas, Emmanuel 135 Rousseau, Charles 63–4, 67, 72, 73, 75 rules absolute 27 certainty and uncertainty 27 on conflict of treaties 24 conflicting 25–7 of general application 24 index interpretation 27 jurisprudence 25–7 justifications 27 meanings 27 principles distinguished 27, 29–30, 34 purposes 27–9 on reservations 24 validity 30 Rundgren case 204 Russia 6, 106–7, 214, 217 see also Soviet Union Sadat-Akhavi, Seyed Ali 91, 92 sanctions article 301 TEC 160 economic 160 UN Security Council 15–16, 153–62, 170–2, 231 Schauer, Frederick 25, 28 Schengen Agreements 205–6 Schermers, H.G 167n Schmidberger case 164–6, 228 scholarships 125–6 Sch¨utze, Robert 228 Security Council see United Nations separability of treaty provisions 83 Serbia 156–7 ‘serial’ treaties 132n, 133 severability of treaty provisions 74 sex discrimination 129–30 ships, impounding 156 Short v Netherlands 108–9 Sinclair, Sir Ian 19n, 85, 89, 230 Slivenko case 106 social security conventions 213 Soering case 5, 104, 105 sovereignty 21 reservation 153 Soviet Union 49 see also Russia Spain 127–8, 130–1, 184–6, 192 Spanish Protocol 179–82 state responsibility, law of 22–3, 24, 63, 82, 99–100 Study Group on the Fragmentation of International Law 8, 110–11 257 subsidiarity 192 successive treaties EC as successor to member states 160 fixing the date of 85, 86, 97 same subject matter 85, 86 Spanish Protocol 179–82 time of conclusion 133–5, 177–8 Surinam 106 suspension of treaty regimes 21, 69 Sutherland, Peter 29 Sweden 4–5, 201 Nordic cooperation 203–5 Switzerland 224 systems theory 35–9 tax treaties 13 termination of treaties 21, 69, 73 desuetudo 50, 98 implied 78–9 terrorism Conventions 102, 222–3 Teubner, Gunther 35–9 theory criticism 19 in international law 19–20 practice and 19 time of conclusion anterior treaties 133–5 posterior treaties 177–8 Timmermans, Christiaan 230–1 Tokyo Convention 1974, 132 Trachtman, Joel P 35n, 42 trade environmental protection and 29n human rights and 29n, 42–4 systems theory 37, 39 as a value 29, 41–2 trade agreements bureaucratic segmentation and 12 emissions trading 39 environmental obligations and 7, 9, 12, 13, 36–7, 50 human rights and 7, 9, 35, 42–4, 94–5 most-favoured-nation clauses 62, 215 trade norms 7, 8–9 258 index Transfrontier Television Convention disconnection clause 220 Treaty Establishing the European Community (TEC) article 10 4, 188, 193, 211, 229 article 34 209 article 43 212 article 84 187 article 133 157, 187 article 234 143–6 article 292 147 article 293 207 article 297 152, 153–4 article 301 154 article 307 14, 20, 101, 115, 116–20, 212, 226, 228 amendment of treaties 133–5, 177 anterior treaties 116–49 anterior treaties with new member states 130–1 application between members states inter se 125–6, 205, 209 application involving actual rights 126–30 case law 120–49 ECHR and 163 international law and 10–11 limited protective role 122–3 multipolar treaties 131–3 obligation to bring treaty commitments into conformity with EC law 124, 135–9 posterior treaties 10–11, 176 protection of acquis communautaire 118, 200 restrictive interpretation 11, 153 scope 10–11 termination of incompatibilities 10 text 116 time of conclusion of treaties 133–5, 178 UN Charter and 151, 152, 153–4, 155, 157, 159, 174 validity of EC acts under article 230 TEC and 136n commercial policy 157, 187 economic sanctions 160 Gemeinschaftstreue 4, 10, 188, 193, 209, 211, 229 justice and police cooperation 209 UN sanctions 15–16, 153–62, 170–2, 231 Treaty of European Union (TEU) article 164, 174 Tuori, Kaarlo 19–20 Tuytschaever, Fili 189–90 United Kingdom 156–7, 168–9, 212–13 Act of Accession 183 extradition treaties United Nations EC law and 4, Security Council 4, 16 resolutions 195, 219 sanctions 15–16, 153–62, 170–2, 231 United Nations Charter 6, 63, 66, 71–2 as anterior treaty 151 articles 55 and 56 94, 95 article 103 14, 71, 77, 94, 95, 96, 151–2, 194 before the EC Court 151–63 article 297 TEC 152, 153–4 article 307 TEC 151, 152, 153–4, 155, 157, 159, 174 sanctions 15–16, 154–62, 170, 231 erga omnes obligations 94, 95 Germany and 151, 153 human rights norms 94–5 primacy of UN law 71–2, 115, 158, 159, 161 Reform Treaty 2007 and 119 trade norms 94–5 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity 101 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 216 United States 6–7 index Bryan-Chamorro Treaty 60–1 extradition treaties FCN Treaty with Iran 111–12 Universal Postal Convention 131, 132–3 values 12, 13–14, 46, 100, 110–11 clashing values 18, 28–9, 45–6 awareness 12 coordination problems and 13–14, 33–5, 39–42 human agency 38 cooperation 40 interests and 46 international law and 13–14 law and order 40 rights and 29 trade 29, 41–2 Van Gend & Loos case 195 Vandeweghe case 142–3, 148 Vattel, Emeric de 49, 53–5, 69 Verdross, Alfred 84 Versailles Treaty 49, 65–6 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) 13, 14, 30, 32, 103 abrogation of earlier treaty 69 amendment of treaties 179 article 16, 17, 229–30 article 16 73 article 26 85, 99, 102, 103 article 27 159, 161, 212 article 30 20, 69, 70, 89–90, 92, 93, 94, 97–8, 118, 139, 179, 181, 211 article 31 69–70, 111, 227 article 40 179 article 41 69, 179, 181–2, 222 article 46 212 article 53 21 article 58 69 article 59 69 article 60 94, 95 clash of values and 13–14 contractual conception 24 draft article 65, 79, 82 drafting 69–70 Fitzmaurice and 74–7, 82 259 ILC and 79–85 Lauterpacht and 71–4, 75, 79 Vienna Conference’s acceptance 85–6 Waldock and 77–9, 80, 81, 82–3 hierarchy principle 94–6 humanitarian character, treaties having 94, 95 interim obligations 24 international law 210–11 interpretation 69–70 invalidity of treaties 21 military alliances 62 modification of existing treaties 69, 179, 181–2, 222 oral agreements 23 posterior treaties 178–9 Spanish Protocol 181–2 reservations, rules on 24 supremacy of international law 159, 161, 212 suspension of treaty regimes 21, 69 termination of treaties 21, 69 treaties as instruments 22, 23, 70, 85, 99, 227 virtue ethics 32 Vitta, Edoardo 59 Waldock, Sir Humphrey 19, 77–9, 80, 81, 82–3, 85–6 war behaviour of armed forces 103 just and unjust 52, 54–5 Weiler, Joseph 191 Wendt, Frantz 203n Western European Union (WEU) 206 Wilting, Wilhelm Heinrich 92 Wimbledon case 21 Witte, Bruno de 175, 205, 206, 211 Wolfrum, R¨udiger 92–3 World Trade Organization (WTO) 7, 38, 41–2, 96–7 criticism 45 direct effect of law 219 dispute settlement bodies 260 World Trade Organization (cont.) Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU) 97, 107–8 EC law and 197, 219 ECJ and 16 human rights and 42 panels and Appellate Body 97 jurisdiction 107–8 index X v Jugendamt Tempelhof, Y, and Z and De Raas voor de Kinderbescherming te Zwolle 105 Yusuf case 162, 163, 173–4, 219 Zuleeg, Manfred 88–90, 91