Consumer values versus perceived product attributes: Relationships among items from the MVS, PRS, and PERVAL scales

Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Sport Management Review journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/smr Consumer values versus perceived product attributes: Relationships among items from the MVS, PRS, and PERVAL scales Donghun Lee a,*, Galen T Trail b,1, Hyungil H Kwon c,2, Dean F Anderson d,3 a Division of Business, College of Mount St Joseph, 5701 Delhi Road, Cincinnati, OH 45233, United States Seattle University, Lynn 112, 901 12th Avenue, P.O Box 222000, Seattle, WA 98122, United States c Florida State University, Tully Gym 120A, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4280, United States d College of Education, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, United States b A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Article history: Received 12 March 2009 Received in revised form 14 April 2010 Accepted May 2010 Available online June 2010 Consumer values and the perceived attributes of a product elicit consumptive behaviors The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to test the psychometric properties of three scales (MVS; Richins & Dawson, 1992; PRS, Richins, 1994; PERVAL scale, Sweeney & Soutar, 2001) that measure consumer values and the perceived attributes of a product within a licensed sport merchandise (LSM) setting, and (b) to examine the relationships among items across the three scales for commonalities, and to examine the relationships between consumer values (CV) and perceived product attributes (PPA) Statistical analyses indicated that the psychometric properties of the MVS, PRS, and PERVAL scales could be improved substantially A principal components analysis (PCA) indicated nine interpretable dimensions; five that could be categorized as CV dimensions (Social Approval, Materialism, Covetousness, Prestige/Status, and Escape) and four that could be categorized as PPA dimensions (Price/Quality, Nostalgia, Craftsmanship, and Aesthetic Beauty) ß 2010 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved Keywords: Consumer values Perceived product attributes By the end of the 1990s, estimates of the total production and consumption of sporting goods and services ranged from $213 to $560 billion (Howard & Crompton, 2004) Shank (2002) reported that retail sales of licensed products of the four major leagues and universities in the U.S have doubled from $5.35 billion in 1990 to $10.95 billion in 1999 Nearly 20% of the total amount spent on sport was for sport product consumption including equipment, apparel, footwear, and licensed goods (‘‘The Making of the $213 Billion,’’ 1999) This figure did not include the $8.84 billion spent by spectators on merchandise at sports venues (Howard & Crompton) This market trend has continued Retail sales of sport-licensed merchandise have reached $13.2 billion in 2005 in the U.S and Canada (Brochstein, 2006) According to Brochstein, sports licensing is the fastest growing segment within the licensing industry The purchase of sport merchandise has contributed a significant portion to the overall consumption of sport Although the amount spent on sport products and services is known, internal and external influences that affect the purchase of licensed sport merchandise are not well understood According to Richins and Dawson (1992), although consumers may behave independently, they tend to be directed by very similar desires for goods Thus, individuals might be able to be classified by the degree of similarity in their consumer values (Pitts & Woodside, 1984) Likewise, comprehending * Corresponding author Tel.: +1 352 392 4042x1309; fax: +1 352 392 7588 E-mail addresses: don_lee@mail.msj.edu (D Lee), trailg@seattleu.edu (G.T Trail), kwon@coe.fsu.edu (H.H Kwon), deanf@iastate.edu (D.F Anderson) Tel.: +1 206 398 4605; fax: +1 206 398 4618 Tel.: +1 850 645 2350; fax: +1 850 644 0975 Tel.: +1 515 294 3427; fax: +1 515 294 8740 1441-3523/$ – see front matter ß 2010 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.smr.2010.05.001 90 D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 what determines product consumption is clarified when consumer values are identified (Richins, 1994) and additionally, when the aspects that constitute perceived value (important attributes) of a product are understood (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001) This distinction is a critical one and one that is often neglected Consumer values (CV) are beliefs that guide consumers’ behavior when purchasing products or services The perceived value of an object is the object’s perceived worth to the individual or as Zeithaml (1988) noted, it is the ‘‘consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product (or service) based on perceptions of what is received and what is given’’ (p 14) The perceived value of a product is often predicated on the consumer values for that individual, and thus these concepts are frequently confused within the research on these topics Thus, we purposefully refer to perceived value of a product as the perceived product attributes (PPA) throughout this study Another method of distinguishing between the two is that CVs are internal and are typically generalizable across consumer behavior situations, while PPA are specific to the individual and are typically contingent on the product itself (i.e., product specific) Consumer values and perceived product attributes As we noted above, consumers are likely to have different preference criteria according to their value systems Compared to attitudes, values generally carry greater importance in a person’s life and are more abstract and general (Schwartz, 1992) Values are often expressed by various motivational types of goals (Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1990) However, it is uncertain how individuals establish their values, such as honesty, security, power, and so forth In addition, it is not clear that values themselves are sufficient in explaining consumption behaviors As a result, several researchers have used the meansend chain approach (Gutman, 1982; Reynolds & Gutman, 1988; Vinson, Scott, & Lamont, 1977) For instance, Gutman distinguished values from product attributes in that values are end states that one desires to be, which may or may not be actualized Product attributes are the product features that provide the desired benefits, which may gratify specific values (Gutman) Vinson et al classified an individual’s value system into several dimensions (i.e., global values–domain-specific values–evaluative values) Within the classification, global values are the beliefs that guide one’s thought process, while evaluative values are specifically related to product attributes that elicit one’s beliefs These lead to evaluation of the properties of a product, which elicits behavior In this vein, an individual’s perceived attributes of a product tends to be an evaluation of information available to the individual, such as cost, craftsmanship, aesthetic appearance, and so forth Bloch and Richins (1983) also made a CV–PPA distinction in their theoretical model, which depicted consumer characteristics, product characteristics, and situational variables influencing perceived product importance, which in turn, influenced product purchase Consumer characteristics included values, needs, personality traits, and social roles, among other things Product characteristics were the attributes of the product (e.g., cost, symbolic attributes of the product, etc.) Situational variables included time available to search for the product and/or the presence or absence of family or friends at time of purchase Bloch and Richins also divided product importance type into two dimensions: enduring importance and instrumental importance Enduring importance was defined as a ‘‘long-term, cross-situational perception of product importance based on the strength of the product’s relationship to central needs and values’’ (Bloch & Richins, p 72) Instrumental importance was defined as ‘‘a temporary perception of product importance based on the consumer’s desire to obtain particular extrinsic goals that may derive from the purchase and/or usage of the product’’ (Bloch & Richins, p 72) The distinction Bloch and Richins made between consumer characteristics and product characteristics is similar to our distinction between consumer values and perceived product attributes In their model, each influenced product consumption, mediated by a different type of product importance In summary, the proposed models and hypotheses noted above suggest that a CV–PPA distinction exists However, there is little, if any, empirical evidence supporting a distinction between the two at a domain level Thus, there is a need for empirical examination of such aspects, especially in a contextspecific situation, like LSM consumption However, this context-specific situation of LSM consumption may cause licensed sport merchandise to be evaluated differently from many other types of merchandise or merchandise in general SEC paradigm One way of categorizing goods is the search–experience–credence (SEC) paradigm Nelson (1970) proposed that goods could be categorized into either ‘‘search’’ goods or ‘‘experience’’ goods depending on how easily the core attributes of the good could be evaluated prior to purchase A consumer can easily inspect the qualities of search goods prior to purchase (e.g., a book; Ekelund, Mixon, & Ressler, 1995), whereas the qualities of an experience good can only be evaluated after the consumption of the product (e.g., a cruise; Ekelund et al.) Due to this relative complexity, consumers of experience goods are more skeptical about their evaluation of product attributes than those of search goods (Franke, Huhmann, & Mothersbaugh, 2004) According to Ford, Smith, and Swasy (1988), Darby and Karni (1973) proposed the third category of goods (credence) because ‘‘certain qualities can never be verified by the average consumer This occurs because the consumer may not possess sufficient technical expertise to assess the product’s true performance, to diagnose his/her own need for the product or service, or because diagnosing a need separately from filling the need at the same time is uneconomical or difficult’’ (Ford et al., 1988, p 239) These qualities were termed ‘‘credence’’ and credence qualities are those that cannot be verified even after purchase and consumption Ekelund et al suggested that marriage counseling (therapy) would be a credence good However, as Ford et al noted, although the SEC has intuitive appeal, it has not been validated Furthermore, Huang, Lurie, and Mitra (2009) claimed a slightly modified view to the Nelson’s search-experience classification They suggested that ‘‘it is no D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 91 longer the amount of search or the perceived ability to assess product quality before purchase that distinguishes search from experience goods; rather, it is the type of information sought and the way this information is accessed and processed by the consumer’’ (p 66) Thus, products and services, rather than fitting neatly into one particular category, may exist on a continuum somewhere between the most basic ‘‘search’’ good and the most esoteric ‘‘credence’’ good A product without a brand association with a team but in a similar vein (e.g., a shirt, cap, or jacket) would typically be categorized as a search good However, the branding of the same product with a team name (e.g., a Lakers jersey) potentially moves the product into the experience-product category because the core attribute of LSM (i.e., vicarious achievement obtained by wearing team merchandise) is rather difficult to evaluate without an actual experience That is, the full experience of the product is not obtained until the purchaser wears the product and is evaluated by others (either positively or negatively) due to the association created with the referent team by the product If this was the case, then LSM may tend to be a credence good, as this added value may never be able to be fully evaluated by the purchaser Thus, consumers of LSM may be more cautious about their product purchase compared to general non-sport/ team merchandise, indicating that perhaps LSM is closer to an experience product than a search product on the continuum, or perhaps even more closely related to a credence product The potential for evaluating LSM differently from other types of products may make existing measures of consumer values and perceived product attributes less valid when used with LSM purchases Measures of consumer values and perceived product attributes There have been several attempts to develop research tools that systematically measure the complex nature of consumer values (Helgeson, Kluge, Mager, & Taylor, 1984; Richins, 2004; Richins & Dawson, 1992) Several researchers have developed scales that measure consumer values and perceived product attributes relative to general product consumption For example, Richins and Dawson developed the 18-item Material Values Scale (MVS) that consists of three consumer values (i.e., Success, Centrality, and Happiness) The items of the MVS were designed to measure materialistic values that trigger an individual’s consumption behavior Similarly, Richins (1994) introduced a Possession Rating Scale (PRS) that measures possession of goods that are important to a person according to various reasons such as enjoyment, interpersonal ties, self-expression, and appearance-related aspects However, the PRS scale included items measuring both consumer values and perceived product attributes Sweeney and Soutar (2001) developed a Perceived Value (PERVAL) scale that measured the perceived worth of consumer products to the purchaser Similar to PRS, the items on the PERVAL scale seem to measure both consumer values and perceived attributes of a product as well Accordingly, using these scales, researchers attempted to explain complex consumption behaviors and also initiated the development of research tools to measure cognitive aspects possibly influencing general product purchases It is readily apparent that the three scales have structural and/or contextual similarities and differences while designed to focus on general product consumption Regardless of these efforts to comprehend product consumption behavior, no one has examined these scales, nor any other scales, referent to sport products, specifically licensed sport merchandise Although there has been a fair amount of research attempting to explain sport consumption, most of it has focused on motives for attendance (Fink, Trail, & Anderson, 2002; Funk, Mahony, & Ridinger, 2002; Sloan, 1989; Trail & James, 2001) While there has been some research concerning consumption of licensed sport apparel (Kwon & Armstrong, 2002; Kwon, Trail, & Anderson, 2006), little research has examined the role that consumer values play in the process of making a purchase decision or in judging the perceived attributes of the sport-related product itself Accordingly, the purpose of this study is twofold The first purpose is to test the psychometric properties of the three scales (MVS, PRS, and PERVAL) relative to purchasing/owning licensed sport merchandise by examining the factor structure, the construct reliability, the internal consistency, and the discriminant validity of the subscales The second purpose is to examine relationships among items and/or subscales across the three scales for similarities and differences The third objective is to determine if differences between consumer values and perceived product attributes exist, and if so, how are they represented 3.1 Material Values Scale (MVS) Richins and Dawson (1992) argued that acquisition and possession are the central theme in materialists’ lives These people tend to spend little time on leisure activities because they desire to work longer hours in order to earn more money They suggested that consumers’ materialistic behaviors function along the three dimensions of centrality, success, and happiness, representing their CV Centrality indicates the degree to which individuals ‘‘place possessions and their acquisition at the center of their lives’’ (p 304) Materialists judge standard of success by the number and quality of possessions they own Happiness is accomplished through acquisition of possessions rather than personal relationships, experiences, or achievements Richins and Dawson (1992) developed the three-factor MVS and determined it was internally consistent across different samples The coefficient alpha for the entire 18-item scale was above 70 In addition, the Chi-square difference-test values indicated that the predicted three-factor model fit better than either the two-factor or the one-factor model (Richins & Dawson) Furthermore, Richins (2004) reassessed the 18-item MVS and suggested that a 15-item version demonstrated better psychometric properties than the 18, 9, or 3-item versions across multiple populations 92 D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 3.2 Possession Rating Scale (PRS) In an extension of the previous work by Richins and Dawson (1992), Richins (1994) investigated the value (meanings) that possessions have for their owners From the literature, she identified four potential dimensions: utilitarianism value, enjoyment, representations of interpersonal ties, and identity/self-expression After several studies, Richins proposed 11 different dimensions of values, the four previously mentioned and seven new ones: facilitates interpersonal ties, represents achievement, symbolizes personal history, financial aspects, appearance-related, status, and spiritual We have provided the description of each dimension in Table and have also classified each dimension as either a consumer value (CV; internally based) or as a perceived product attributes (PPA; externally based) Richins developed the 23-item scale (PRS) based on a revised version of Dittmar’s Possession Rating Scale and suggested these 11 dimensions (see Richins, 1994, p 519) However, Richins did not report any internal consistency coefficients or construct reliability coefficients 3.3 Perceived Value (PERVAL) Scale Unlike the consumer values discussed by Richins and Dawson (1992), and as we noted above, perceived product attributes relate to the ‘‘consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product (or service) based on perceptions of what is received and what is given’’ (Zeithaml, 1988, p 14) Sweeney and Soutar (2001) argued that previously developed value factors failed to capture the extensive range of what the customer valued because the focus was primarily on the relationship between quality and price Thus, Sweeney and Soutar developed a scale (i.e., PERVAL) based on both utilitarianism and hedonic components to measure ‘‘consumption values’’ (p 203) that effect purchase attitudes and behaviors in a retail setting They derived two subscales representing the hedonic component: Emotion and Social For example, emotional value is ‘‘derived from the feelings or affective states that a product generates’’ (p 211) On the other hand, social value is ‘‘derived from the product’s ability to enhance social self-concept’’ (p 211) In addition, they developed two subscales representing the utilitarianism component: Price and Quality For example, price or value for money is ‘‘the utility derived from the product due to the reduction of its perceived short term and longer term costs’’ (p 211) Similarly, the perceived quality of a product is ‘‘the utility derived from the perceived quality and expected performance of the product’’ (p 211) We propose that the Emotion and Social dimensions refer to consumer values, whereas the Price and Quality dimensions refer to perceived product attributes The PERVAL subscales were internally consistent in measuring consumers’ post purchase experiences (a = 84–.95; Sweeney & Soutar, 2001) The results indicated that the four-factor model (Quality, Price, Emotion, and Social) fit better than the three-factor, one-factor, or null model Sweeney and Soutar also claimed convergent and discriminant validity Although all three of the aforementioned scales have been tested on product consumption, testing these scales within the licensed sport merchandise context is necessary to determine applicability Positive psychometric results of these scales would allow retailers to use them as a reliable and valid tool for better communication with individual consumers and, as a result, could enhance overall sales of LSM When retail staffs have a clear understanding of the nature of consumer values and the perceived attributes of a particular product to the consumer, then they will be able to develop better marketing strategies rather than relying on mere discounting (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001) However, if these scales not have adequate psychometric properties, then it will be necessary to continue scale development in Table Classification and descriptions of dimensions of the combined scales Consumer values (CV) Refers to Centrality Happiness Success Enjoyment Represents interpersonal ties Facilitates interpersonal ties Self-expression Represents achievement Symbolizes nostalgic appeal Status Spiritual Social Emotion Centrality in beliefs of possession The possession of a certain product that gratifies happiness (i.e., a hedonic value) The possession of a certain product as a symbol of success The possession of a certain product that provides enjoyment (i.e., a hedonic value) Memories of relationships with significant others Spending time with others The expression or reinforcement of the sense of the self The effort to acquire Memories of personal events or places The social prestige that a possession entails A spiritual link to higher forces The possession of a certain product that gives social approval The possession of a certain product that escalates one’s emotion Perceived product attributes (PPA) Utilitarianism Financial aspects Quality Price Appearance-related A product’s usefulness and convenience The monetary worth of the product Acceptable standard of quality of the product Reasonable price of the product The beauty or attractiveness of the product or enhanced self-image and appearance D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 93 an attempt to create scales that will measure consumption values and perceived product attributes that influence the purchase of LSM Method 4.1 Sample and procedures We used a convenience sampling method to survey 319 college students We collected 117 responses from two physical activity classes and two lecture classes in a large Mid-western university and 202 responses from several lecture classes in a large southeastern university The final sample (N = 312; seven were eliminated due to incompleteness) consisted of 56.9% males and 43.1% females, with an average age of 21.5 years Most respondents were U.S citizens (97.3%) Prior to distributing the surveys, brief instructions were given to the students about the nature of the study, including purpose of the study, voluntary participation, and confidentiality of the information they provided 4.2 Instrumentation The questionnaire consisted of items from the three existing materialism scales: MVS, PRS, and PERVAL scale The 18-item MVS consisted of the three constructs of Centrality (7 items), Happiness (5), and Success (6) The respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed in identifying what affected their consumption of LSM by using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from (1) Strongly Disagree to (5) Strongly Agree The 23-item PRS consisted of 11 constructs: Enjoyment (3 items), Represents Interpersonal Ties (3), Facilitates Interpersonal Ties (1), Utilitarianism (3), Appearance-related (2), Self-expression (2), Spiritual (1), Personal History (3), Achievement (2), Status (2), and Financial Aspects (1) The respondents were asked to think about a specific piece of LSM and write it down in the space provided They were then asked to rate the extent how true or not true each item in the scale was for them, relative to the piece of sport merchandise they had chosen The preface to all the items was ‘‘This possession is important to me because it ’’ and an example of an item is ‘‘provides comfort or emotional security.’’ The response format was a 7-point Likert-type scale from (1) Not True for Me to (7) Very True for Me The 19-item PERVAL scale consisted of four constructs: Price (4 items), Quality (6), Emotion (5), and Social (4) The same introduction as PRS was given to the respondents except that we emphasized the LSM item should be one that the respondent had purchased for him or herself and was important The preface statement was ‘‘I bought this item because it ,’’ followed by an item such as ‘‘has an acceptable standard of quality.’’ The items were measured on a 7-point Likerttype scale ranging from (1) Strongly Disagree to (7) Strongly Agree Thus, there were 60 items total from the scales We also included several demographic items in the questionnaire 4.3 Data analysis We used the RAMONA program available in the SYSTAT 7.0 statistical package and performed three separate Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA), one on each scale (MVS, PRS, and PERVAL), to examine factor loadings of the items on the pre-specified factors We used the results of the CFA to test the construct reliability and the discriminant validity of the subscales within their own scale We also calculated Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for each pre-specified factor To examine the relationships among all items across the three scales, we used a principal components analysis (PCA) with direct Oblimin rotation We used the Scree plot, the eigenvalue criterion and interpretability of dimensions, to determine how many components should be retained Items with factor loadings exceeding without a double loading greater than were retained Tabachnick & Fidell (2001) stated that ‘‘as a general rule of thumb, it is comforting to have a least 300 cases for factor analysis.’’ (p 588): thus our sample of 312 was sufficient for a PCA We then used a multidimensional scaling technique (Euclidean distance method using ALSCAL program in SPSS) to obtain additional information about the CV-PPA structure S-stress tests were reported as an indication of model fit Stress values < 05 indicate ‘‘excellent’’, values < indicate ‘‘good’’, values < indicate ‘‘usable’’, and values > indicates uninterpretable model fit (Clarke, 1993, p 126) Results Respondents identified the following types of licensed sport merchandise that they had recently purchased for themselves and that were the focal point of their responses to the items for each scale: hat, visor, jersey, sweatshirt, T-shirt, short, hooded t-shirt, mug, automobile license plate, jacket, and key chain 5.1 Model estimation and psychometric properties of scales MVS The CFA on the 18-item MVS indicated that the model had reasonable fit (RMSEA, eA = 064; CI = 054, 073; pclose = 011; x2/df = 296.74/132 = 2.25) as did the CFA on the15-item MVS (RMSEA, eA = 063; CI = 051, 075; pclose = 037, D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 94 Table Beta coefficients, means, standard deviations, internal consistency, and average variance extracted for the material values scale (15-item MVS) Item Centrality (5) I put less emphasis on material things than most people I knowa Buying things gives me a lot of pleasure I try to keep my life simple, as far as possessions are concerned I usually buy only the things I needa The things I own aren’t all that important to mea Success (5) I admire people who own expensive home, cars, and clothes I like to own things that impress people Some of the most important achievements in life include acquiring material possessions The things I own say a lot about how well I’m doing in life I don’t place much emphasis on the amount of material objects people own as a sign of successa Happy (5) I wouldn’t be any happier if I owned nicer thingsa It sometimes bothers me quite a bit that I can’t afford to buy all the things I’d like I have all the things I really need to enjoy lifea My life would be better if I owned certain things I don’t have I’d be happier if I could afford to buy more things b M SD 528 607 515 282 699 2.67 3.32 2.77 3.56 2.99 93 97 93 92 1.06 633 682 584 451 497 2.94 3.00 2.03 2.72 2.84 1.03 1.07 97 96 96 437 491 538 745 775 3.03 2.41 3.01 2.77 3.02 1.09 1.07 1.06 1.00 1.05 a AVE 66 296 71 331 72 375 Note Statistical method: confirmatory factor analysis a Indicates reverse scored items x2/df = 193.35/87 = 2.22) Although Richins (2004) suggested that the 15-item version demonstrated better psychometric properties than the 18, 9, or 3-item versions, we found no significant differences between the 18-item and 15-item versions Therefore, we selected the more parsimonious one (15-item version) The 15-item MVS evidenced poor construct reliability for all three subscales as the average variance extracted (AVE) values of each (refer to Table 2) did not reach the 50 cut-off value (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998) However, internal consistency for the three sub-scales (refer to Table 2), centrality (a = 66), success (a = 71), and happiness (a = 72), were either close to or above the 70 value recommended by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) Initial discriminant validity was evidenced in that no correlation between any of the three constructs was within two standard errors of unity (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) However, the subscales failed Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) more stringent test of discriminant validity in which the AVE value for a specific construct should be greater than the squared value of the correlation between that construct and any other (refer to Table 3) PRS The CFA results on the PRS indicated that the model had mediocre fit (RMSEA, eA = 092; CI = 084, 100; pclose = 000, x2/df = 634.92/178 = 3.57) The AVE values for the interpersonal ties, self-expression, achievement, utilitarianism, appearance-related, and personal history subscales (refer to Table 4) did not reach the 50 cut-off value The internal consistency for each of the eight pre-specified factors was moderate at best (a ranged from 55 to 78; refer to Table 4) Discriminant validity was evidenced in that only out of 55 correlations were within two standard errors of unity However, the following subscales failed the more stringent test for discriminant validity: represents interpersonal ties, self-expression, achievement, utilitarianism, enjoyment, appearance, status, personal history, facilitates interpersonal ties, and spirit (refer to Table 5) PERVAL The CFA results on the PERVAL scale indicated that the model had poor fit (RMSEA, eA = 100; CI = 092, 108; pclose = 000, x2/df = 589.18/146 = 4.04) AVE values were less than 50 on two of the subscales: price and quality (refer to Table 6) Two factors in the PERVAL Scale, emotion (a = 84) and social (a = 90) displayed a high level of internal consistency However, quality (a = 74) was borderline, and price (a = 62) was below Nunnally and Bernstein’s (1994) cut-off value (refer to Table 6) All four constructs met the less stringent test of discriminant validity However, only the social subscale met the criterion of the more stringent test (refer to Table 7) 5.2 Principal component analysis The PCA initially identified 14 components with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 Based on interpretation of the Scree plot, the loadings, and meaningfulness of the components, we identified components that were interpretable: five that Table Correlation Table (MVS) Centrality Success Happiness Centrality Success Happiness 877a 533 641 Note Statistical method: confirmatory factor analysis (EQS) a Correlation is not distinct (Kline, 2005) D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 95 Table Beta coefficients, means, standard deviations, internal consistency, and average variance extracted for the Possession Rating Scale (PRS) b M SD 558 660 681 3.38 4.30 2.45 2.07 2.06 1.83 653 710 4.83 3.96 1.61 1.84 635 635 3.67 2.73 1.99 1.77 873 334 619 2.84 4.35 2.30 1.66 1.76 1.62 666 827 714 3.14 3.92 3.99 1.72 1.81 1.86 648 709 4.65 3.60 1.70 1.80 718 831 3.35 3.12 1.76 1.71 565 724 643 3.47 3.56 4.94 2.06 1.90 1.80 Financial aspects = FINANC (1) Is valuable in terms of money 2.97 1.85 Facilitates interpersonal ties = FAINTIE (1) Allows me to spend time or share activities with other people 3.03 1.79 Spiritual = SPIRIT (1) Provides a spiritual link to divine or higher forces 1.98 1.47 Item Represents interpersonal ties = REINTIE (3) Reminds me of my relationship with a particular person Reminds me of my family or a group of people I belong to Represents my family heritage or history Self-expressive = SELFEXP (2) Allows me to express myself Expresses what is unique about me, different from others Represents achievement = REACHIE (2) Reminds me of my skills, achievements, or goals Required a lot of effort to acquire or maintain Utilitarian = UTILIT (3) Provides me freedom or independence Has a lot of practical usefulness Allows me to be efficient in my daily life or work Enjoyment = ENJOY (3) Provides comfort or emotional security Provides enjoyment, entertainment, or relaxation Improves my mood Appearance-related = APPEAR (2) Is beautiful or attractive in appearance Improves my appearance or the way I look Status = STATUS (2) Has social prestige value, gives me social status Makes others think well of me Symbolizes personal history = SPERHIS (3) Reminds me of my childhood Is a record of my personal history Reminds me of particular events or places a AVE 67 404 63 465 55 403 65 419 78 546 62 462 74 604 68 419 could be categorized as consumer values (CV) dimensions (Social Approval, Materialism, Covetousness, Prestige/Status, and Escape) and four that could be categorized as perceived product attributes (PPA) dimensions (Price/Quality, Nostalgia, Craftsmanship, and Aesthetic Beauty) These items and dimensions explained approximately 55% of the total variance Only 30 out of 60 total items from all three scales combined loaded higher than on the interpretable components with no double-loadings greater than on another component (Table 8) The AVE values ranged from 408 to 632 and the Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 525 to 896 (Table 8) None of the correlations from the PCA component correlation matrix exceeded 48 (evidence for discriminant validity; Table 9) In addition, discriminant validity was established at the stringent level More specifically, discriminant validity among the nine constructs from the PCA was Table Correlation Table (PRS) Represents interpersonal ties Self-expressive Represents achievement Utilitarian Enjoyment Appearance-related Status Symbolizes personal history Financial aspects 10 Facilitates interpersonal ties 11 Spiritual 774 736 608 732 424 401 963a 233 502 500 583 529 672 696 518 838 281 285 156 370 488 349 419 762 502 374 494 955a 675 491 503 072 704 401 813 578 741 196 729 375 720 485 402 453 230 454 424 539 225 Note Statistical method: confirmatory factor analysis (EQS) a Correlation is not distinct (Kline, 2005) 10 11 230 399 365 174 253 476 D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 96 Table Beta coefficients, means, standard deviations, internal consistency, and average variance extracted for the Perceived Value (PERVAL) Scale Item Emotion (5) Is one that I would enjoy Would make me want to use it Is one that I would feel relaxed about using Would make me feel good Would give me pleasure Quality (6) Has poor workmanshipa Would not last a long timea Would perform consistently Has consistent quality Is well made Has an acceptable standard of quality Price (4) Is reasonably priced Offers value for money Is a good product for the price Would be economical Social (4) Would give its owner social approval Would make a good impression on other people Would help me to feel acceptable Would improve the way I am perceived b M SD 792 785 710 699 640 5.45 4.79 5.12 4.47 4.56 1.30 1.67 1.47 1.49 1.58 317 053 730 754 712 800 6.06 5.54 4.93 4.75 5.29 5.20 1.20 1.56 1.46 1.40 1.29 1.33 632 300 829 593 4.77 3.37 5.04 3.76 1.51 1.75 1.37 1.70 830 845 798 849 3.85 3.87 3.32 3.44 1.70 1.63 1.67 1.69 a AVE 84 529 74 392 62 382 90 690 Note Statistical method: confirmatory factor analysis a indicate reverse scored items Table Correlation table (PERVAL) Emotion Quality Price Social Emotion Quality Price Social 864a 734 652 775 479 374 Note Statistical method: confirmatory factor analysis (EQS) a Correlation is not distinct (Kline, 2005) evidenced in that the AVE value was greater than the squared correlation between that construct and any others (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) 5.3 Multidimensional scaling (MDS) MDS created a visual map exhibiting relative relationships among values on a two-dimensional configuration Coefficients of alienation for the two-dimensional solution indicated an excellent fit (Young’s S-stress < 04; Clarke, 1993) The stress test indicates ‘‘the proportion of the variance of the disparities not accounted for by the MDS model’’ (Hair et al., 1998, p 540) The visual projections of the two-dimensional solution of the hypothesis were also interpretable (refer to Fig 1) This pattern provides additional information supporting discriminant validity Discussion This study examined the psychometric properties of three values scales: the MVS (Richins & Dawson, 1992), the PRS (Richins, 1994), and the PERVAL scale (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001) In addition, we investigated the relationships among the items across the three scales in an attempt to distinguish between the items measuring ‘‘consumer values’’ that influence product purchases and the items representing ‘‘perceived attributes’’ of a product 6.1 Overview of the significant findings The 15-item MVS had reasonable fit and was comparable to the findings of Richins and Dawson’s (1992) for non-sport consumers However, in that research they did not report either construct reliability or discriminant validity values More recently Richins (2004) noted that the original 18-item MVS had ‘‘some imperfect psychometric properties’’ (p 212) and D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 97 Table Factor loadings for the three scales combined (PCA) Item Social1 Social3 Social2 Social4 Centrality3 Centrality6 Centrality2 Price3 Quality3 Price1 Quality5 Quality4 Stimulate Personal History2 Represents Achievement1 Represents Interpersonal Tie2 Stimulate Personal History3 Represents Interpersonal Tie1 Happy4 Happy5 Happy3 Quality1 Quality2 Utilitarianism1 Facilitate Interpersonal Tie Enjoy2 Enjoy1 Finance Represents Achievement2 Appearance-related1 Appearance-related2 812 780 745 686 10 774 687 613 874 711 706 660 639 672 637 631 627 627 804 727 703 À.733 À.701 872 846 819 619 732 697 À.709 À.684 AVE a 573 896 482 666 522 800 408 787 556 727 514 525 632 865 511 693 468 620 Note Extraction method: Principal Component Analysis Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization Table Correlations for the three scales combined 1 Social approval Materialism Price/quality Nostalgia Covetousness Craftsmanship Escape Prestige/status Aesthetic beauty 03 11* 24** À.02 06 11* 15* 21** 04 14* 18** 12* 29** 07 À.15* 46** 40** 30** À.11 14* 17** 21** À.16** À.16** À.02 37** 41** 45** 1 13* 35** 40** 16** À.20** 48** 39** 44** Note Statistical method: principle component analysis (SPSS) * Correlation is significant at the 05 level ** Correlation is significant at the 01 level thus, she recommended that a shorter version (15-item) be used instead Unfortunately, we found that in the present sample the 15-item version had construct reliability and discriminant validity problems as well We also found that the CFA on the PRS did not indicate good model fit and both convergent and discriminant validity tests failed at the stringent level We could not compare these results to Richins’ (1994) study because no model test or psychometric tests were performed in that research The PERVAL scale also displayed poor model fit and although two subscales had construct reliability, the scale generally failed reliability and discriminant validity tests This does not support the previous reliability and discriminant validity results reported by Sweeney and Soutar (2001) in a non-sport consumer sample In sum, the psychometric properties for all three scales indicated that the designated items did not represent the referent constructs well in this data set This may be due to the potential distinctiveness of LSM relative to other goods in the SEC paradigm These scales may measure search goods adequately, but the added value of the association with the team brand for LSM might make LSM more similar to an experience good or credence good, thus potentially limiting the applicability of the MVS, PRS, or PERVAL Therefore, we performed a PCA on the combined items to determine whether we could discover better constructs and to determine similarities among items across the three scales The PCA indicated 14 dimensions with eigenvalues greater than 1, but only were interpretable; that could be categorized as consumer values (CV) dimensions D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 98 Fig Hypothetical structure of relations among consumer values and perceived product attributes (Social Approval, Materialism, Covetousness, Prestige/Status, and Escape) and that could be categorized as perceived product attributes (PPA) dimensions (Price/Quality, Nostalgia, Craftsmanship, and Aesthetic Beauty) These nine dimensions combined explained 55% of the total variance 6.2 Consumer value dimensions Factor consists of the four items from the PERVAL social subscale referring to purchasing products to achieve Social Approval and had good construct reliability and internal consistency Although those items were designed to be product related, they seem to be more like Consumer Values than Perceived Product Attributes Holt’s (1995) idea supports this supposition in that consumers seek object meanings through affiliating action Richins’ (1994) and Sweeney and Soutar’s (2001) suggestions are also consistent with our scheme in that products boost one’s social self-concept and this eventually influences one’s social relationships (e.g., acceptance by others) Factor seems to be conceptually related to the notion of basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) In sport spectating situations, fans tend to psychologically associate themselves with others who are successful (Cialdini et al., 1976; Wann & Branscombe, 1990) Factor consists of three items from the MVS scale: all from the Centrality subscale Both the construct reliability and internal consistency of this scale were a little below typical benchmarks This indicates that these items need further refinement However, the content of this factor seems to be similar to the concept of Materialism, which was defined by Belk (1984) as ‘‘the importance a consumer attaches to worldly possessions At the highest levels of materialism, such possessions assume a central place in a person’s life and are believed to provide the greatest sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction’’ (p 291) These results are consistent with Richins and Dawson’s (1992) findings, in that participants acknowledged that they are likely to possess or acquire products solely for the joy of acquisition Richins and Dawson stated that, ‘‘materialists view themselves as successful to the extent they can possess products that project desired self-images’’ (p 304) For instance, college students may tend to possess or acquire quality licensed sport products in order to impress others as a sign of success Factor consists of three items from the Happiness subscale of the MVS and shows adequate construct reliability and internal consistency Although these items originally were designed to represent happiness, they may refer to Covetousness These items seem to represent the desire to be able to own things that are not obtainable at the moment For instance, one item depicted the consumer’s desire to buy more things (I’d be happier if I could afford to buy more things) Another item was D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 99 ‘‘My life would be better if I owned certain things that I don’t have.’’ Consumers who score highly on this subscale tend to feel their life could be improved if they could just buy things that they want but cannot afford Factor consists of four items from the PRS scale: two from the Enjoyment subscale and one each from the Utilitarianism and the Facilitate-Interpersonal-Ties subscale This factor indicates very good construct reliability and internal consistency These items seem to represent the consumer values of Escape, or the opportunity to spend time or share activities with other people For instance, one item indicated the consumer’s desire to find relaxation and entertainment and another item represented freedom to whatever the consumer wanted, (i.e., an escape from the confinements of a job) Individual consumers tend to perceive the possession of the merchandise as an instrument to satiate their escape values Accordingly, this concept may be similar to the escape motive found in the spectator sports literature (Milne & McDonald, 1999; Trail & James, 2001; Wann, 1995) We named Factor Prestige/Status It consists of two items from the Finance and Represents Achievement subscales of the PRS The construct reliability and internal consistency are borderline at best These items may indicate an evaluation of the product relative to its social value that is ‘‘derived from the product’s ability to enhance social self-concept’’ (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001, p 211) Accordingly, individuals tend to judge a product’s worth in terms of its comparative perceived benefits such as social prestige that reflects one’s social status 6.3 Perceived product attribute dimensions Factor consists of two items from the PERVAL Price subscale and four items from the PERVAL Quality subscale and has good internal consistency, but the construct reliability needs to be improved This factor refers to the product being reasonably priced and having good quality Thus we named the dimension Price/Quality This result is consistent with Dodds, Monroe, and Grewal’s (1991) study, in that price becomes a yardstick to judge the quality of a product The result is also consistent with the findings of Sweeney and Soutar’s (2001) and Richins’ (1994; 2004) studies which show that financial aspects stimulate consumers to purchase products In addition to the price of products, sports consumers seem to be concerned about quality of the merchandise they purchase This interpretation is similar to Holt’s (1995) classification of baseball spectators based on their consuming patterns and their evaluation of product prices That is, the consumer compares the price of the product to the perceived quality of the product, and then determines whether or not to make the purchase Factor includes two items from the Represents Interpersonal Ties subscale of the PRS, and one item each from the Personal History and Achievement subscales of the PRS The internal consistency was adequate, but the construct reliability indicates that the scale needs to be improved This factor seems to represent the individual’s personal history including personal skills, goals and achievements The purchased products represent a personal experience because the products induce memories of particular events, places, or persons (nostalgic appeal) This may be related to the concept of identification in spectator sports More specifically, individuals may want to remember or symbolize a historical moment related to sports by associating themselves with the event, sport, or team/athlete (Branscombe & Wann, 1991; Foote, 1951) Thus we name this factor Nostalgia Factor consists of two items from the PERVAL Quality subscale and represents Craftsmanship This indicates an evaluation of the product relative to its utilitarianism aspects, in contrast to its hedonic value (Dhar & Wertenbroch, 2000) Although only two items load on this factor and cause it to have poor internal consistency, it has adequate construct reliability Because the items are negatively worded they may differ solely because of method error This scale needs additional items and improved psychometrics, but it is retained for future study Factor 10 consists of two items from the Appearance-Related PRS subscale These items refer to the Aesthetic Beauty of the product and how the apparel made the wearer look The external aesthetic features of a product are an important aspect of perceived product attributes; however, an item that refers to improving the appearance of the consumer may be construed as more of a consumer value Thus, this factor may be a combination of both CV and PPA This is also a dimension that needs further evaluation as both the internal consistency and construct reliability were below typical benchmarks Factors 9, 11–14 are not interpretable because each has only one item that loaded above on the factor In addition, Factors 9, 13, and 14 are very general in nature and discuss the importance of possessions Factor 11 is related to practicality of a product Because products can be important for many reasons, this item is judged to be an umbrella concept and is not included Factor 14 should have loaded on Factor (Covetousness), but probably did not because it was negatively worded 6.4 Structural relationships among CVs and PPAs The PCA correlation matrix indicated that all of the dimensions were distinct as none of the correlations were greater than 32 However, the correlation matrix does not provide easily determinable evidence of the relationships other than the bivariate correlations The multidimensional scaling method provides support for extending the comprehensiveness of the dimensions measuring consumption values that impact product purchase, in this specific case, licensed sport merchandise, beyond the measures proposed by Richins (1994), Richins and Dawson (1992), and Sweeney and Soutar (2001) It also provides additional information that supports the hypothetical structure of relations among CVs and PPAs The factors are clearly distinguishable on the two-dimensional space (Fig 1) For example, based on the arbitrary vertical and horizontal lines within the two-dimensional space, the value clusters located on the right side of the circle (i.e., Nostalgia, Aesthetic Beauty, Price/Quality, and Craftsmanship) connote the perceived product attributes (PPA) of licensed sport products relative 100 D Lee et al / Sport Management Review 14 (2011) 89–101 perhaps to specific perceived attributes of the product On the other hand, the value clusters located on the left side of the circle (i.e., Escape, Social Approval, Prestige/Status, Covetousness, and Materialism) represent consumer values (CV), which are beliefs that act as guiding principles toward purchase behavior of LSM In addition, the constructs could be further classified into subcategories based on contextual themes For instance, the PPA dimension was classified into two sub-categories: a symbolic category represented by Nostalgia and Aesthetic Beauty, and a functional/utilitarian category represented by Price/ Quality and Craftsmanship The CV dimension was classified into two subcategories: a social category represented by Social Approval, Prestige/Status, and Escape, and a hedonic category represented by Covetousness and Materialism In sum, these findings indicate the existence of at least two dimensions that measure drive for consumption of licensed sport merchandise: CV and PPA Furthermore, these dimensions are comprised of sub-dimensions with different categories The results also support a more comprehensive representation of consumption values than those proposed by Richins (1994), Richins and Dawson (1992) and Sweeney and Soutar (2001) and thus theoretically should be able to predict consumption behavior better The CV and PPA dimensions lend credibility to LSM’s capacity and means to provide added value to the users This is important evidence that differentiates LSM from other products and indicates that it may not fit easily within the SEC paradigm as solely a search good, an experience good, or a credence good It may be some combination of the three More specifically, consumption of LSM may offer an opportunity for consumers to be psychologically connected to their favorite sport team, and thus it is endowed with added value (e.g., vicarious achievement) on top of its common utilitarian function (e.g., as a garment) This premise is consistent with what we found in that various personal values and perceived product attributes affected an individual’s perception of LSM The multidimensional scaling results support this premise The participants indicated that they considered the utilities of LSM such as price, quality, and craftsmanship of the products (i.e., functional/utilitarian values) as important At the same time, the participants also indicated that they considered many other unique assets that LSM (e.g., a University of Florida’s football team jersey) offers but general consumer products (e.g., a dress shirt) may not For example, the participants indicated that they purchased LSM because the product has symbolic (e.g., nostalgic and/or association with the university athletic team), materialistic, and social (e.g., social acceptance and escape) value that is important for the consumer However, as noted below, considerably more work needs to be done 6.5 Limitations of the study This study may be limited by its sample (college students) from a face validity standpoint, but the sample is not likely to negatively affect the reliability or construct reliability of these subscales, which is one of the foci of this research In addition, although use of samples from diverse populations would benefit this kind of study, it does not deteriorate from an attempt to explain purchase behavior because college students often actively engage in merchandise buying, especially merchandise indicating support for their school Another potential limitation is the rationale regarding the number of the factors and rotational scheme used in the PCA (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) 6.6 Recommendations Based on these results, several things are apparent First, even though the fit indices and construct validity measures of the initial three scales (MVS, PRS, and PERVAL) were not sufficient, when the items were combined across all three scales, no item loaded on a factor with an item from another scale This could mean two things One, because of different response formats, items only loaded with similarly formatted items Or, two, even though there was not necessarily good discriminant validity within each scale, the subscales are distinct across scales Second, there seem to be distinctions between personal values and the perceived attributes of an object Items did tend to load on factors that represented this distinction, with one exception (the Aesthetic Beauty factor) Third, it is readily apparent that future research needs to develop more valid and reliable scales to measure consumer values and perceived product attributes In addition, it is evident that these items and scales, although more comprehensive than the previous ones, still only explain a little over half of the total variance of consumption values and product attributes for consuming LSM when all of the items were considered This indicates that there are additional items and dimensions that exist and need to be identified Richins (1994), Richins and Dawson (1992), and Sweeney and Soutar (2001) have provided an excellent starting point However, for this sample, these scales did not work adequately Although Richins and Dawson suggested that Kahle, Beatty, and Homer (1986) oversimplified a ‘‘complex psychological phenomena’’ (p 308), it may be necessary to reexamine the List of Values (LOV) scale or to use the more comprehensive list of personal values from other scholarly works including Rokeach (1973a, 1973b) and Schwartz (1992) to determine the relevance of personal values on consumption of licensed sport merchandise From the standpoint of perceived product attributes dimensions, the constructs and items from this analysis 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