21 high pressure processing

21 High pressure processing Indrawati, A Van Loey and M Hendrickx, Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven 21.1 Introduction Food quality, including colour, texture, flavour and nutritional value, is of key importance in the context of food preservation and processing Colour, texture and flavour refer to consumption quality, purchase and product acceptability whereas the nutritive values (i.e vitamin content, nutrients, minerals, healthrelated food components) refer to hidden quality aspects In conventional thermal processing, process optimisation consists of reducing the severity of the thermal process in terms of food quality destruction without compromising food safety Due to the consumer demand for fresher, healthier and more natural food products, high pressure technology is considered as a new and alternative unit operation in food processing and preservation 21.2 High pressure processing in relation to food quality and safety The effect of high pressure on food microorganisms was reported for the first time by Hite in 1899, by subjecting milk to a pressure of 650 MPa and obtaining a reduction in the viable number of microbes Some years later, the effect of high pressure on the physical properties of food was reported, e.g egg albumin coagulation (Bridgman, 1914), solid–liquid phase diagram of water (Bridgman, 1912) and thermophysical properties of liquids under pressure (Bridgman, 1923) A more extensive exploration of high pressure as a new tool in food technology started in the late 1980s (Hayashi, 1989) Recently, extensive research has been conducted and is in progress on 434 The nutrition handbook for food processors possible applications of high pressure for food preservation purposes or for changing the physical and functional properties of foods The potentials and limitations of high pressure processing in food applications have become more clear A number of key effects of high pressure on food components have been demonstrated including (i) microorganism inactivation; (ii) modification of biopolymers including enzyme activation and inactivation, protein denaturation and gel formation; (iii) quality retention (e.g colour, flavour, nutrition value) and (iv) modification of physicochemical properties of water (Cheftel, 1991; Knorr, 1993) One of the unique characteristics of high pressure is that it directly affects non-covalent bonds (such as hydrogen, ionic, van der Waals and hydrophobic bonds) and very often leaves covalent bonds intact (Hayashi, 1989) As a consequence, it offers the possibility of retaining food quality attributes such as vitamins (Van den Broeck et al, 1998), pigments (Van Loey et al, 1998) and flavour components, while inactivating microorganisms and food-quality related enzymes, changing the structure of food system and functionality of food proteins (Hoover et al, 1989; Knorr, 1995; Barbosa-Cànovas et al, 1997; Messens et al, 1997; Hendrickx et al, 1998) Furthermore, by taking advantage of the effect on the solid liquid phase transition of water, some potential applications in food processing such as pressure-assisted freezing (pressure shift freezing), pressureassisted thawing (pressure shift thawing), non-frozen storage under pressure at subzero temperature and formation of different ice polymorphs can be offered while keeping other food quality properties (Kalichevsky et al, 1995) Besides, pressure can also induce increased biochemical reaction rates with effect on bioconversions and metabolite production (Tauscher, 1995) Based on these effects of high pressure on food systems, several potential applications can be identified such as high pressure pasteurisation of fruit and vegetables products (Parish, 1994; Yen and Lin, 1996), tenderisation of meat products (Elgasim and Kennick, 1980; Ohmori et al, 1991; Cheftel and Culioli, 1997), texturisation of fish proteins, applications in the dairy industry (Messens et al, 1997) and high pressure freezing/thawing (Kalichevsky et al, 1995) With regard to food safety, the effect of combined high pressure and temperature on microorganisms has been investigated extensively (Sonoike et al, 1992; Hashizume et al, 1995; Knorr, 1995; Heinz and Knorr, 1996; Hauben, 1998; Reyns et al, 2000) The number of vegetative cells can be remarkably reduced by applying pressures up to 400 MPa combined with moderate temperatures up to 40°C for 10–30 minutes (Knorr, 1995) On the other hand, exposing the surviving fraction of vegetative cells to repeated pressure cycles can also increase their pressure resistance, e.g Escherichia coli mutants resistant to high pressure inactivation were created (Hauben, 1998; Alpas et al, 1999; Benito et al, 1999) Microbial spores can be inactivated by exposure to high pressure but a pressure treatment at room temperature may not be sufficient for substantial reduction of viable spore counts Most studies show that pressure can induce spore germination and the extent of spore inactivation can be increased by increasing pressure and temperature (Knorr, 1995; Wuytack, 1999) However, tailing phenomena for germination and inactivation curves can occur for ‘super dormant’ spores after High pressure processing 435 long exposure times As a consequence, to achieve sterility with minimal impact on nutrition value, flavour, texture and colour, high pressure processing using multiple high pressure pulses and achieving an end temperature above 105°C under pressure for a short time has been proposed (Meyer et al, 2000; Krebbers et al, 2001) 21.3 High pressure technology and equipment for the food industry High pressure technology has been used in the industrial production process of ceramics, metals and composites in the last three decennia As a result, today, high pressure equipment is available for a broad range of process conditions, i.e pressures up to 1000 MPa, temperatures up to 2200°C, volumes up to several cubic meters and cycling times between a few seconds and several weeks Since high pressure technology offers advantages in retaining food quality attributes, it has recently been the subject of considerable interest in the food industry as a non-thermal unit operation High pressure equipment with pressure levels up to 800 MPa and temperatures in the range of to 90°C (on average) for times up to 30 minutes or longer is currently available to the food industry The actual high pressure treatment is a batch process In practice, high pressure technology subjects liquid or solid foods, with or without packaging, to pressures between 50 and 1000 MPa According to Pascal’s principle, high pressure acts instantaneously and uniformly throughout a mass of food and is independent of the size and shape of food products During compression, a temperature increase or adiabatic heating occurs and its extent is influenced by the rate of pressurisation, the food composition and the (thermo)physical properties of the pressure transfer medium The temperature in the vessel tends to equilibrate towards the surrounding temperature during the holding period During pressure release (decompression), a temperature decrease or adiabatic cooling takes place In high pressure processing, heat cannot be transferred as instantaneously and uniformly as pressure so that temperature distribution in the vessel might become crucial During the high pressure treatment, other process parameters such as treatment time, pressurisation/decompression rate and the number of pulses have to be considered as critical Two types of high pressure equipment can be used in food processing: conventional batch systems and semi-continuous systems In the conventional batch systems, both liquid and solid pre-packed foods can be processed whereas only pumpable food products such as fruit juice can be treated in semi-continuous systems Typical equipment for batch high pressure processing consists of a cylindrical steel vessel of high tensile strength, two end closures, a means for restraining the end closures (e.g a closing yoke to cope with high axial forces, threads, pins), (direct or indirect) compression pumps and necessary pressure controls and 436 The nutrition handbook for food processors instrumentation Different types of high pressure vessels can be distinguished, i.e (i) ‘monobloc vessel’ (a forged constructed in one piece); (ii) ‘multi layer vessel’ consisting of multiple layers where the inner layers are pre-stressed to reach higher pressure or (iii) ‘wire-wound vessel’ consisting of pre-stressed vessels formed by winding a rectangular spring steel wire around the vessel The use of monobloc vessels is limited to working pressures up to 600 MPa and for high pressure application above 600 MPa, pre-stressed vessels are used The position of high pressure vessels can be vertical, horizontal or tilting depending on the way of processing (Mertens and Deplace, 1993; Zimmerman and Bergman, 1993; Galazka and Ledward, 1995; Mertens, 1995; Knorr, 2001) 21.4 Commercial high pressure treated food products With regard to the large-scale application of high pressure technology in the food industry, a problem still to be solved today is the improvement of the economic feasibility, i.e the high investment cost mainly associated with the high capital cost for a commercial high pressure system The cost of a vessel is determined by the required working pressure/temperature and volume Furthermore, once technically and economically feasible processes have been identified, one needs to evaluate whether the unique properties of the food justify the additional cost and to what extent consumers are willing to pay a higher price for a premium quality product High pressure technology is unlikely to replace conventional thermal processing, because the second technique is a well-established and relatively cheap food preservation method Currently, the reported cost range of high pressure processes is 0.1–0.2 $ per litre (Grant et al, 2000) whereas the cost for thermal treatment may be as low as 0.02–0.04 $ per litre However, the technology offers commercially feasible alternatives for conventional heating in the case of novel food products with improved functional properties which cannot be attained by conventional heating Today, several commercial high pressure food products are available in Japan, Europe and the United States A Japanese company, Meidi-Ya, introduced the first commercial pressure treated product (a fruit-based jam) on the market in April 1990, followed in 1991 by a wide variety of pressure-processed fruit yoghurts, fruit jellies, fruit sauces, savoury rice products, dessert and salad dressings (Mertens and Deplace, 1993) Recently, there were more than 10 pressure treated food products available in Japan In Europe, fruit juice was the first commercially available high pressure product in France followed by a pressurised delicatessen style ham in Spain and pressurised orange juice in the United Kingdom In the United States, high pressure treated guacamole has been launched on the commercial market In addition, pressure treated oysters and hummus are commercially available A list of commercially available pressurised food products in Japan, Europe and the United States in the last decade is summarised in Table 21.1 High pressure processing 21.5 437 Effect of high pressure on vitamins Many authors have reported that the vitamin content of fruit and vegetable products is not significantly affected by high pressure processing According to Bignon (1996), a high pressure treatment can maintain vitamins C, A, B1, B2, E and folic acid and the decrease of vitamin C in pressurised orange juice is negligible as compared to flash pasteurised juices during storage at 4°C for 40 days Similar findings have been reported for red orange juice; high pressure (200– 500 MPa/30°C/1 min) did not affect the content of several vitamins (vitamins C, B1, B2, B6 and niacin) (Donsì et al, 1996) 21.5.1 Ascorbic acid The effect of high pressure treatment on ascorbic acid has been more intensively studied than on vitamins such as A, B, D, E and K Studies on ascorbic acid stability in various food products after high pressure treatment are available Most authors have reported that the ascorbic acid content is not significantly affected by high pressure treatment For example, in fruit and vegetables, about 82% of the ascorbic acid content in fresh green peas can be retained after pressure treatment at 900 MPa/20°C for 5–10 minutes (Quaglia et al, 1996) Almost 95–99% of the vitamin C content in strawberry and kiwi jam can be preserved by pressurisation between 400 and 600 MPa for 10–30 (Kimura, 1992; Kimura et al, 1994) In freshly squeezed citrus juices, high pressures up to 600 MPa at 23°C for 10 did not affect the initial (total and dehydro) ascorbic acid concentration (Ogawa et al, 1992) Similar findings are also reported in strawberry ‘coulis’ (a common sauce in French dessert) and strawberry nectar; the vitamin C content was preserved after 400 MPa/20°C/30 (88.68% of the initial content in fresh sample) and in guava purée, high pressure (400 and 600 MPa/15 min) maintained the initial concentration of ascorbic acid (Yen and Lin, 1996) Also, ascorbic acid stability in egg yolk has been investigated, showing that high pressure treatment (200, 400, 600 MPa) at 20°C for 30 did not significantly affect the vitamin C content (Sancho et al, 1999) The evolution of the vitamin C content in high pressure treated food products during storage has also been investigated Most studies show that storage at low temperature can eliminate the vitamin C degradation after high pressure treatment For example, the quality of high pressure treated jam was unchanged for 2–3 months at 5°C but a deterioration of vitamin C was noticed during storage at 25°C (Kimura, 1992; Kimura et al, 1994) Another study on strawberry nectar showed that ascorbic acid remained practically the same during high pressure processing (500 MPa/room temperature/3 min) but decreased during storage (up to 75% of the initial concentration after storage for 60 days at 3°C) (Rovere et al, 1996) In valencia orange juice, the percentage of ascorbic acid in pressurised juice (500–700 MPa/50–60°C/60–90 s) was 20–45% higher than in heat treated juice (98°C/10 s) during storage at and 8°C for 20 weeks (Parish, 1997) Studies on guava purée showed that different high pressure processes have a Commercial pressurised food products in Japan, Europe and the United States in the last ten years (after Cheftel, 1997) Product P/T/time combination Role of HP Fruit based products (pH < 4.5); jams (apple, kiwi, strawberry); jellies; purées; yoghurts; sauces 400 MPa, 10–30 min, 20 °C Pasteurisation, improved gelation, faster sugar penetration; limiting residual pectinmethylesterase activity Pokka Corp (stopped c2000–2001) Grapefruit juice 200 MPa, 10–15 min, °C Reduced bitterness Wakayama Food Ind Mandarin juice (winter season only) (only Ϸ20% of HP juice in final juice mix) 300–400 MPa, 2–3 min, 20 °C Reduced odor of dimethyl sulphide; reduced thermal degradation of methyl methionine sulphoxide; replace first thermal pasteurisation (after juice extraction) and final pasteurisation before packing: 90 °C, Nisshin fine foods Sugar impregnated tropical fruits (kept at -18 °C without freezing) For sorbet and ice cream 50–200 MPa Faster sugar penetration and water removal Fuji chiku mutterham Raw pork ham 250 MPa, hours, 20 °C Faster maturation (reduced from weeks to hours); faster tenderisation by internal proteases, improved water retention and shelf life Kibun (stopped in 1995) ‘Shiokara’ and raw scallops / Microbial sanitation, tenderisation, control of autolysis by endogenous proteases Yaizu fisheries (test market only) Fish sausages, terrines and ‘pudding’ 400 MPa Gelation, microbial sanitation, good texture of raw HP gel Chiyonosono ‘Raw’ sake (rice wine) / Yeast inactivation, fermentation stopped without heating JAPAN Meidi-ya The nutrition handbook for food processors Company 438 Table 21.1 Table 21.1 Continued Commercial pressurised food products in Japan, Europe and the United States in the last ten years (after Cheftel, 1997) Product P/T/time combination Role of HP QP corp Ice nucleating bacteria (for fruit juice and milk) / Inactivation of Xanthomonas, no loss of ice nucleating properties Ehime co Japanese mandarin juice / Cold pasteurisation Echigo seika Moci rice cake, Yomogi fresh aromatic herbs, hypoallergenic precooked rice, convenience packs of boiled rice 400–600 MPa, 10 min, 45 or 70°C Microbial reduction, fresh flavour and taste, enhances rice porosity and salt extraction of allergenic proteins Takansi Fruit juice / Cold pasteurisation Pon (test market in 2000) Orange juice / / Fruit juice (orange, grape fruit, citrus, mixed fruit juice) 400 MPa, room temperature Inactivation of micro flora (up to 106 CFU/g), partial inactivation of pectinmethylesterase Espuna (Spain) Deli-style processed meats (ham) 400–500 MPa, few minutes, room temperature / Orchard House Foods Ltd (UK) (since July 2001) Squeezed orange juice 500 MPa, room temperature Inactivation of micro flora (especially yeast) and enzyme, keeping natural taste Avocado paste (guacamole, chipotle sauce, salsa) and pieces 700 MPa, 10–15 min, 20°C Microorganism inactivation, polyphenoloxidase inactivation, chilled process Motivatit, Nisbet Oyster Co, Joey Oyster Oysters 300–400 MPa, room temperature, 10 minutes Microorganism inactivation, keeping raw taste and flavour, no change in shape and size Hannah International Foods Hummus / / EUROPE Pampryl (France) THE UNITED STATES Avomex 439 / indicates no detailed information available High pressure processing Company 440 The nutrition handbook for food processors different influence on the stability of vitamin C during storage The ascorbic acid content in untreated and pressurised (400 MPa/room temperature/15 min) guava puree started to decline respectively after 10 and 20 days whereas that in heated (88–90°C/24 s) and (600 MPa/room temperature/15 min) pressurised guava purée remained constant during 30 and 40 days respectively (Yen and Lin, 1996) Kinetics of vitamin C degradation during storage have been studied in high pressure treated strawberry coulis Vitamin C degradation of pressurised (400 MPa/20°C/30 min) and untreated coulis are nearly identical during storage at 4°C Moreover, it has been shown that a pressure treatment neither accelerates nor slows down the kinetic degradation of ascorbic acid during subsequent storage (Sancho et al, 1999) The effect of oxygen on ascorbic acid stability under pressure has been studied by Taoukis and co-workers (1998) At 600 MPa and 75°C for 40 exposed to air, ascorbic acid in buffer solution (sodium acetate buffer (0.1 M; pH 3.5–4)) degraded to 45% of its initial content while in the absence of oxygen, less vitamin loss was observed Moreover, the addition of 10% sucrose resulted in a protective effect on ascorbic acid degradation It was also noted that vitamin C loss was higher in fruit juice compared to that in buffer solutions Vitamin C loss in pineapple and grapefruit juice after pressurisation (up to 600 MPa and 75°C) was max 70% and 50% respectively At constant pressure (600 MPa after 40 min), the pressure degradation of vitamin C in pineapple juice was temperature sensitive, e.g loss 20–25% at 40°C, 45–50% at 60°C and 60–70% at 75°C in contrast to that in grapefruit juice Detailed kinetics of combined pressure and temperature stability of ascorbic acid in different buffer (pH 4, and 8) systems and real products (squeezed orange and tomato juices) have been carried out by Van den Broeck and coworkers (1998) At 850 MPa and 50°C for hour, no ascorbic acid loss was observed The high pressure/thermal degradation of ascorbic acid at 850 MPa and 65–80°C followed a first order reaction The rate of ascorbic acid degradation at 850 MPa increased with increasing temperature from 65 to 80°C indicating that pressure and temperature act synergistically Ascorbic acid in tomato juice was more stable than in orange juice It was also reported that temperature dependence of ascorbic acid degradation (z value) was independent of the pressure level Based on this study, it can be concluded that ascorbic acid is unstable at high pressure (850 MPa) in combination with high temperature (65–80°C) 21.5.2 Vitamin A and carotene The effect of high pressure treatment on carotene stability has been studied in carrots and in mixed juices Based on the available literature data, we can conclude that high pressure treatment does not affect (or affects only slightly) the carotene content in food products a- and b-carotene contents in carrot puree were only slightly affected by pressure exposure at 600 MPa and 75°C for 40 (Tauscher, 1998) Similar findings have also been reported by de Ancos and coworkers (2000) showing that carotene loss in carrot homogenates and carrot paste High pressure processing 441 was maximally 5% under pressure condition of 600 MPa/75°C/40 In orange, lemon and carrot mixed juice, high pressure (500 and 800 MPa/room temperature/5 min) did not affect or only slightly affected the carotenoid content and during storage at 4°C; the carotenoid content in the pressure treated juice remained constant for 21 days (Fernández Garcia et al, 2001) In addition, high pressure treatment can affect the extraction yield of carotenoids Studies on persimmon fruit purées showed that high pressure treatment could increase the extraction yield of carotenoids between and 27% e.g Rojo Brillante cultivars (50 and 300 MPa/25°C/15 min) and Sharon cultivars (50 and 400 MPa/25°C/15 min) The increase in extraction yield of carotene (40% higher) was also found in pressurised carrot homogenate (600 MPa/25°C/10 min) (de Ancos et al, 2000) Pressure stability of retinol and vitamin A has been studied in buffer systems In the model systems studied, pressure treatment could induce degradation of vitamin A For example, pressures up to 400–600 MPa significantly induced retinol (in 100% ethanol solution) degradation Degradation up to 45% was obtained after minutes exposure to 600 MPa combined with temperatures at 40, 60 and 75°C Pressure and temperature degradation of retinol followed a second order reaction Another study on vitamin A acetate (in 100% ethanol solution) showed that degradation of vitamin A acetate was more pronounced by increasing pressure and temperature About half of the vitamin A acetate concentration could be retained by pressure treatment at different pressure/temperature/time combinations, i.e 650 MPa/70°C/15 minutes and 600 MPa/25°C/40 minutes At 90°C, complete degradation was observed after 2–16 minutes (pressure up to 600 MPa) No effect of oxygen was noticed on retinol and vitamin A acetate degradation (Butz and Tauscher, 1997; Kübel et al, 1997; Tauscher, 1999) However, findings on retinol pressure stability in real food products differ from those obtained in model systems In egg white and egg yolk, the initial retinol content can be preserved by pressure treatment from 400 up to 1000 MPa at 25°C for 30 minutes (Hayashi et al, 1989) 21.5.3 Vitamins B, E and K The stability of vitamins B, E and K towards pressure treatment has been studied in model systems and food products In food model systems, high pressure (200, 400, 600 MPa) treatments at 20°C for 30 minutes have no significant effect on vitamin B1 (thiamine) and B6 (pyridoxal) (Sancho et al, 1999) Studies on the pressure effect on vitamin K1 showed that small quantities of m- and p-isomeric Diels–Alder products were formed after hours at 650 MPa and 70°C (Tauscher, 1999) In cow’s milk, high pressure (400 MPa/room temperature/30 minutes) did not alter the content of vitamin B1 and B6 (pyridoxamine and pyridoxal) (Sierra et al, 2000) The thiamine content in pork meat was not affected by high pressure (100–250 MPa/20°C/10 minutes) even after long exposure time of 18 h at 600 MPa and 20°C (Bognar et al, 1993) However, under extreme conditions of 442 The nutrition handbook for food processors high temperature (100°C) combined with 600 MPa, almost 50% of the thiamine in pork meat was degraded within 15 Moreover, riboflavin in pork meat was only slightly affected (less than 20%) after pressure treatment at 600 MPa for 15 minutes combined with temperatures between 25 and 100°C (Tauscher, 1998) Heat-sensitive vitamin derivatives in egg white and/or egg yolk, i.e riboflavin, folic acid, a-tocopherol and thiamine did not change during pressure treatment from 400 up to 1000 MPa at 25°C for 30 minutes (Hayashi et al, 1989) It can be concluded that high pressure treatment has little effect on the vitamin content of food products However, at extreme conditions of high pressure combined with high temperature for a long treatment time period, vitamin degradation is observed Regarding the use of high pressure in industrial applications, an optimised pressure/temperature/time combination must be chosen to obtain limited vitamin destruction within the constraints of the target microbial inactivation For example, a mild pressure and temperature treatment can be developed equivalent to the conventional pasteurisation processes in order to keep the vitamin content in food products while inactivating vegetative microbial cells When spore inactivation is targeted, combined high pressure thermal treatments are needed and these treatments will affect nutrients It is still an open question whether equivalent conventional thermal and new high pressure processes used for spore inactivation lead to improved vitamin retention The available data suggest positive effects but more research is needed 21.6 Effect of high pressure on lipids The most interesting effect of high pressure on lipids in foods is the influence on the solid–liquid phase transition, e.g a reversible shift of 16°C per 100 MPa for milk fat, coconut fat and lard (Buchheim et al, 1999) With respect to the nutritional value of lipids, the effect of high pressure on lipid oxidation and hydrolysis in food products is of importance Lipid oxidation is a major cause of food quality deterioration, impairing both flavour and nutritional values (related to health risks, e.g development of both coronary heart disease and cancer) Effect of high pressure on lipids has been reported by many authors and the available literature shows that pressure could induce lipid oxidation especially in fish and meat products but did not, or only slightly, affect lipid hydrolysis For example, pressures up to 1000 MPa and 80°C did not affect the hydrolysis of tripalmitin and lecithin Therefore, no fat/oil hydrolysis is expected to occur under conditions relevant for food processing (e.g 600 MPa/60°C/time less than 30 minutes) (Isaacs and Thornton-Allen, 1998) Pressure induced lipid oxidation has been studied in different model systems and food products In model systems, pressures up to 600 MPa and temperatures up to 40°C (less than hour) had no effect on the main unsaturated fatty acid in milk, i.e oleic acid Linoleic acid oxidation was accelerated by exposure to pressure treatments of less than one hour, but the effect was relatively small (about 10% oxidation) (Butz et al, 1999) Increasing pressure (100 up to 600 MPa and High pressure processing 447 susceptibility to proteolysis and the increase was more pronounced than in the presence of NaCl (Iametti et al, 1999) Digestibility of pressurised foodstuffs has been studied in vitro (using digestibility tests) and in vivo (feeding trial in young pigs) Feeding trials (using a mixture of potatoes, carrots, meat, peas and vegetable oil) showed no changes in the digestibility of the individual nutrient fractions of pressurised foodstuffs as compared to fresh (untreated) ones High pressure (500 MPa/20°C/10 min) did not affect the digestibility of the nitrogen free extract content, fats and crude extract fibre The nitrogen retention in animals was only 45.4% of the nitrogen consumed when the heat treated feed was given while it was 58.6% using pressurised food and 57.9% using an untreated feed In vitro studies showed no significant differences between the high pressure treated, heat treated (100 °C) and untreated pork samples on digestibility Pressure treated soybean had a better digestibility than the untreated sample and the lowest digestibility was found in heat treated samples (100°C) (Schöberl et al, 1999) For meat and lupin protein, the effect of high pressure on protein digestibility has been studied using in vitro tests Protein digestibility of pressurised meat was higher than that of heat treated meat The effectiveness of food processing on protein digestibility in meat could be ranged in the following order: untreated > pressure treated (500 MPa/10°C/10 min) (70% of digestibility) ≥ pressure treated (200 MPa/10°C/10 min) (67% of digestibility) > heat treated (95°C/30 min) samples (43% of digestibility) For lupin proteins, the pressure induced digestibility was more remarkable than for meat proteins and the ranking was different, i.e pressure treated (500 MPa/10°C/10 min): digestibility up to 430% > heat treated (95°C/30 min): digestibility up to 300% > pressure treated (200 MPa/ 10°C/10 min): digestibility up to 140% ≥ untreated samples (de LamballerieAnton et al, 2001) 21.7.5 Allergens Most foods contain both major and minor allergens The majority of foodallergic individuals are sensitive to one or more of the major allergens present in common allergic foods The effect of different food processing unit operations on the immunochemical stability of celery allergens has been studied in detail using in vitro and in vivo tests by Jankiewicz and co-workers (1997) High antigenic and allergenic activity in native celery was reduced by heat treatment and only mildly reduced by non-thermal processing such as high pressure (600 MPa/ 20°C), high voltage pulse treatment and irradiation In dairy and egg based products, modification of epitopic regions of ovalbumin in pressure-treated ovalbumin has been studied by Iametti and co-workers (1998 and 1999) Pressure treatment (600–800 MPa/25°C/5 min) resulted in modifications of the epitopic regions of the protein (determined by direct and non-competitive ELISA) Increasing the pressure level caused an increased loss of recognisability Under pressure, ovalbumin in the presence of sucrose presented a lower recognisability than in the presence of NaCl Samples treated at 448 The nutrition handbook for food processors 600–800 MPa/25°C/5 in the presence of NaCl showed an affinity towards antibodies that was 40% lower than that of untreated protein When comparing with the result determined by direct competitive ELISA, it can be concluded that pressure treatment did modify epitopic regions of ovalbumin In the presence of sucrose, increasing protein concentrations led to a decrease in the specific content of antibody recognition sites per unit mass protein while no effect was found in the presence of NaCl 21.8 Future trends in high pressure research Most review articles have pointed out the potential of high pressure as a nonthermal alternative for food processing and preservation allowing high retentions of food quality such as colour, flavour and nutrient value The available information in literature is qualitative and fragmentary Systematic quantitative data are very limited The latter information is indispensable when providing satisfactory evidence for legislative bodies to enable the authorisation of high pressure technology in the food processing/preservation industries (e.g EU legislation regarding ‘novel food’) Therefore, quantitative studies must be carried out in order to allow the assessment of the impact of high pressure processing on food quality and safety In comparison with conventional thermal processing, high pressure as a novel unit operation should be able to guarantee increased overall quality, i.e to increase functional properties within the constraints of microbial and toxicological safety The occurrence of toxic or allergenic compounds in pressure treated food products must receive more attention in the future The present situation requires further investigations and calls for more systematic studies Today, high pressure treatments combined with high temperatures for short times have been proposed for food sterilisation because of their effective microbial spore inactivation On the other hand, some articles have reported that the stability of nutrients (e.g vitamins, lipids, health-related food compounds) and possibly chemical compounds is limited under such extreme pressure-temperature conditions This calls for more research on these compounds under high pressure sterilisation conditions and both mechanistic and kinetic information are required 21.9 Sources of further information and advice High pressure research has been concentrated in Japan, Europe and the United States Lists of academic and non-academic research centres actively involved in high pressure research in the field of bioscience, food science and chemistry are tentatively summarised in Appendices 21.1 and 21.2; they are based on their participation in European and/or Japanese High Pressure Research conferences and Annual IFT meetings in the period 1991–2001 Further information on annual meetings of high pressure research in Japan, Europe and the United States can High pressure processing 449 be obtained from professional organisations such as the European High Pressure Research Group (http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/ehprg), the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) Non Thermal Division (http://www.ift.org/divisions/nonthermal/ ), the UK High pressure club for food processing (http://www.highpressure.org.uk) and the Japanese Research Group of High Pressure Information about general aspects of high pressure processing can be found at the Ohio State University website (http://grad.fst.ohio-state.edu/hpp/) and FLOW website (http://www fresherunderpressure.com/) 21.10 Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Fund for Scientific Research – Flanders (FWO) for their financial support 21.11 References alpas h, kalchayanand n, bozoglu f, sikes a, dunne p and ray b (1999), ‘Variation in resistance to hydrostatic pressure among strains of food-borne pathogens’, Appl Environ Microbiol, 65(9), 4248–51 angsupanich k and ledward d a (1998), ‘Effects of high pressure on lipid oxidation in fish’, in Isaacs N S (ed), High Pressure Food Science, Bioscience and Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 284–7 barbosa-cánovas g v, pothakamury u r, palou e and swanson b g (1997), ‘High pressure food processing’, in Barbosa-Cánovas G V, Pothakamury U R, Palou E and Swanson B G (eds), Nonthermal Preservation of Foods, New York, Marcel Dekker, 9–52 benito a, ventoura g, casadei m, robinson t and mackey b (1999), ‘Variation in resistance of 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and model lipid systems under pressure’, in Ludwig H (ed), Advances in High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heidelberg, Springer, 153–6 butz p and tauscher b (1997), ‘Food chemistry under high hydrostatic pressure’, in Isaacs N S (ed), High Pressure Food Science, Bioscience and Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 133–44 butz p, fernandez a, fister h and tauscher b (1997), ‘Influence of high hydrostatic pressure on aspartame: instability at neutral pH’, J Agric Food Chem, 45, 302–3 450 The nutrition handbook for food processors butz p, edenharder r, fister h and tauscher b (1998), ‘The influence of high pressure processing on antimutagenic activities of fruit and vegetables juices’, Food Res Int, 30(3/4), 287–91 butz p, zielinski b, ludwig h and tauscher b (1999), ‘The influence of high pressure on the autoxidation of major unsaturated fatty acid constituents of milk’, in Ludwig H (ed), Advances in High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heidelberg, 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treatment on the carotenoid composition and the radical scavenging activity of persimmon fruit purees’, J Agric Food Chem, 48, 3542–8 defaye a b and ledward d a (1999), ‘Release of iron from beef, liver, soya flour and spinach on high pressure treatment’, in Ludwig H (ed), Advances in High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heidelberg, Springer, 417–18 de lamballerie-anton m, delápine s and chapleau n (2001), ‘Effect of high pressure on the digestibility of meat and lupin proteins’, Oral presentation in XXXIX European High Pressure Research Group Meeting, Santander (Spain), 16–19 September 2001 dissing j, bruun-jensen l and skibsted l h (1997), ‘Effect of high-pressure treatment on lipid oxidation in turkey thigh muscle during chill storage’, Z Lebensm Unters Forsch A, 205, 11–13 donsì g, ferrari g and di matteo m (1996), ‘High pressure stabilization of orange juice: evaluation of the effects of process conditions’, Ital J Food Sci, 2, 99–106 elgasim e a and kennick w h (1980), ‘Effect of pressurization of pre-rigor beef muscles on protein quality’, J Food Sci, 45, 1122–4 fernández garcia a, butz p, bognàr a and tauscher b (2001), ‘Antioxidative capacity, nutrient content and sensory quality of orange juice and an orange-lemon-carrot juice product after high pressure treatment and storage in different packaging’, Eur Food Res Technol, 213, 290–6 galazka v b and ledward d a (1995), ‘Developments in high pressure food processing’, Food Technol Int Europe, 123–5 grant s, patterson m and ledward d (2000), ‘Food processing gets freshly squeezed’, Chemistry and Industry, 24 January 2000, 55–8 grupe c, ludwig h and tauscher b (1997), ‘The effect of high pressure on the degradation of isothiocyanates’, in Isaacs N S (ed), High Pressure Food Science, Bioscience and Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 125–9 hashizume c, kimura k and hayashi r (1995), ‘Kinetic analysis of yeast inactivation by high pressure treatment at low temperatures’, Biosci Biotech Biochem, 59, 1455–8 hauben k (1998), High hydrostatic pressure as a hurdle in food preservation: inactivation and sublethal injury of Escherichia coli, Doctoral dissertation no 375, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium hayashi r (1989), ‘Application of high pressure to food processing and preservation: High pressure processing 451 philosophy and development’, in Spiess W E L and Schubert H (eds), Engineering and Food, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 815–26 hayashi r, kawamura y, nakasa t and okinawa o (1989), ‘Application of high pressure to food processing: pressurization of egg white and yolk, and properties of gels formed’, Agric Biol Chem, 53(11), 2935–9 heinz v and knorr d (1996), ‘High pressure inactivation kinetics of Bacillus subtilis cells by a three-state-model considering distributed resistance mechanisms’, Food Biotechnol, 10, 149–61 hendrickx m, ludikhuyze l, van den broeck i and weemaes c (1998), ‘Effects of high pressure on enzymes related to food quality’, Trends Food Sci Technol, 9, 197–203 hite b h (1899), ‘The effect of pressure in the preservation of milk’, Bulletin, 58, 15–35 hoover d g, metrick c, papineau a m, farkas d f and knorr d (1989), ‘Biological effects of high hydrostatic pressure on food microorganisms’, Food Technol, 43(3), 99–107 iametti s, donnizzelli e, vecchio g, rovere p p, gola s and bonomi f (1998), ‘Macroscopic and structural consequences of high-pressure treatment of ovalbumin solutions’, J Agric Food Chem, 46, 3521–7 iametti s, donnizzelli e, pittia p, rovere, p p, squarcina n and bonomi f (1999), ‘Characterization of high-pressure treated egg albumen’, J Agric Food Chem, 47, 3611–16 isaacs n s and thornton-allen n (1998), ‘The hydrolysis of lipids and phospholipids at atmospheric and at high pressure’, in Isaacs N S (ed), High Pressure Food Science, Bioscience and Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 122–4 jankiewicz a, baltes w, bögl k w, dehne l i, jamin a, hoffmann a, haustein d and vieths s (1997), ‘Influence of food processing on the immunochemical stability of celery allergens’, J Sci Food Agri, 75, 359–70 kalichevsky m t, knorr d and lillford p j (1995), ‘Potential food applications of high pressure effects on ice-water transitions’, Trends Food Sci Technol, 6, 253–9 kimura k (1992), ‘Development of a new fruit processing method by high hydrostatic pressure’, in Balny C, Hayashi R, Heremans K and Masson P, High Pressure and Biotechnology, Montrouge, John Libbey Eurotext Ltd, 224, 279–83 kimura k, ida m, yoshida y, ohki k, fukumoto t and sakui n (1994), ‘Comparison of keeping quality between pressure-processed and heat-processed jam: changes in flavour components, hue and nutritional elements during storage’, Biosci Biotechnol Biochem, 58, 1386–91 knorr d (1993), ‘Effects of high-hydrostatic-pressure processes on food safety and quality’, Food Technol, 47(6), 156–61 knorr d (1995), ‘Hydrostatic pressure treatment of food: microbiology’, in Gould G W (ed), New Methods of Food Preservation, Glasgow, Blackie Academic and Professional, 159–75 knorr d (2001), ‘High pressure processing for preservation, modification and transformation of foods’, Oral presentation in XXXIX European High Pressure Research Group Meeting, Santander (Spain), 16–19 September 2001 kowalski e, ludwig h and tauscher b (1996), ‘Behaviour of organic compounds in food under high pressure: lipid peroxidation’, in Hayashi R and Balny C (eds), High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Amsterdam, Elsevier Science B V, 473–8 krebbers b, matser a, koets m, bartels p and van den berg r (2001), ‘High presuretemperature processing as an alternative for preserving basil’, Poster presentation in XXXIX European High Pressure Research Group Meeting, Santander (Spain), 16–19 September 2001 kübel j, ludwig h and tauscher b (1997), ‘Influence of UHP on vitamin A’, in Heremans K (ed), High Pressure Research in the Biosciences and Biotechnology, Leuven, Belgium, Leuven University Press, 331–4 mertens b (1992), ‘Under pressure’, Food Manufacture, 11, 23–4 452 The nutrition handbook for food processors mertens b and deplace g (1993), ‘Engineering aspects of high pressure technology in the food industry’, Food Technol, 47(6), 164–9 mertens b (1995), ‘Hydrostatic pressure treatment of food: equipment and processing’, in Gould G W (ed), New Methods of Food Preservation, Glasgow, Blackie Academic and Professional, 135–58 messens w, van camp j and huygebaert a (1997), ‘The use of high pressure to modify the functionality of food proteins’, Trends Food Sci Technol, 8, 107–12 meyer r s, cooper k l, knorr d and lelieveld h l m (2000), ‘High-pressure sterilization of foods’, Food Technol, 54(11), 67–72 ogawa h, fukuhisa k and fukumoto h (1992), ‘Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure on Sterilization and Preservation of Citrus Juice’, in Balny C, Hayashi K, Heremans K and Masson P (eds), High Pressure and Biotechnology 224, Montrouge, John Libbey Eurotext, 269–78 ohmori t, shigehisa t, taji s and hayashi r (1991), ‘Effect of high pressure on the protease activities in meat’, Biol Chem, 55(2), 357–61 parish m (1994), ‘Isostatic high pressure processing of orange juice’, in Singh P R and Oliveira F A R (eds), Minimal Processing of Foods and Process Optimization, Boca Raton, CRC press, 93–102 parish m e (1997), ‘High pressure effects on quality of chilled orange juice’, in Heremans K (ed), High Pressure Research in the Biosciences and Biotechnology, Leuven, Leuven University Press, 443–6 quaglia g b, gravina r, paperi r and paoletti f (1996), ‘Effect of high pressure treatments on peroxidase activity, ascorbic acid content and texture in green peas’, Lebens Wiss U Technol, 29, 552–5 reyns k m f a, soontjes c c f, cornelis k, weemaes c a, hendrickx m e and michiels c w (2000), ‘Kinetic analysis and modeling of combined high pressure-temperature inactivation of the yeast Zygosaccharomyces bailii’, Int J Food Microbiol, 56, 199–210 rovere p, carpi g, gola s, dall’aglio g and maggy a (1996), ‘HPP strawberry products: an example of processing line’, in Hayashi R and Balny C (eds), High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Amsterdam, Elsevier Science B V, 445–50 sancho f, lambert y, demazeau g, largeteau a, bouvier j m and narbonne j f (1999), ‘Effect of ultra-high hydrostatic pressure on hydrosoluble vitamins’, J Food Eng, 39, 247–53 schöberl h, ruß w, meyer-pittroff r, roth f x and kirchgessner m (1999), ‘Comparative Studies concerning the digestibility of raw, heated and high pressure treated foods in young pigs and in vitro’, in Ludwig H (ed), Advances in High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heidelberg, Springer, 385–8 severini c, romani s, dall’aglio g, rovere p, conte l and lerici c r (1997), ‘High pressure effects on oxidation of extra virgin olive oils’, It J Food Sci, 3(9), 183– 91 sierra i, vidal-valverde c and lopez-fandino r (2000), ‘Effect of high pressure on the vitamin B1 and B6 content of milk’, Milchwissenschaft, 55(7), 365–7 sonoike k, setoyama t, kuma y and kobayashi s (1992), ‘Effect of pressure and temperature on the death rates of Lactobacillus casei and Escherichia coli’, in Balny C, Hayashi R, Heremans K and Masson P (eds), High Pressure and Biotechnology 224, Montrouge, John Libbey Eurotext, 297–301 taoukis p s, panagiotidis p, stoforos n g, butz p, fister h and tauscher b (1998), ‘Kinetics of vitamin C degradation under high pressure-moderate temperature processing in model systems and fruit juices’, in Isaacs N S (ed), High Pressure Food Science, Bioscience and Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 310–16 tauscher b (1995), ‘Pasteurization of food by hydrostatic high pressure: chemical aspects’, Z Lebensm Unters Forsch, 200, 3–13 tauscher b (1998), ‘Effect of high pressure treatment to nutritive substances and natural pigments’, in Autio K (ed), ‘Fresh novel foods by high pressure’, VTT Symposium 186, Espoo, Finland, Technical Research Centre of Finland, 83–95 High pressure processing 453 tauscher b (1999), ‘Chemical Reactions of Food Components Under High Hydrostatic Pressure’, in Ludwig H (ed), Advances in High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heidelberg, Springer, 363–6 van den broeck i, ludikhuyze l, weemaes c, van loey a and hendrickx m (1998), ‘Kinetics for isobaric-isothermal degradation of l-ascorbic acid’, J Agric Food Chem, 46, 2001–6 van loey a, ooms v, weemaes c, van den broeck i, ludikhuyze l, indrawati, denys s and hendrickx m (1998), ‘Thermal and pressure-temperature degradation of chlorophyll in broccoli (Brassica oleracea L italica) juice: a kinetic study’, J Agric Food Chem, 46(12), 2785–92 wada s (1992), ‘Quality and lipid change of sardine meat by high pressure treatment’, in Balny C, Hayashi R, Heremans K and Masson P (eds), High Pressure and Biotechnology 224, Montrouge, John Libbey Eurotext, 235–8 wada s and ogawa y (1996), ‘High presure effects on lipid degradation: myoglobin change and water holding capacity’, in Hayashi R and Balny C, High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Amsterdam, Elsevier Science B V, 351–6 wuytack e (1999), Pressure-induced germination and inactivation of Bacillus subtilis spores, Doctoral dissertation no 404, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium yen g c and lin h t (1996), ‘Comparison of high pressure treatment and thermal pasteurisation on the quality and shelf life of guava puree’, Int J Food Sci Technol, 31, 205–13 zimmerman f and bergman c (1993), ‘Isostatic high-pressure equipment for food preservation’, Food Technol, 47(6), 162–3 21.12 Appendices Appendix 21.1 Tentative list of universities actively involved in high pressure research in the last 10 years particularly in the field of bioscience, food science and chemistry JAPAN Department Institution City / Anan College of Technology Rakuno Gakuen University Fukui University Nakamura Gakuen University Nakamura Gakuen University Kyushu University Fukuoka University Anan Department of Food Science Department of Applied Chemistry Department of Food and Nutrition Department of Nutrition Morphology Department of Applied Science Laboratory of biochemistry, Department of Chemistry Department of Applied Biological Science Department of Applied Chemistry Department of Chemistry Department of Chemical Engineering The Graduate School of Science and Technology Ebetsu Fukui Fukuoka Fukuoka Fukuoka Fukuoka Hiroshima University Higashihiroshima Kagoshima University Kobe University Kobe University Kobe University Kagoshima Kobe Kobe Kobe 454 The nutrition handbook for food processors JAPAN Continued Department Institution City Department of Home Economics Konan Women’s University Kobe Yamate College Kyoto University Kyoto University Kyoto University Kobe Laboratory of Biochemistry Division of Applied Life Sciences Institute of Chemical Research Department of Agricultural Chemistry (Research Institute for Food Science) Department of Chemistry Department of Molecular Engineering Department of Polymer Science and Engineering Department of Applied Biology Department of Chemistry Department of Science Department of Industrial Science Faculty of Agriculture Faculty of Agriculture Department of Food Science and Technology Department of Applied Biochemistry Department of Biosystem Science Department of Chemistry Electron Microscopic Laboratory Department of Nutrition Science Laboratory of Food Science and Nutrition Institute for Chemical Reaction Science Department of Chemistry Department of Applied Biochemistry Department of Chemical Science and Technology Department of Biological Science and Technology Department of Biology Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences Food Science and Technology Department of Biological Chemistry Food Processing Centre Department of Food Science and Technology Faculty of Technology Kyoto University Kyoto University Kyoto Institute of Technology Kyoto Institute of Technology Ritsumeikan University Kyoto University of Education Kyoto University of Education Meijo University Nagoya University Nagoya University University of Niigata University of Niigata Nagaoka University of Technology University of Niigata Okayama Prefectural University Hagoromo-Gakuen College Tohoku University Ritsumeikan University Utsunomiya University University of Tokushima University of Tokushima Japan Women’s University Japan Women’s University Nihon University Nihon University Tokyo University of Agriculture Tokyo University of Fisheries Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology Kobe Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Nagoya Nagoya Nagoya Niigata Niigata Niigata Niigata Okayama Sakai Sendai Shiga Tochigi Tokushima Tokushima Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo High pressure processing 455 JAPAN Continued Department Institution City School of Human Life and Environmental Science Faculty of Home Economics Biotechnology Research Centre Ochanomizu University Tokyo Ochanomizu University Toyama Prefectural University Utsunomiya University Tokyo Toyama Department of Applied Biochemistry Utsunomiya EUROPE Department Institution City Country Laboratory of Food Technology Laboratory of Food Microbiology Laboratory for Chemical and Biological Dynamics Unité de Technologie des Industries AgroAlimentaires Department of Food Technology and Nutrition Department of Food Preservation and Meat Technology Department of Dairy and Food Science Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Leuven Belgium Leuven Belgium Leuven Belgium Institute of Biochemistry LBPA Laboratoire de Génie des Procédés Alimentaires et Biotechnologiques Laboratoire de Génie Protéique et Cellulaire Unité de Biochimie et Technologie Alimentaires Genie des Procedes Alimentaires (GEPEA) Laboratoire de Biochimie et Technologies des Aliments Gembloux Agricultural Gembloux University Belgium Ghent University Ghent Belgium Czech Academy of Sciences Prague Czech Republic Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University Odense University Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan ENSBANA – University of Bourgogne University of La Rochelle University of Montpellier Frederiksberg Denmark Odense Cachan Denmark France Dijon France La Rochelle France Montpellier France Nantes France Talence France École Nationale d’Ingénieurs des Techniques des Industries Agricoles et Alimentaires Institut Supérieure de Technologie Alimentaires de Bordeaux 456 The nutrition handbook for food processors EUROPE Continued Department Institution Interface Haute Pression École Nationale Talence – Supérieure Bordeaux Bordeaux de Chimie et de Physique de Bordeaux Technische Universität Berlin Berlin Department of Food Biotechnology and Food Process Engineering Department of Chemistry Institute of Physiology Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy Institute of Inorganic Chemistry Institute of Food Process Engineering Lehrstuhl für Fluidmechanik und Prozessautomation Lehrstuhl für Energieund Umwelttechnik der Lebensmittelindustrie Institut für Ernährungsphysiologie Department of Molecular Biology Lehrstuhl für Technische Mikrobiologie Laboratory for Food Chemistry and Technology Department of Biophysics and Radiation Biology Dipartimento di Scienze Molecolari Agroalimentari Dipt Di Fisiologia e Biochimica Generali Istituto di Impianti Chimici Instituto di Biofisica Dipartimento di Scienze degli Alimenti University of Dortmund University of Heidelberg University of Heidelberg City Country France Germany Dortmund Germany Heidelberg Germany Heidelberg Germany University of Kiel Kiel Germany Technische Universität München Technische Universität München FreisingWeihenstephan Freising Germany Technische Universität München Freising Germany Technische Universität München Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry Technische Universität München National Technical University of Athens Semmelweis University University of Milan Freising Germany Göttingen Germany Munchen Germany Athens Greece Budapest Hungary Milan Italy Università degli Studi Milan Italy University of Padova Padova Italy CNR University of Udine Pisa Udine Italy Italy Germany High pressure processing EUROPE 457 Continued Department Institution City Country Istituto Policattedra Kluyver Laboratory for Biotechnology Department of Food Technology University of Verona Technische Universiteit Delft University of Agriculture and Technology Warsaw Agricultural University University of Aveiro Moscow State University University of Maribor Verona Delft Olsztyn Italy The Netherlands Poland Warsaw Poland Aveiro Moscow Portugal Russia Maribor Slovenia Department of Food Hygiene Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Tecnologia dels Aliments (CeRTA) Protein Engineering Laboratory Laboratory of Physical Chemistry Institut de Chimie Minérale et Analytique (BCH) Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology School of Food Biosciences Department of Chemistry Department of Biomedical Sciences School of Biosciences Procter Department of Food Science Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona University of Girona Bellaterra Spain Girona Spain ETH-Zentrum Zurich Switzerland University of Lausanne Lausanne Switzerland The Queen’s University of Belfast University of Strathclyde Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine University of Reading University of Reading University of Aberdeen University of Surrey University of Leeds Belfast UK Glasgow UK London UK Reading UK Reading UK Scotland UK Surrey Leeds UK UK REST OF THE WORLD Department Institution City/States Country Department of Pharmacology University of Western Australia Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Nedlands Australia Rio de Janeiro Brazil Department of Biochemistry 458 The nutrition handbook for food processors REST OF THE WORLD Continued Department Institution City/States Country Department of Medical Biochemistry Department of Biochemistry Federal University of Rio de Janeiro State University of Campinas Brazil Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry Scientific Centre of Radiobiology and Radiation Ecology McGill University Rio de Janeiro Campinas (Sao Paulo) Montreal (Quebec) Tbilisi Department of Chemical Engineering Center of Marine Biotechnology Department of Food Science and Technology Department of Food Science and Technology Department of Biochemistry The Georgian Academy of Sciences University of California University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute Oregon State University Ohio State University UT South western Medical Centre Food Science and Human Nutrition University of Florida Centre for Marine Biotechnology University of and Biomedicine California SCRIPPS, Marine Biology University of Research California Citrus Research and Education University of Florida Centre Department of Animal and Food University of Sciences Delaware Department of Chemistry Rutgers University Centre for Nonthermal Processing Washington State of Food (CNPF) University Department of Biological Systems Washington State Engineering University Department of Food Science and Washington State Human Nutrition University Food Science Department North Carolina State University Department of Microbiology and University of Immunology Rochester Department of Pharmaceutical University of Chemistry California Beckman Institute for Advanced University of Illinois Science and Technology Brazil Canada Republic of Georgia Berkeley USA Baltimore USA Corvallis USA Columbus USA Dallas USA Gainesville La Jolla USA USA La Jolla USA Lake Alfred USA Newark USA New Jersey Pullman USA USA Pullman USA Pullman USA Raleigh USA Rochester USA San Francisco Urbana USA USA High pressure processing 459 Appendix 21.2 Tentative list of research centres, government institutions and industries actively involved in high pressure research in the last 10 years JAPAN Institution City/Prefecture Pokka Corporation Department of Research and Development, Nihon Shokken Co Ltd Maruto Sangyo Co Ltd Department of Research and Development, Ichiban Foods Co Ltd Frozen Foods R&D Centre, Ajinomoto Frozen Foods Co Ltd Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Hiroshima Machinery Works Hiroshima Prefectural Food Technological Research Centre Research and Development Centre, Nippon Meat Packers, Inc Manufacturing Service Department, Nestlá Japan Ltd Mechanical Engineering Research Laboratory, Kobe Steel Ltd SR Structural Research Group Toyo Institute of Technology Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Kobe Steel Ltd National Institute of Bioscience and Human Technology, Agency of Industrial Science and Technology Research and Development Centre, Nippon Meat Packers, Inc Food Product Technologies, Central Research Laboratories, Ajinomoto Co Ltd Food and Drug Safety Centre Takanshi Milk Kato Brothers Honey Co Ltd Kumamoto Industrial Research Institute (KIRI) Hondamisohonten Co Ltd Hishiroku Co Ltd Teramecs Co Ltd Miyazaki Food Processing R&D Centre Miyazaki Prefectural Institute for Public Health and Environment Marui Co Ltd Food Technology Research Institute of Nagano Prefecture Industrial Technology Centre of Nagasaki Prefecture Food Technology Research Institute of Nagano Prefecture Mutter Ham Co Ltd Mitsubishi Rayon Engineering Co Ltd., Aichi Research Institute, Echigo Seika Co Ltd Meidi-Ya Food Factory San-Ei Gen FFI, Inc Yamamoto Suiatu Kogyosho Co Ltd Department of Sales Engineering, Yamamoto Suiatu Kogyosho Co Ltd Nitta Gelatin Inc Technology and Research Institute, Snow Brand Milk Products Co Ltd Packaging Research Institute, Dai Nippon Printing Co Ltd Technology Development Labs, Meiji Seika Kaisha Ltd Packaging Research Laboratory, Toppan Printing Co Ltd Industrial Research Institute of Shiga prefecture Research Laboratory Takara Shuzo Co Ltd Achi Ehime Fukuoka Fukuoka Gunma Hiroshima Hiroshima-shi Hyogo Hyogo Hyogo Hyogo Hyogo Ibaraki Ibaraki Ibaraki Kanagawa Kanagawa Kanagawa Kanagawa Kumamoto Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Miyazaki Miyazaki Nagano Nagano Nagasaki Nagoya Nagoya Nagoya Niigata Osaka Osaka Osaka Osaka Osaka Saitama Sayama Saitama Saitama Shiga Shiga 460 The nutrition handbook for food processors JAPAN Continued Institution City/Prefecture Biochemical Division, Yaizu Suisan Kagaku Industry Co Ltd Research Laboratory, Yamamasa Co Ltd Research Institute Kagome Co Ltd Oriental Yeast Co Ltd Research Institute of Q.P Corporation Central Research Lab., Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd The Japanese R&D Association for High Pressure Technology in Food Industry Taiyo Central R&D Institute, Taiyo Fishery Co Ltd Nippon Surio Denshi K.K (Framatome Corp.) Tetra Pak Food Industrial Research Institute Sugino Machine Ltd Toyama Food Research Institute National Institute for Materials and Chemical Research National Institute of Bioscience and Human Technology DEEP STAR group, Japan Marine Science and Technology Centre (JAMSTEC) National Research Institute of Fisheries Science Wakayama Agricultural Processing Research Corporation Shizuoka Shizuoka Tochigi-ken Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tottori Toyama Toyama Tuskuba Tuskuba Yokosuka Yokohama Wakayama EUROPE Institution City Country FMC Food Machinery Corporation Europe N.V Engineered Pressure Systems International NV (EPSI) Biotechnology and Food Research, Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) Hautes Pressions Technologies (until 2000) EPL-AGRO (until 2000) Pampryl Centre Technique de la Conservation des Produits Agricoles CLEXTRAL European Synchrotron Radiation Facility Centre de Recherches du Service de Santé des Armées Institute for Health and Medical Research (INSERM)U128 Gec ALSTHOM ACB Institute for Health and Medical Research (INSERM)U310 Equipe de Recherche Agroalimentaire Périgourdine (ERAP) National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine Nutronova GmbH UHDE Hochdrucktechik GmbH Sint Niklaas Temse Belgium Belgium Helsinki Finland Bar le Duc Bar le Duc Guadeloupe Dury France France France France Firminy Grenoble La Tronche Montpellier France France France France Nantes Paris France France Périqueux France Toulouse Berlin Frankfurt Hagen France Germany Germany Germany High pressure processing EUROPE 461 Continued Institution City Country Institute of Chemistry and Biology, Federal Research Centre for Nutrition (BFE) Federal Dairy Research Centre Max Planck Institute Experimental Station for the Food Preserving Industry Flow Pressure Systems (former ABB Pressure Systems) Exenia Group S.r.l Agrotechnological Research Institute (ATO-DLO) Unilever Research Laboratorium State Scientific Centre of Russian Federation Flow Pressure Systems (former ABB Pressure Systems) Nestlé Research Centre, Nestec Ltd National Institute of Hygiene Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Polish Academy of Sciences High Pressure Research Centre, UNIPRESS, Polish Academy of Sciences Institute of Organic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, RAMS State Scientific Centre of Russian Federation Space Biomedical Centre for Training and Research Union ‘PLASTPOLYMER’ Institute for High Pressure Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences Instituto del Frío (CSIC), Ciudad University Esteban Espuna Stansted Fluid Power Ltd Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association (CCFRA) Institute of Food Research Donetsk Physics and Technology Institute, National Ukrainian Academy of Sciences Karlsruhe Germany Kiel Mainz Parma Germany Germany Italy Milan Italy Albignasego Wageningen Vlaardingen Moscow Vaesteraas Italy The Netherlands The Netherlands Russia Sweden Lausanne Warsaw Poznan Switzerland Poland Poland Warsaw Poland Warsaw Poland Warsaw Poland Moscow Moscow Moscow St Petersburg Troitsk Russia Russia Russia Russia Russia Madrid Olot Essex Chipping Campden Norwich Donetsk Spain Spain UK UK UK Ukraine UNITED STATES, CANADA AND SOUTH AMERICA Institution City Country Food Research and Development Centre St Hyacinthe (Quebec) Chicago Keller Washington Woburn Woburn Canada National Centre for Food Safety and Technology (NCFST) Avomex Flow International Corporation BMA Laboratories, Inc BioSeq, Inc USA USA USA USA USA [...]... (http://www.ift.org/divisions/nonthermal/ ), the UK High pressure club for food processing (http://www.highpressure.org.uk) and the Japanese Research Group of High Pressure Information about general aspects of high pressure processing can be found at the Ohio State University website (http://grad.fst.ohio-state.edu/hpp/) and FLOW website (http://www fresherunderpressure.com/) 21. 10 Acknowledgements The authors would... summarised in Appendices 21. 1 and 21. 2; they are based on their participation in European and/or Japanese High Pressure Research conferences and Annual IFT meetings in the period 1991–2001 Further information on annual meetings of high pressure research in Japan, Europe and the United States can High pressure processing 449 be obtained from professional organisations such as the European High Pressure Research... hydrostatic high pressure: chemical aspects’, Z Lebensm Unters Forsch, 200, 3–13 tauscher b (1998), ‘Effect of high pressure treatment to nutritive substances and natural pigments’, in Autio K (ed), ‘Fresh novel foods by high pressure , VTT Symposium 186, Espoo, Finland, Technical Research Centre of Finland, 83–95 High pressure processing 453 tauscher b (1999), ‘Chemical Reactions of Food Components Under High. .. Leuven, Belgium hayashi r (1989), ‘Application of high pressure to food processing and preservation: High pressure processing 451 philosophy and development’, in Spiess W E L and Schubert H (eds), Engineering and Food, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 815–26 hayashi r, kawamura y, nakasa t and okinawa o (1989), ‘Application of high pressure to food processing: pressurization of egg white and yolk,... 159–75 knorr d (2001), High pressure processing for preservation, modification and transformation of foods’, Oral presentation in XXXIX European High Pressure Research Group Meeting, Santander (Spain), 16–19 September 2001 kowalski e, ludwig h and tauscher b (1996), ‘Behaviour of organic compounds in food under high pressure: lipid peroxidation’, in Hayashi R and Balny C (eds), High Pressure Bioscience... olive oil was more pressure resistant to oxidation than was seed oil and, as a consequence, extra virgin olive oil is a better choice in high pressure processed foods The effect of high pressure on essential oils of spices and herbs has been reported The essential oil content in basil can be retained by pulsed high pressure sterilisation (2 pulses of 1 minute holding time) using high pressure (≥700 MPa)... (ed), Advances in High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heidelberg, Springer, 153–6 butz p and tauscher b (1997), ‘Food chemistry under high hydrostatic pressure , in Isaacs N S (ed), High Pressure Food Science, Bioscience and Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 133–44 butz p, fernandez a, fister h and tauscher b (1997), ‘Influence of high hydrostatic pressure on aspartame:... Advances in High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heidelberg, Springer, 417–18 de lamballerie-anton m, delápine s and chapleau n (2001), ‘Effect of high pressure on the digestibility of meat and lupin proteins’, Oral presentation in XXXIX European High Pressure Research Group Meeting, Santander (Spain), 16–19 September 2001 dissing j, bruun-jensen l and skibsted l h (1997), ‘Effect of high- pressure. .. 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