examples and collocations in the french dictionnaire de langue

Examples and Collocations in the French 'Dictionnaire de langue' A P Cowie School of English, University of Leeds (Leeds LS2 9JT, UK) • Introduction It is still unusual in Britain to find a working lexicographer with the time and inclination to keep an ear tuned to current developments in linguistics W h e n the d i c t i o n a r y - m a k e r can m o v e with a s s u r a n c e and distinction b e t w e e n the t w o worlds, as Sue Atkins does, we have a rarity to b e cherished In the course of a career that has given us two major bilingual dictionaries and a succession of incisive, illuminating papers, Sue has c o m b i n e d an i n s i d e r ' s critical view of existing dictionaries - especially monolingual and bilingual learners' dictionaries - with an active e n g a g e m e n t with syntax and lexical s e m a n t i c s (Atkins and Levin 1995, Atkins, Levin and S o n g 1996), including, notably, a collaboration with C h a r l e s Fillmore in the field of frame semantics ( A t k i n s 1994, Fillmore and Atkins 1992) And not content with extending the reach of r e l e v a n t t h e o r y and description into d i c t i o n a r y - m a k i n g , S u e has led the m o v e m e n t in promoting empirical research into dictionary uses and users, both as a w a y of i m p r o v i n g the products t h e m s e l v e s a n d as the best m e a n s of enhancing their effective use (Atkins 1998) In this chapter, and a s a tribute to Sue Atkins, I propose to tackle an aspect of dictionary structure - examples - in the treatment of which linguistic expertise and c o n c e r n for didactic effectiveness are b o t h essential e l e m e n t s A n d to p r o v i d e a critical perspective on English lexicography from another dictionary culture, I shall focus on the French monolingual 'dictionnaire de l a n g u e ' ' T h e r e is a direct connection between the excellence of the works I shall discuss and the enviable degree of linguistic expertise displayed by their editors On the w h o l e , they order this matter better in France M a n y of the issues I shall touch on, linguistic and p r e s e n t a t i o n a l , h a v e e x e r c i s e d French lexicographers since the 1960s, and there is a m e a s u r e of agreement on the types of examples that are appropriate for larger and smaller dictionaries This is partly, as Q u e m a d a has s h o w n , the result of strong and persistent influences from the past As r e g a r d s e x a m p l e s , the prestige of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie, first published in 1694, ensured that later F r e n c h dictionaries would lay stress, in an unbroken tradition, on illustrative e x a m p l e s , 74 A.P Cowie a n d especially ' m i n i m a l s y n t a g m a t i c u n i t s ' , or collocations ( Q u e m a d a 1968: ) Another l o n g - s t a n d i n g subject of interest, as H a u s m a n n has shown, is the source of e x a m p l e s : are they 'les exemples citations rédigés par les lexicographes' or 'les e m p r u n t é e s aux a u t e u r s ' ( H a u s m a n n 1987: 107); and w h a t kinds of supporting context d o they provide? T h i s chapter focuses on the relationship between the forms that examples take a n d the illustrative functions that they serve W e begin (in Section 2) by setting u p a framework of e x a m p l e types H e r e w e e x a m i n e and attempt to refine the n o t i o n s of made-up quotations examples (cf H a u s m a n n ' s ' e x e m p l e s r é d i g é s ' ) and textual ('citations e m p r u n t é e s ' ) , pointing out that the difference between the t w o types need n o t b e clear-cut, since q u o t a t i o n s are often, a n d to varying degrees, adapted Again, we f o c u s on and define Quemada's 'minimal s y n t a g m a t i c u n i t s ' , also to be referred to as 'skeleton e x a m p l e s ' (cf P a l m e r 1936), which carry much of the b u r d e n of i l l u s t r a t i o n in monolingual dictionaries of various types and sizes E x a m p l e s in this part of the discussion will be drawn from two widely praised a n d highly influential o n e - v o l u m e dictionaries, the Dictionnaire contemporain ( D F C ) (first edition, 1966) and Le Petit Robert du français ( P R ) (second edition, 1993) O u r f r a m e w o r k of e x a m p l e types will reflect the forms they take in t h o s e dictionaries - t h o u g h s o m e later modification will be needed when we t u r n to c o n s i d e r m a j o r , m u l t i - v o l u m e w o r k s T h e functions of the v a r i o u s e x a m p l e types in D F C and P R will also be examined In Sections and 5, I shall be concerned with the forms taken by e x a m p l e s , a n d their didactic a n d cultural functions, in t w o m u l t i - v o l u m e m o n o l i n g u a l F r e n c h dictionaries of the present day, n a m e l y Le Grand Robert ) , and Le Trésor de la langue française (second edition, ( - ) T h e a n a l y s i s of e x a m p l e s and their u s e s in d i c t i o n a r i e s such as these needs to b e set in a historical context, a n d t h o u g h a detailed account will not be attempted, I shall refer (in Section 3) to the c i r c u m s t a n c e s which led to the inclusion of invented a n d simplified e x a m p l e s in the F r e n c h A c a d e m y ' s dictionary of 1694, and the e x c l u s i o n of literary citations W e shall find, incidentally, that there is often a c l o s e connection b e t w e e n the selection of extracts from literary texts and the desire to provide e x a m p l e s that h a v e resonance in the r e a d e r ' s m i n d As Jean a n d C l a u d e D u b o i s h a v e r e m a r k e d ( : ) , 'les e x e m p l e s littéraires font partie d e la tradition e s t h é t i q u e et m o r a l e ' Conversely, as we shall see, there is often a close link b e t w e e n the simplification of examples, made-up or borrowed, and a pedagogically i n s p i r e d w i s h to p r o v i d e m i n i m a l c o n t e x t s for sense recognition and sentence building Examples and Collocations in the French 'Dictionnaire de langue' 75 Citations, e x a m p l e s and collocations As I have already suggested, a n u m b e r of French lexicographers have, over the past thirty or more years, and with s o m e measure of agreement, succeeded in identifying the types of examples thought to be of most value in the ' l e x i c a l ' dictionary ( Q u e m a d a 1968, R e y - D e b o v e 1968, D u b o i s and Dubois 1971, I m b s 1979, Rey 1985) Interestingly - though these scholars will, u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , have had no knowledge of what had been written on the subject, in Japan, over thirty years previously - the expatriate teacher and linguist Harold Palmer, then director of the T o k y o Institute for Research in English Teaching, developed a scheme of dictionary examples intended to meet the needs of foreign learners of English ( P a l m e r 1936; cf C o w i e 1999a) T h o u g h P a l m e r ' s f r a m e w o r k was comparatively simple, interesting parallels can be d r a w n between his categorization and the later French schemes, and I shall refer to these in what follows Quotations, whether from a literary or non-literary source, or from speech or writing, played no part in the early E F L dictionaries, and in fact did not m a k e their a p p e a r a n c e until the c o r p u s - b a s e d dictionaries of the late 1980s T h e dictionary in our set which c o m e s closest to an English learner's dictionary D F C - contains no quotations either On the surface, P R is quite different, each page containing from 10 to 50 citations in brackets followed by the n a m e of an author or periodical ( R e y 1992: xv) But these are not the 'minimally a d a p t e d ' quotations, typically complete sentences, referred to at A in Fig (below), that are regularly found in the larger dictionaries T h o u g h a number of e x a m p l e s in PR are c o m p l e t e sentences, m a n y are noun p h r a s e s or s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , clearly adapted from s o m e larger independent unit Consider, for example: (1) Aubier, écorce, liber) La sève* circule entre les racines el les feuilles de l'arbre Le creux d'un arbre La charpente de l'arbre => Branchage, branche, brindille, dard, embranchement, fourche, fourchet, gourmand, lambourde, rame, rameau, ramée, ramure Le feuillage d'un arbre =» Feuille; aiguille, épine; (poét.) chevelure, couronne, couvert, frondaison Le haut, le sommet, la tète d'un arbre =* Apex, cime, faîte, houppier, sommité Ensemble d'arbres Bois, forêt; bosquet (—» ci-dessous, après la liste des noms d'arbres) La vie d'un arbre L'arbre prend bien, prend racine (=> Enraciner) croit, se développe, pousse, végète: bourgeonne (=> Bourgeon, œil) s'épanouit (=> Débourrement), fleurit (=» Bouton, fleur), s'affruite se met fruit, produit, porte des fruits (=* Fruit) ; se défeuille, s'effeuille, verdit, verdoie, reverdit Aspects, caractères, nature des arbres (=» Espèce, essence) — A r b r e agreste, franc (franc de pied), sauvage (=* Sauvageon) ; cultivé (=» Elève), de semis, greffé, en caisse, en pleine terre, en plein vent —Arbre indigène ou exotique (dans un lieu donné) Acclimater* un arbre —Arbre géant ou nain —Arbre d'un seul brin, d'une seule venue: élancé, vigoureux, en pleine sève —Arbre chevelu, feuillu, frondescent, frondifère touffu — Arbre feuilles persistantes (=s Vert) ou caduques (=» Feuillu) — Arbre épineux — Arbre fleuri : chargé, couvert de fleurs ; fertile ou stérile — Arbre branchu fourchu, moussu (=> Mousse; bryon), noueux, rameux — Arbre caverneux, creux — Arbre antique, chenu, rabougri — Fig Part entry for ARBRE (Le Grand Robert) E x a m p l e s in L e T r é s o r d e la l a n g u e f r a n ç a i s e Despite the marked differences of size between Le Grand Robert - six v o l u m e s in its first edition, published from 1958 to 1964, nine in its second, of 1985, six again in its new elaboration - and Le Trésor de la langue française - of which the sixteenth and final volume appeared in 1994 - and the greater dependence of Le Trésor on literary sources - though representing a narrower time-span (17891960) - t h e r e are certain s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n exemplification the a p p r o a c h e s t a k e n A s the highly original entry for A R B R E has to demonstrated, 84 A P Cowie e x a m p l e s in Le Grand vocabulary Robert development often take a didactic shape, admirably suited to While one cannot p e d a g o g i c a l a i m s to the editors of Le Trésor, ascribe such specifically it is n o n e t h e l e s s true that a didactically m o t i v a t e d desire for clarity lies behind the choice and arrangement of e x a m p l e s In t h e w o r d s of the d i c t i o n a r y ' s first chief editor, Paul I m b s : 'leur différenciation, q u a n t leur structure ou leur étendue, p o u r s u i v a i t un but surtout didactique, allant du plus simple au plus c o m p l e x e ' (1979: ix) And the practical o u t c o m e of a i m i n g at such a progression is that, leaving aside the s o m e t i m e s e l a b o r a t e analogical e l e m e n t in Le Grand Robert, there are certain similarities b e t w e e n those parts of the microstructures of the t w o works which deal with definition and e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n If w e c o n s i d e r sub-entry A A t ÉLÉGANT, ANTE, a d j in Le Trésor (Fig 3, below), and c o m p a r e it with the Grand Robert entry for A R B O R E R , V tr (11 a b o v e ) , w e find in both the s a m e broad divisions, namely: definition; ' e x e m p l e s i n t é g r é s ' ; and a t t r i b u t e d example(s), minimally abridged, and printed in a smaller type size É L É G A N T , A N T E , adj A — [ D o m a i n e de l'esthétique en tant que science d u beau dans la nature et dans l'art] Qui se caractérise par une grâce faite d'harmonie, de légèreté e t d'aisance dans la forme et les lignes, d a n s la disposition et les proportions des parties, dans le m o u v e m e n t Un gilet de toile, dont la coupe élégante rachète la vulgarité de l'étoffe ( F L A U B E R T , Champs et grèves, 8 , p ) L'écriture de Vidjime était d'ailleurs lisible, d'un dessin élégant et cursif qui rappelait assez bien les écritures du XVIII siècle ( D U H A M E L , Suzanne, , p ) : e Le c o u , plus étiré maintenant, graisseux qu'il esquissait sur fine, tendue, jaillit d'un trait parfaite H u y g h e , Dialogue avec a efiacé les bourrelets la nuque, et celle-ci, é l é g a n t en une courbe le visible, 1955, p 80 S Y N T Corps élégant et flexible; jambe au galbe élégant; geste rapide et élégant; s'asseoir d'un mouvement souple et élégant; simplicité élégante de la forme; ligne nerveuse et très élégante; décoration élégante et sobre; voiture élégante; élégant déshabillé, costume; élégante symétrie, beauté, architecture, colonne, sculpture; élégante silhouette, coiffure; élégante calligraphie; contours élégants; chevaux élégants; têtes élégantes et fines; chaussures élégantes; élégantes arabesques; élégantes fleurs; élégantes balustrades, ferrures Fig Part entry for ÉLÉGANT (Trésor de la langue française) literary Examples and Collocations in the French 'Dictionnaire de langue' A n d much the same justification is p r o v i d e d in Le Trésor Robert as in Le 85 Grand for the inclusion, as a r e g u l a r feature, of the n o m i n a l and verbal collocations Here too they are i n t e n d e d to d i s p l a y the combinatorial possibilities of entries in their v a r i o u s s e n s e s , or ' d e m o n t r e r de q u e l l e s a s s o c i a t i o n s m i n i m a l e s u s u e l l e s , était c a p a b l e tel m o t pris d a n s telle acception' (Imbs 1979: ix) B u t there are at the s a m e time, b e t w e e n the dictionaries, fine and b r o a d differences of arrangement, of sources, and of descriptive intention Whereas, in Le Grand Robert, most of the shorter e x a m p l e s are indeed ' m i n i m a l ' , and betray few of the peculiarities of actual utterance, in Le Trésor i m m e d i a t e l y after the definition, an e d i t e d e x c e r p t w e s o m e t i m e s find, ' d é p a s s a n t le s i m p l e s y n t a g m e binaire, et de ce fait e x a c t e m e n t référencé' (Imbs 1979: ix) In the élégant entry, this type is r e p r e s e n t e d by the e x a m p l e s from Flaubert and Duhamel, the first a complex noun phrase, the second a complex sentence Then again, in entries for the c o m m o n e r words, and 'en cas de surabondance d ' u s a n c e s t y p é e s ' (Imbs 1979: ix), the treatment of phraseology is rounded off by placing a broad range of short e x a m p l e s , usually verbal and/or nominal, and often with l i s t i n g , in a b l o c k h e a d e d by t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n SYNT (i.e ' s y n t a g m e s ' ) It can be seen from Fig that the examples are ordered according to complexity: patterns in which élégant is coordinated with another adjective c o m e first; then follow adjective + noun and noun + adjective collocations What can be m a d e of this extraordinary richness of exemplification? W e need first to bear in mind that wherever they appear, and h o w e v e r they are adapted, e x a m p l e s in Le Trésor are d r a w n o v e r w h e l m i n g l y from a corpus - are 'réellement et f r é q u e m m e n t attestés d a n s notre d o c u m e n t a t i o n ' - and o n e in which literary material d o m i n a t e s O n e has only to look at jambe élégant and ligne nerveuse et très élégante au galbe to be m a d e aware that these phrases are not contrived, but c o m e from specific, probably written, sources And such choices, of course, point to broader preferences and j u d g e m e n t s on the part of the editor, as when Imbs contrasts citations in the full sense - 'phrases riches en i n f o r m a t i o n s d e t y p e culturel c o n c r e t ' - with the s h o r t e r , commonplace e x a m p l e s - ' é n o n c é s de la langue b a n a l e qui les précédaient i m m é d i a t e m e n t ' (1979: x) Rey too laid stress on the value of the 'fragment de texte véhiculant une beauté stylistique' (1985: xxxvii), and did not shy away from the notion of the dictionary as, in part, a literary anthology But a literary flavour pervades the structure of entries in Le Trésor whereas in Le Grand Robert more diverse whole it is only part of a 86 A.P Cowie O n e could argue that when e x a m p l e s are juxtaposed to the definition, as they are in the élégant entry, they c o n t r i b u t e to the explanation and thus to the d e c o d i n g role of the dictionary But what of their appearance independently, at S Y N T , in the s a m e e n t r y ? H e r e , there is arguably a conscious purpose and an u n c o n s c i o u s though, potentially, highly beneficial one T h e conscious aim arises from a d e t e r m i n a t i o n to m a k e the dictionary record truly c o m p l e t e : it m u s t p r o v i d e a full account, not only of the w o r d ' s meaning, but also of its typical lexical and g r a m m a t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s These must b e supplied, even if, as o n e suspects, they are s e l d o m referred to by native speakers But for the non-native student or teacher they are an additional boon, providing as they a record of collocability that is seldom matched by specialist dictionaries of collocations C o n c l u s i o n In her p a p e r ' T h e o r e t i c a l lexicography and its relation to d i c t i o n a r y - m a k i n g ' , S u e A t k i n s insists that t h e o r i s t s and p r a c t i t i o n e r s m u s t w o r k t o g e t h e r if dictionaries are to be i m p r o v e d , and 'electronic dictionaries are to rise to the c h a l l e n g e of the new m e d i u m ' ( 9 - : 30) She also identifies those linguists a n d those theoretical d e v e l o p m e n t s that a p p e a r to h a v e special r e l e v a n c e to practical lexicography She is right to identify the British and American scholars - C r u s e a n d F i l l m o r e a m o n g t h e m - that she d o e s But as she surely also r e c o g n i z e s , l e x i c o g r a p h e r s h a v e a particular need, from time to time, to step o u t s i d e their o w n l a n g u a g e s and national traditions L i k e the Russians, w h o s e contribution since the walls began to crumble is i m m e n s e , the French have much to teach us First, they are less n e r v o u s about rubbing shoulders with linguists F r e n c h d i c t i o n a r y - m a k e r s find it less difficult than we to accept the intimate - indeed necessary - association b e t w e e n lexicography and lexicology (It is no a c c i d e n t that the leading F r e n c h j o u r n a l devoted to lexicography is entitled Cahiers de lexicologie) Second, the French recognize that all dictionaries are fundamentally didactic instruments, and that dictionaries fashioned for didactic e n d s m a y b e w o r k s of high scholarship Third, and this is the central t h e m e of m y chapter, e x a m p l e s - in the broadest sense - are regarded as an indispensable feature of French 'dictionnaires de l a n g u e ' , large and small T h e use of specially d e v i s e d e x a m p l e s , i n c l u d i n g c o l l o c a t i o n s , h a s , in the c o u r s e of c e n t u r i e s , b e c o m e c o m m o n practice, while the pedagogical value of such examples is well u n d e r s t o o d A n d let us not o v e r l o o k the quality of the work T h e r i c h n e s s , diversity and fitness for purpose of e x a m p l e s in Le Grand Robert and Le especially, are a m o n g the finest achievements of modern lexicography Trésor, Examples and Collocations in the French 'Dictionnaire de langue' 87 Notes The term 'dictionnaire de langue', for which there is no exact English equivalent, but for which the translation 'lexical dictionary' has been suggested (Cowie 1981), is a work which focuses on the grammatical forms and functions of words, their pronunciation and spellings, and their meanings and typical contexts - by contrast with the 'dictionnaire encyclopédique', or 'dictionnaire de choses et de notions' (Quemada 1968: 77; cf Rey 1987, Pruvost 2002) Palmer's example types feature in his Grammar of English Words (1938) and, with modifications, in A S Hornby's Idiomatic and Syntactic English Dictionary (1942) i.e Alphonse Daudet Though hère, too, there is a continuum, as shall find when examining examples in Le Trésor, between those which, though simplified, bear all the marks of a literary origin, and those that are entirely invented I have not drawn the further distinction between 'free' and 'restricted' collocations, since this is one which few French lexicographers consider in discussions of exemplification Moreover, as far as I can judge, none of the dictionaries examined here give special and regular prominence to the restricted type Not all commentators, it should be noted, use the term 'collocation' in the same way: Hausmann (1985, 1989) uses collocation (tout court) to refer to what I call a restricted collocation However, our definitions of the phenomenon are similar In the case of célibataire endurci, the noun (or 'base') is used in its familiar, literal sense, while the adjective (the 'collocate') has a figurative sense found only in combination with the noun, or with very few similar nouns (pécheur, lrond-de-cuir endurci) Note the stress laid here on the figurative sense of the collocate and a limited, arbitrary choice of possible bases (hence the 'restricted' of 'restricted collocation') (Cowie 1999a) As Làmy has noted with regard to dictionaries such as DFC, 'their titles bear no trace of their vocations as dictionaries for foreign learners and they make only passing reference to foreign learners in their prefaces' (Lamy 1985: 25) However, and as she goes on to say, 'it would be foolish to suppose that foreign learners' interests cannot be met by presentations designed for natives' (idem.) ' ' Le Trésor de la langue française draws on a variety of resources, including general and technical dictionaries and computerized and non-computerized archives Initially manual, but later computerized, was L'Inventaire Général de la Langue Française (IGLF), assembled between 1936 and 1968 and consisting of about six million slips illustrating French words used in literary and technical contexts The archive covers a period extending from the Middle Ages to the present day (Fléchon 1998) In 1960, IGLF was integrated into the computerized archive set up for Le Trésor (Pruvost 2000) 88 A P Cowie References A Dictionaries A.1 English dictionaries Hornby, A S., Gatenby, E V., and Wakefield, H 1942 Idiomatic Dictionary (Subsequently, 1948, A Learner's Dictionary and Syntactic- of Current English London: Oxford University Press.) Tokyo: Kaitakusha Palmer, H E 1938 A Grammar of English Words Tokyo: Kaitakusha Pearsall, J 1998 New Oxford Dictionary of English Oxford: Oxford University Press A.2 French dictionaries Dictionnaire de l'Académie française 1694 (2 volumes.) Paris: Veuve J B Coignard et J B Coignard Dictionnaire du français contemporain, sous la direction de J Dubois, R Lagane, G Niobey, D Casalis, J Casalis, et H Meschonnic Paris: Larousse, 1966 Le Grand Robert de la langue française Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française, sous la direction de Paul Robert (9 volumes; 2e édition entièrement revue et corrigée par Alain Rey; Ire édition 1958-1964.) Paris: Le Robert, 1985 Le Grand Robert de la langue française Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française, sous la direction d'Alain Rey et Daniele Morvan (6 volumes; édition augmentée.) Paris: Le Robert, 2001 Le Nouveau Petit Robert, sous la direction de Josette Rey-Debove et Alain Rey Paris: Dictionnaires Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert, 1993 Le Trésor de la langue française (16 volumes: vols 1-7, rédaction dirigée par P Imbs, 1971-9; vols 8-16, rédaction dirigée par B Quemada, 1980-94.) Paris: Éditions du Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques (diffusion Gallimard) B Other references Atkins, B T S 1992-3 'Theoretical Lexicography and its Relation to DictionaryMaking.' Dictionaries 14: 4-39 Atkins, B T S 1994 'Analyzing the Verbs of Seeing: a Frame Semantics Approach to Corpus Lexicography' in S Gahl, C Johnson and A Dolbey (eds.), Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 1994 Berkeley CA: University of California at Berkeley, 1-17 Atkins, B T S (ed.) 1998 Using Dictionaries: Studies of Dictionaries by Language Learners and Translators (Lexicographica, Series Maior 88.) Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag Atkins, B T S and Levin, B 1995 'Building on a Corpus: a Linguistic and Lexicographical Look at Some Near-Synonyms.' International Journal of Lexicography 8.2: 85-114 Atkins, B T S., Levin, B., and Song, G 1996 'Making Sense of Corpus Data: A Case Study' in M Gellerstam, J Järborg, S.-G Malmgren, K Norén, L Rogstròm, C R Examples and Collocations in the French 'Dictionnaire de langue ' 89 Papmehl (eds.), Euralex '96 Proceedings Göteborg: University of Göteborg, 24554 Atkins, B T S and Varantola, K 1997 'Monitoring Dictionary Use.' International Journal of Lexicography 10.1: 1-45 Benson, M 1985 'Collocations and Idioms' in R Ilson (ed.), 61-8 Cowie, A P 1981 'The Treatment of Collocations and Idioms in a Learner's Dictionary.' 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