Oxford english grammar sentences and clauses

Chapter Sentences and Clauses Summary The sentence (6.1) 6.1 Complete and incomplete sentences 308 Clause relationships (6.2-7) 6.2 Co-ordination of clauses 311 6.3 Subordination of clauses 314 6.4 The interplay of co-ordination and subordination 315 6.5 Parataxis and hypotaxis 320 6.6 Sentences and clause clusters 322 6.7 Meaning relationships in coordination and subordination 324 Signals of clause relationships (6.8-9) 6.8 Signals of co-ordination 325 6.9 Signals of subordination 327 Subordinate clauses (6.10-16) 6.10 Forms of subordinate clauses 328 6.11 Functions of subordinate clauses 330 6.12 Nominal clauses 332 6.13 Forms of adverbial clauses 337 6.14 6.15 6.16 Meanings of adverbial clauses 339 Comparative clauses 346 Complementation of verbs, adjectives, and nouns 349 Reported speech (6.17-19) 6.17 6.18 Direct and indirect speech 356 Forms of indirect speech 358 6.19 Free direct speech and free indirect speech 361 306 Chapter Summary The notional definition of a sentence as expressing a complete thought is too vague Preference is given to a formal definition of a sentence as consisting of one or more grammatically complete clauses Complete sentences are distinguished from elliptical sentences, unfinished sentences, and nonsentences Clauses may be linked through co-ordination or subordination Co-ordinated clauses are at the same grammatical level Subordinate clauses are dependent on other clauses, either embedded in them or loosely attached to them Traditionally, sentences are classified as simple (consisting of one main clause without subordination), compound (consisting of two or more main clauses that are co-ordinated), and complex (consisting of a main clause with one or more subordinate clauses) The classification is a simplification that does not take account of various patterns of co-ordination and subordination The distinction between co-ordination and subordination can be subsumed under the broader distinction between parataxis and hypotaxis Orthographic sentences are not necessarily the same as grammatical sentences, which are identified with a cluster of clauses (minimally one) that are interrelated by co-ordination or subordination Co-ordination and subordination can sometimes express similar meaning relationships Co-ordination is signalled by the actual or potential presence of co-ordinators between clauses Subordination is generally signalled by subordinators and w/z-words Nonfinite and verbless clauses are generally subordinate Subordinate clauses are finite, non-finite, or verbless The verb in a non-finite clause is an -ingparticiple, an -ed participle, an infinitive preceded by to, or a bare infinitive Non-finite and verbless clauses may have their own subject or may be subjectless Subordinate clauses function as nominal clauses, relative clauses, adverbial clauses, or comparative clauses s Nominal clauses are declarative, interrogative, exclamative, or nominal relative Adverbial clauses express a range of meanings: place, time, condition, circumstance, concession, reason or cause, purpose, result, manner, proportion, similarity, and comment Comparative clauses involve a standard of comparison and a basis of comparison Comparatives are inflected forms or phrases constructed with SUMMARY 307 more They are used with a postmodifying than-chuse to express higher degrees of comparison Lower degrees are expressed by premodifying less with a postmodifying than-dause, and equivalent degrees by premodifying as with a postmodifying as-clause Comparative clauses are often elliptical Nominal clauses can function as complements of verbs, adjectives, and nouns The major categories of reported speech (including reported thought) are direct speech and indirect speech Indirect speech involves an orientation to the deixis of the reporting situation, generally resulting in shifts of (particularly) pronouns and a backshift in tense Minor intermediate categories of reporting are free direct speech and free indirect speech 308 The Sentence 6.1 Complete and incomplete sentences The traditional definition of a sentence states that a sentence expresses a complete thought.1 The trouble with this notional definition is that it requires us to know what a complete thought is Does God or our home express complete thoughts? Is there just one complete thought in [1]? [1] Some 4,000 people (most of whom had heard about, but not actually read the book) wrote to Dr Robinson, telling him of their own faith, beliefs, convictions, feelings, or special knowledge concerning matters religious [W2A-012-36] We can easily rewrite [1] as at least three separate sentences, each complete in itself: [la] Some 4,000 people wrote to Dr Robinson They told him of their own faith, beliefs, convictions, feelings, or special knowledge concerning matters religious Most of them had heard about, but not actually read the book Similarly, [2] can be rewritten as two complete sentences: [2] An example of conforming individualism was recently provided for me by my daughter when I noticed that she was wearing only one ear-ring [W2A012-121] [2a] An example of conforming individualism was recently provided for me by my daughter It happened when I noticed that she was wearing one earring We rightly feel that [1] and [2] have a unity and completeness, but we have the same feeling about the three sentences in [la] and the two sentences in [2a] What gives us that feeling is not that each sentence expresses one complete thought but that each sentence is grammatically complete The measure of grammatical completeness is the clause The canonical sentence consists of one or more grammatically complete clauses That is to say, each clause contains the constituents that must be present according to the general rules for constructing clauses—subject, verb, and complements of the verb (cf 3.13)—except that the understood subject you is generally omitted in imperative sentences (cf 3.7) Citation [3] is a simple sentence consisting of just one grammatically complete clause, and citation [4] is a sentence consisting of two grammatically complete clauses co-ordinated by and: [3] The conquest of Italy was certainly not a process of enslavement [W2A001-2] [4] Some peoples were actually given Roman citizenship, and their chief men secured high office at Rome [W2A-ooi-7] THE SENTENCE 309 The writer of [4] could have punctuated the two clauses as separate orthographic sentences, the second sentence beginning with and, but they would remain grammatically linked by and If the co-ordinator and is omitted, the two clauses constitute two independent sentences In [5], by contrast, the subject The Romans themselves is shared by two predicates, one beginning saw and the other beginning traced: [5] The Romans themselves saw in this practice a major factor in their rise to world power and traced it back to the legendary origins of their city [W2A001-8] It is normal for the second subject to be omitted in such instances We could say that [5] consists of two clauses: a complete clause (which could also be an independent sentence) and an incomplete clause—incomplete because the subject is omitted, though understood from the previous clause Another way of analysing the sentence is to say that the sentence contains one subject and two co-ordinated predicates This kind of analysis—stipulating co-ordination of parts of the sentence rather than ellipsis of parts—is adopted in this chapter wherever possible There are incomplete sentences where it would be reasonable to posit ellipsis If the interpretation depends on the situational context, we have situational ellipsis For example, [6] and [7] were uttered during a word game [6] [7] Haven't got one [SIA-OIO-65] Got an e [SiA-oio-76] The interpretation of the ellipted subject as Jin [6] and of the ellipted subject and auxiliary as J'vein [7] depends on the situation, since the same incomplete sentences could have different ellipted words in a different situation: say, we in [6] or she's in [7] The other major type of ellipsis is textual ellipsis, which depends crucially on the linguistic context: we recover the ellipted words from what has been said or written before or after the ellipsis In [8], the elliptical sentence in B's utterance is interpreted by reference to the immediately preceding utterance by A: [8] A: You told me at the time a supportive man in the home [SIA-072-215] The modal in all three types of conditions is generally would or its contraction 'd It is used in the host clause unless some additional modal meaning is required, as with could in [23], which can be paraphrased by 'would be able to' If the verb in the conditional clause of a present or future hypothetical condition is be, subjunctive were (cf 5.26) is sometimes used instead of indicative was in the conditional clause, particularly in more formal contexts: [25] [ .] I would if I were you [SiA-095-300] [26] It certainly provided a pretext, if one were needed, for the foreign tours he undertook to fifteen different countries during his first year after being elected to office [W2B-011-14] Conditional clauses may also have subject-operator inversion without a subordinator In such cases the auxiliaries are usually had, were, or should: [27] I think had he won the 1970 election he would have resigned in 1972 or [S1B-04O66] [28] I am confident that I can deal with the problems uh of Prime Minister were I to be elected [ .] [S1BO43-78] [29] However, should I briefly tire of cisatlantic life, and discover the means to journey to North America—some conference might perhaps afford the opportunity—then perhaps, I trust, we might meet again [wiB-015-55] The most frequent conditional subordinator is if,13 but there are others Some are exemplified below [30] He says the country faces paralysis unless a solution is found quickly [S2B-011-119] [31] The Democratic leadership agrees to relent, provided the president asks for a modest tax increase—modest in the present year, but increasing rapidly thereafter [890929-0009-32] [32] So given that a micrometre is a thousandth of a metre this'll normally be about point two five of a micrometre [S2A-051-16] [33] The magazine will reward with "page bonuses" advertisers who in 1990 meet or exceed their 1989 spending, as long as they spent $325,000 in 1989 and $340,000 in 1990 [891102-0182-10] [34] [ .] supposing she'd said that to a psychiatrist what would they say [SIA031-121] 342 SENTENCES AND CLAUSES Circumstantial clauses Some place, time, and conditional subordinators may be used to introduce clauses that express a more general meaning of circumstances In such cases, the subordinators where, wherever, when, whenever, and if are interchangeable [35] So we believe in more investment better management some deregulation where appropriate to improve and expand those public services [S2B-035-46] [36] Finally, when straw is combined with manure and composted, it can be spread onto the land to return fertility to the farm [W2B-027-61] [37] Avoid vigorous evening exercise if possible, as the increased adrenaline it produces may cause sleep problems, so try to take exercise in the morning or up to late afternoon [W2BO22-69] Alternative-conditional clauses Alternative-conditional clauses express two or more stated possible conditions: [38] When you tie a standard rose and this applies to any standard rose whether you it yourself or whether you buy it you really need two ties on it [siB-025-77] ('if either condition applies') [39] I hope you'll think it's sensible law ( , } but whether you or not (,) uh you'll have to accept it from me because I am the judge ( , ) of the law [S2A-O61-10] [40] Whether or not we believe in God we inhabit a culture in which religious teachings are marginal to many people's moral choices [S2B-029-8] [41] Furious, Peter assured all and sundry that, Prince Charles or no Prince Charles, he would boycott the premiere [W2B-004-29] [42] The steering is just too vague and I'm still not convinced that two hundred horsepower and front-wheel drive ( , ) make desperately happy bedfellows deliberately in order to have something to talk about when he came on this ShOW [S1B-042-97] [67] You'll learn assertiveness so as not to be inhibited by other people's agendas [S2B-029-118] Result clauses In contrast to purpose clauses, result clauses refer to a situation that is or was in effect, the result of the situation described in the host clause [68] [ .] they actually said it was their fault you see so that they paid all the costs and everything else [SIS074-16] ('with the result that they paid ') [69] But the thing is you always have to write them in a slight code so people don't know exactly what you are talking about [ .] [siA-015-22] So in [69] may be the conjunctive adverb, since the difference between the conjunction and the adverb is neutralized in asyndetic co-ordination (cf 6.2) If the co-ordinator and is used, so is clearly an adverb: [70] The final possibility is the electron can come in ( , ) and actually knock off an electron which is bound to one of the atoms in the molecule (, > and so you get two electrons {, > coming away from the molecule [S2A-O2834] SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Manner clauses Proportion and similarity clauses 345 Manner clauses refer to the manner of the action expressed by the verb Though treated here for convenience, they are complements of the verb (cf 6.16): [71] [ .] and the lecturers as they're instructed [SIA-082-27] [72] [ .] the dilemma was whether you carry on as if he could take over or you'd have to start all over again [SIA-062-4] [73] It is misleading to talk as though ninety percent are covered ISIB-058-51] Both proportion and similarity clauses involve kinds of comparison A common type of proportion clause has comparatives in both clauses:15 [74] The simpler the business, the better off you are [890817-0033-32] [75] "He used to say that the faster he could sell MiniScribe, the better," recalls the former manager [890911-0078-55] [76] The more sons a man has the more labour, and so the larger he can make his herd [WIA-OII-314] This type can be reduced to verbless clauses: [75a] The faster, the better Somewhat similar is the verbless construction so so : [77] I told her I was in a hurry, but I've transformed her house while she's taught Emily, so far so good, [WIB-006-89] Another type of proportion clause is introduced by as or just as The host clause begins with the correlative so and has subject-operator inversion: [78] And as lawsuits against directors and officers mushroomed in the mid1980s, so did the policy claims [890814-0092-19] [79] But as fears of a recession in the near future fade, so does the Fed's incentive to ease [890815-0054-16] Similarity clauses resemble the second type of proportion clause in form: Comment clauses [80] Just as the October 1987 "meltdown" in the stock market did not produce an economic recession (as we correctly predicted at the time), so the present strength in the stock market does not necessarily mean that the economy will avoid recession [890905-0010-7] [81] Just as Newsday has had to acknowledge and cater to the differences between Long Island and New York, so too must the Times appeal to the varying tastes of readers in far-flung communities [89O9O5-oiO2-i9j Various types of parenthetical comment clauses are used, particularly in speech The finite clauses are generally introduced by the subordinator as: [82] Well now as far as I know I've never been raped or anything [ .] [83] As he said to me well we didn't seem to be going anywhere fast [S1A-050-212] [S1A-049-42] 346 SENTENCES AND CLAUSES [84] Uhm so I think he may not have the confidence to go ahead as it were [S1A-069-264] [85] As I remember it used to be sort of like fairly common for a Tuesday that I'd pretend to be sick {,) and so I didn't have to go to school [SIA076-83] [86] Assuming that post at the age of 35, he managed by consensus, as is the rule in universities, says Warren H Strother, a university official who is researching a book on Mr Hahn [891102-0092-15] Non-finite comment clauses are style disjuncts (cf 4.27): [87] Broadly speaking, there are three types of theories in scientific subjects [W2A-035-15] [88] Put simply {,) the principles of policing as asserted at the top ( , ) have not yet made in their view a sufficient penetration at all levels [S2B-037-25] [89] To be fair you used to come when your Mum and Dad were still living in Portland Road but you haven't been since [siA-027-117] 6.15 Comparative clauses Comparative clauses involve a comparison with what is conveyed in the host clause The comparative element signals the standard on which the comparison is made In [1] the comparative element is much more attention: [1] [ .] we now give much more attention to the mentally and physically handicapped than we did even twenty-five or thirty years ago [SIB-060-55] The standard of comparison is the amount of attention given to the mentally and physically handicapped Attention is modified discontinuously: much more than we did even twenty-five or thirty years ago In [1] more is an irregular comparative form of much and is itself intensified by much The basis of comparison is the situation twenty-five or thirty years ago, which is compared with the present situation Comparatives are either inflected forms (older) or phrases constructed with more (more convenient); cf 4.24 They are used to express a higher degree of comparison, as in [1] above and in [2] below: [2] [ .] and here am I actually working longer hours than I've ever worked in my life [SIB-04I-98] A lower degree of comparison is expressed by premodifying less (itself a comparative of little) with a postmodifying than-dause: [3] [ .] guidelines have been issued by the various health authorities which dictate that if patients suffer heart attacks over the age of seventy they should receive less priority treatment than those who suffer similar conditions under the age of seventy [SIB-056-14) An equivalent degree of comparison is expressed by premodifying as with a postmodifying as-clause: SUBORDINATE CLAUSES [4] 347 Many felt Hearst kept the paper alive as long as it did, if marginally, because of its place in family history [891102-0078-16] The comparative element may be a noun phrase [5], an adjective phrase [6], or an adverb phrase [7]: [5] Yet however much one might prefer the trilogy over earlier texts, the criteria of purity, continuity and authenticity create more problems than they solve [W2A-004-16] [6] I'm so glad—she was more despondent and depressed than I've ever seen her when I left her to come home last September, [WIB-OII-26] [7] I think he's feeling the time going more slowly than I am since he's the one left behind, [WIB-OIO-154] Comparative clauses are often elliptical, omitting elements that they share with their host clauses: [8] The implication is that physical illnesses can be diagnosed more reliably than can mental illnesses, [WIA-007-61] On the other hand, we can restore the ellipted elements of [8]: [8a] The implication is that physical illnesses can be diagnosed more reliably than mental illnesses can be diagnosed We can also omit a further shared element in [8], the auxiliary can: [8b] The implication is that physical illnesses can be diagnosed more reliably than mental illnesses In [8b] we are left with only the subject of the comparative clause In [9] only the direct object remains and in [10] only an adverbial: [9] [ .] if you hate these photographs more than the one that's on the back of the album I think you should leave the one that's on the back of the album [ .] [siA-ioo-15] ('than you hate the one that's on the back of the album') [10] Pastoralism was much more widespread in the past than at present [WIAon-3] ('than it is (widespread) at present') When the only element left in the comparative clause is the subject and an auxiliary, the auxiliary functions as an operator (cf 4.29) If the subject is not a pronoun, then subject-operator inversion is an option, as in [8] above and in [11]: [11] When the scientists dosed forest land in Harvard, Mass., with a common nitrogen fertilizer, ammonium nitrate, they found the soil absorbed about 33% less methane from the air than did unfertilized ground [890928-096-9] I The subject alone may be ellipted in the comparative clause: [12] [ .] the effects on San Francisco were much less than would've occurred with the same earthquake at a closer distance [S2A-025-39] [13] Not all sects are new religious movements, but many of the new religions exhibit the sectarian characteristic of proclaiming an exclusive truth, and even those that claim that they not so may, in practice, turn out to be far less internally tolerant of diversity than might at first appear [W2A-012-30] * 348 SENTENCES AND CLAUSES [14] But the increase cited in the API report was larger than had been expected [891005-0046-20] [15] The government sells timber on a sustained basis, never selling more than is grown [89ioo5-oii2-8] However, in such instances the comparative clause seems to imply a relative clause: [14a] larger than (the increase that) had been expected [15a] never selling more than (the timber that) is grown When the only element left is a pronoun that has both subjective and objective cases (cf 4.34), the tendency is to use the objective case even when the pronoun would be the subject in a restored fhan-clause: [16] In fact she'd get somewhere quicker than me [SIB-049-94] ('than I would (get)') But some writers are uneasy at using the objective case, as shown in [17] by the parenthetic question mark after me: [17] There are about 50 other girls, most appear younger than me (?) and are very unfriendly [WIB-002-120] The alternative is to use the subjective pronoun with the operator (cf 5.18): [18] Now you've been in more of this building than I have [siA-017-219] More than can also be used metalinguistically, to indicate a more accurate ascription: [19] [ .] he was content to think that nature was more acting than acted upon, that the mind was more easily conceived as a thing made than a thing making [W2A-003-19] ('more accurately described as acting than acted upon') [20] [ .] I thought actually when he came on he was very blond but in fact he's more ginger-haired than blond-haired on this near side [S2A-017-4] [21] 'I think you'll find the administrator more than happyto talk to you about his work,' he said, firmly overriding me [W2F-O04-125] ('happy to a degree that is not adequately described merely by the word happy) [22] The action however we should describe more as painting than scribbling [S2A-048-79] [23] Now this car coming up behind me is getting closer ( ,) so I'm making my intentions more than clear (, > and acting early [S2A-054-164] Unlike the normal use of comparatives, this use can apply to verbs—for example, acting and acted upon in [19] Metalinguistic more also occurs without the t/zan-clause: [24] As he looked he knew this was not a woman about to achieve happy release, more a woman about to be cast into damnation [W2F0i2-i08] More cannot be replaced by an inflected form: SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 349 [25] His account of the motif further disguises the village of Voisins in the middle distance, makes the landscape appear more wild than cultivated, and all but effaces the acqueduct [W2B-002-78] (not: 'w/Vderthan cultivated') 6.16 Complementation of verbs, adjectives, and nouns Nominal clauses (cf 6.12) can function as complements of verbs, adjectives, and nouns.16 The complement clauses can be f/jaf-clauses, and the subordinator that can be omitted Here are examples with verbs [l]-[2], adjectives [3]-[4], and nouns [5]-[6]: [I] [2] Only nine per cent answered that religious leaders played a significant part in their life [SIB-028-24] I suppose / was looking for something else and just passed over it [S1B-062-134] [3] Were you aware that there came a time when a deposit had to be paid by Ward for the property [siB-061-102] [4] You are sure you informed us [SiB-074^73] [5] And I got the impression that people only knew if they'd got one themselves uhm [siB-077-24] [6] [ .] I get the impression people are borrowing lots of money as well to fund them because supposedly at the other end there's this big pay-off [S1A-O79-93] In most complement f/iaf-clauses, the verb in the clause is indicative, but if the complement clause conveys the meaning of a directive, the present subjunctive is sometimes used instead, particularly in American English: [7] I urged in my previous letter that these research staff be treated as their present colleagues and be permitted to apply for a redundancy payment when their contracts expire, [WIB-024-31] [8] In the face of nuclear holocaust, not to mention the horrors of contemporary non-nuclear war, it is imperative that a new maturity be achieved in domestic and international communications [W2A-017-43] (The that-clause is an extraposed subject Compare 'That a new maturity be achieved is imperative'.) [9] But suggestions that Saddam be given cash compensation, an oilfield or an island, would only encourage future extortion [ .] [W2E-010-32] Alternatives to the present subjunctive in such contexts are the modal should (particularly in British English) [10] and the indicative [11]: [10] Although Somalis are determined that he should never be allowed to stage a come-back [ .] [S2B-023-66] [II] It was essential that the Pope appeared to be the most important ruler in the world [S2B-027-84] (Here too the t/iat-clause is an extraposed subject.) 350 SENTENCES AND CLAUSES Another common alternative is to use a to-infinitive clause in place of a thatclause: [12] Would you call into the station, or would you prefer him to come to your house? [W2F-009-107] (Compare the subjunctive in a finite clause: ' or would you prefer that he come to your house?') Verbs, adjectives, and nouns may take as complements various types of whclauses: interrogative, exclamative, and nominal relatives (cf 6.12) These may be either finite clauses or to-infinitive clauses: [13] I wonder why he's holding a globe [SIA-067-109] [14] Because she's still wondering ( , ) why you haven't acknowledged whatever it was she last sent you [SIA-095-289] [15] I am not sure if I want to become a Foster Corporate Parent, but I am very interested [891102-0105-44] [16] [ .] he was uncertain what to [SIB-040-8] [17] Mr Rogers you asked the question when should the allies according to you cease hostilities [SiB-027-76] [18] On the basis of this already filtered and framed information the inspector takes a decision whether to respond with an investigation [w2A-oi8-28] The complement w/i-clauses may also be linked to nouns by prepositions: [19] It's just a question of{, , > which is the more efficient approach [SiA-029196] [20] In other words the notion of worsening educational standards reflects the decision about how to interpret the evidence (,) rather than anything derived from the evidence itself [S2A-O21-69] [21] There is also growing doubt as to whether further embryo research is the best way forward (,) and even increased recognition that assisting fertility does not depend on IVF alone [SIB-060-45] Complements for verbs, adjectives, and nouns may be to-infinitive clauses and these may be without their own subject The understood subject is generally identical with that of the host clause: [22] / want to see what happens next [siB-026-207] [23] / certainly have no desire to mislead anybody [SIB-058-55] But with nouns the understood subject may also be generic (cf 4.36): [24] The first is the notion that freedom to experiment on human embryo {,) is necessary to help infertile couples [SiB-060-39] ('freedom for one to experiment') Or it may just be left vague: [25] As far as Watson was concerned interviews when the decision to seize the vessel was taken on the twenty-second of August [S1B-063-63] When a noun phrase intervenes between the host verb and the to-infinitive, it is often unclear whether the phrase belongs to the host clause or the complement clause In either case, if it is a pronoun it is in the objective case SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 351 Here are some examples: [26] I don't want her to catch your cold [SIA-042-87] [27] [ .] I told him to drive the forklift truck [S2A-O67-39] [28] Could I ask you to look at certain passages of his interviews [SiB-063-65] [29] [ .] the data entry controllers allow you to edit the parameters [W2B031-67] In [26] her belongs to the complement clause as its subject, so that we can refer to the clause including her by that [26a] and we can make the clause passive [26b]: [26a] I don't want that [26b] I don't want your cold caught by her Other common verbs that resemble want in this respect are hate, like, love, and prefer On the other hand, in [27] and [28] the pronouns not belong to the infinitive clause We can refer to the clause separately from the pronoun [27a] [28a] and we can make the pronoun the passive subject of the host clause [27b]-[28b]: [27a] I told him that [28a] Could I ask you this? [27b] He was told to drive the forklift truck [28b] Could you be asked to look at certain passages of his interviews? Like tell and ask are some other verbs that can take indirect objects; for example: order, persuade, recommend, teach Finally, [29] is an example of a construction that does not fit either the want type or the te/Z type If we apply the previous tests, we find that [29] yields: [29a] The data entry controllers allow that (i.e you to edit the parameters) [29b] The data entry controllers allow the parameters to be edited by you [29c] The data entry controllers allow you that [29d] You will be allowed to edit the parameters Many verbs fall into this intermediate range but they vary and not necessarily share the features of the infinitival complementation of allow They include consider, encourage, expect, help, permit Some verbs—but no adjectives or nouns—may take bare infinitive clauses (where the infinitive is without to) as complement The verbs help, let, and make may take bare infinitive clauses that not have their own subject: [30] Japanese money will help turn Southeast Asia into a more cohesive economic region [891102-0149-22] [31] You can now let go of the front brake [S2A-054-49] [32] They offered it to someone else but he changed his mind so they had to make with me [S2B-025-10] Let and make are restricted to certain verbs in their complements, mainly let go, let fly, let be, make 352 SENTENCES AND CLAUSES A somewhat larger number of verbs may take as complement a bare infinitive clause with its own subject They include get, have, let, make, feel, hear, see, watch, help: [33] Theoreticians would have us believe that if digital audio data are transmitted correctly, the resulting audio must also be correct [W2B-040-17] [34] [ .] what would make Guy de Maupassant decide to write through an Englishwoman [35] [SIB-026-90] I let them have ten minutes to get there at Union Council yesterday and you shouted at me [SIA-068-150] [36] I had intended to take them dancing and to hear Colin sing but they wanted to see a film and so I was outnumbered [WIB-OO&63] [37] Uhm you'll both venture out onto busier roads [S2A-054-121] [64] Well I was wrong about it being a show-place [ .] [S2B-048-9] [65] I could never get rid of the feeling that she was responsible for his buying all the Prattertons, and that through them she had somehow enticed him into marriage [W2F-014-21] The same options of case apply as with verb complementation The possessive pronoun is used in [65] but the objective case of the personal pronoun in [63] and [64] Complementation of nouns by -ing participle clauses always requires a linking preposition, whether or not a subject is present Examples are given below of complement clauses with their own subject: [66] There is no question of it being necessary or not [ .] [W2D-017-61] [67] What are the chances of it being used? [W2C-oc»78] [68] Was there any realistic prospect ever for it working [S2B-014-96] [69] Now that we have adopted a system of my paying all expenses and then claiming, the problem should be solved [wiB-020-25] [70] And it is sometimes coupled to a charge of Coleridge collapsing through a drug-induced fatigue into a snug intellectual cocoon [W2A-003-13] The possessive pronoun is used in [69] but the objective case in [66]-[68] The common case Coleridge is employed in [70] rather than the genitive Coleridge's The citations that follow resemble those in [53]-[57] They differ in that the noun phrase that immediately follows the verb is independent of the complement clause As a consequence it can be made the passive subject of the host clause, as in a construction that corresponds to [71]: [71] I saw him smiling and pointing up as the ( , ) fly-past came by [S2A-oi9-93] [71a] He was seen smiling and pointing up as the fly-past came by Furthermore, since the noun phrase is independent of the complement clause, it can be a personal pronoun—as in [71]—but not a possessive pronoun Verbs commonly used in this type of construction include verbs of perception {e.g feel, hear, see), catch, discover, find, get, have, leave: [72] I can feel you beginning to buckle under the weight of all this sincerity [W1B-005-21] [73] [74] The most notable was EMI who soon had an all electronic scanning system running [W2B-034-37] We've got Dim Dimitri Conichevjust moving forward in our picture there [S2A-016-49] [75] Not surprisingly we get uhm the bulk of the heat coming in from the sun [S2A-043-47] [76] You saw the pool being cleaned when you arrived [SIB-066-81] [77] I heard the sound of a body hitting the car—it's a very soft impact SOUnd [W2C-017-32] SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 355 [78] But for others it's a nightmare as they find their work being used without permission [S2B-023-3] [79] [ .] I will leave that question uhm ( , ) hanging for now [S2A-049-41] [80] Keep the indicator going [S2A-054-170] [81] She could feel the lie making her blush [W2F-009-94] For some verbs there is a choice of complement clause The choice may be from two or three clause types: a finite clause, an -ingparticiple clause, or an infinitive clause Remember, for example, may take all three: [82] Most of the time I remember / felt nothing at all [wiB-010-22] [83] I remember learning French [SIA-053-324] [84] We must remember to get on that plane you know [SIA-048-40] The finite and -ing participle clauses [82]-[83] are factual, referring to some situation that has existed, whereas the infinitive clause [84] is non-factual, referring to a situation that may come into existence It is possible to replace the finite clause in [82] by a participle clause and to replace the participle clause in [83] by a finite clause, in both instances preserving roughly the same meaning: [82a] Most of the time I remember having felt nothing at all [83a] I remember that I learned French The finite tfiaf-clause is more flexible than the non-finite clauses We can obtain a rough equivalent of the infinitive clause of [84] by inserting an appropriate modal auxiliary (in this instance the semi-modal be to) in the that-dause: [84a] We must remember that we are to get on that plane Furthermore, f/iat-clauses allow a range of tense and modal possibilities not open to the non-finite clauses: [85] Remember that alcohol affects your judgement of both people and Situations [86] [W2D-009-76] And one must also remember that uh the same Arnold Bax has written poetry and I think plays under the pseudonym of Dermot O'Brien [SiB-032103] [87] Remember that other people may be just as apprehensive as you are [ .] [W2D-009-147] Apart from the factual/non-factual distinction, -ing participle and infinitive clauses sometimes differ aspectually The participle clause may indicate duration or iteration: [88] I hate being rushed [W2F-013-79] [88a] I hate to be rushed In contrast with the infinitive clause in [88a], the participle clause adds an indication of duration