Literature, Metaphor, and the Foreign Language Learner Jonathan D Picken Literature, Metaphor, and the Foreign Language Learner This page intentionally left blank Literature, Metaphor, and the Foreign Language Learner Jonathan D Picken Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan © Jonathan D Picken 2007 All rights reserved No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 First published 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries ISBN-13: 978 230 50695 hardback ISBN-10: 230 50695 X hardback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress 10 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne For Miwako, my wife This page intentionally left blank Contents List of tables x List of boxes xi Acknowledgements xii Introduction 1.1 Reading a poem 1.2 Literature and literary theory 1.3 Literature and empirical research 1.4 Background to the research 1.5 Organization of the book 1.6 Writing a book about literature for an audience of L2 teachers 1.7 A note on the language Literature in L2 Teaching 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Arguments that also apply to literature 2.2.1 Literary texts are authentic 2.2.2 Literary texts are motivating 2.2.3 Literature makes learners focus on the form of the language 2.2.4 Literature helps learners to handle linguistic creativity 2.2.5 (Children’s) literature contributes to intercultural understanding 2.3 Arguments that are specific to literature 2.3.1 Background to the arguments: Foregrounding 2.3.2 Stylistics 2.3.3 Reader response 2.3.4 Politically critical approaches 2.4 Empirical research 2.4.1 Online processing: Comprehension 2.4.2 Leisurely processing: Interpretation vii 1 10 11 11 12 12 14 14 15 16 17 17 18 20 23 26 26 29 viii Contents 2.4.3 Leisurely processing: Evaluation and affective response 2.5 Conclusion 33 37 Metaphor and Literature 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Linguistic and conceptual metaphor 3.2.1 Linguistic metaphor 3.2.2 Conceptual metaphor 3.3 Metaphor in literature 3.3.1 Metaphor comprehension 3.3.2 Metaphor interpretation 3.3.3 Metaphor evaluation and other affective responses 3.4 Conclusion 39 39 39 40 42 46 46 50 Comprehension of Metaphor in Literature 4.1 Introduction 4.2 L1 metaphor comprehension 4.2.1 Conventionality and salience 4.2.2 Form of the metaphor 4.2.3 The role of conceptual metaphors 4.2.4 The role of context 4.3 L2 metaphor comprehension 4.4 L2 comprehension of metaphor in literature 4.4.1 Literal and metaphorical comprehension of metaphor in literature 4.4.2 Afterthought: Literal meaning revisited 4.5 Conclusion 59 59 60 61 64 66 67 68 72 Interpretation of Metaphor in Literature 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Metaphor interpretation 5.2.1 L1 and L2 metaphor interpretation 5.2.2 L1 and L2 interpretation of metaphor in literature 5.3 L2 metaphor interpretation studies 5.3.1 L2 recognition of patterns of metaphor Patterns of metaphor in ‘textoids’ 5.3.2 CM awareness-raising and L2 recognition and interpretation of linguistic metaphor The ‘Woods’ study 83 83 83 84 88 92 92 94 54 58 72 79 82 98 100 Contents ix The ‘Road’ study The Love/Life study Discussion of the CM awareness-raising studies 5.4 Conclusion 102 104 105 106 Evaluation of Metaphor in Literature 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Metaphor and evaluation 6.2.1 Evaluation and schema refreshment 6.2.2 Evaluation and similarity 6.2.3 Evaluation and context 6.2.4 Evaluation and genre: Metaphor richness and clarity 6.2.5 Evaluation and teaching 6.3 The value of (metaphor in) literature in the L2 classroom 6.3.1 ‘Woods’ evaluation study: What motivates L2 students’ evaluations? 6.3.2 Teaching and evaluation: Metaphor awareness-raising and group-work discussion 6.3.3 Metaphor explicitness and the evaluation of short stories The ‘Night’ evaluation study The ‘Carpathia’ evaluation study 6.4 Conclusion 109 109 110 110 114 115 116 117 118 118 122 126 127 129 132 Metaphor: Curriculum, Methodology, and Materials 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Metaphor and the curriculum 7.3 Metaphor and methodology 7.4 Metaphor and materials 7.5 Conclusion 134 134 135 140 147 156 References 158 Index 169 160 References Dörnyei, Z (2001) Motivational strategies in the language classroom Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Doughty, C., & Williams, J (Eds) (1998) Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Eagleton, T (1996) Literary theory: An introduction (2nd ed.) 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evaluation of metaphor aptness of metaphor, see evaluation of metaphor audience of the book, 9–10 authenticity, 12–14 awareness-raising, metaphor, 92, 98–106, 117, 122–4, 133, 136, 138, 143, 147–8 ‘Because I Could Not Stop for Death’ (Dickinson), 51–2, 55 Bleak House (Dickens), 153 blending, 44–5, 53 ‘Carpathia’ (Kercheval), 6, 74–9, 81–2, 129–33 CDA (critical discourse analysis), 23–6 children’s literature, 13, 16–17 CM awareness-raising, see awareness-raising, metaphor CMs, see metaphors, list of conceptual Collector, The (Fowles), 53 Color Purple, The (Walker), 31, 57 competence communicative, 9, 15–16, 57, 69, 81–2, 135 figurative language, 9, 15–16, 57 literary, 57 metaphoric, 69, 81–2, 135, 138, 141 comprehension of literature, 26–9 comprehension of metaphor in literature, 46–9, 72–82 foregrounding/schema refreshment, 4, 5, 17, 28–9 L1 research on, 26–9 L2 research on, 28, 29 schematic knowledge, 27–8 vs comprehension of other genres, 28–9 comprehension of metaphor, 46–9, 59–82 conceptual metaphors, 46–9, 66–7 context, 61–4, 67–8 conventionality, 61–4 explicitness/visibility, 72–9 foregrounding/schema refreshment, 48–9, 60, 68, 72, 134 L1 research on, 60–8 L2 research on, 68–72, 72–9 linguistic form, 64–5 literal meaning, 60–1, 67–8, 70–2 metaphoric competence, 69 salience, 61–4 vs metaphor interpretation, 50, 84, 90–1 conceptual metaphor, see metaphor, conceptual conceptual metaphors, see metaphors, list of conceptual context, 61–4, 67–8, 115–16 Cooperative Principle, 41 corpus linguistics, 42, 44, 73–4, 94, 98, 111–12, 113, 116–17, 138, 148, 150, 154 research on conceptual metaphor, 44, 98, 113 creativity, 15–16, 52–3 Crown of Violet, The (Treese), 151–6 culture and literature, 16–17, 20, 25, 27, 32–3, 35–6 culture and metaphor, 43, 45, 86–7, 139, 141 169 170 Index curriculum, 135–40 see also metaphor in the L2 curriculum decentering, 36 decomposability of idioms, 70–1 defamiliarization, 17, 23–4 dictionaries, 147–9 ‘Dust of Snow’ (Frost), 19–20, 142 evaluation of literature, 33–7, 118–33 A-emotions, 33–5 decentering, 36 explicitness/visibility of metaphor, 126–32 F-emotions, 33, 35–7 feelings, 121–2, 131–2 foregrounding/schema refreshment, 34, 35, 37, 109, 126–32 genre, 122 group-work discussion of poetry, 123–6 imagination, 121, 122, 124–5 interpretation, 37, 117–18, 119, 121–2, 125–6 L1 research on, 33–7 L2 research on, 34, 35–6, 118–33 linguistic form, 121, 122 metaphor, 54–7, 110, 118, 123–4, 126–32 metaphor awareness-raising, 122–4 personal experiences, 35–6 point of view, 36–7 reading time, 35 story structure, 35 evaluation of metaphor, 54–7, 109–18, 122–4, 126–33 aptness, 110, 114–16 clarity, 116–17 cognitive constraints, 111–12, 114 context, 115–16 degree of innovation, 112–13, 127 effect of metaphor interpretation on, 117–18, 126–32 emotion, 110, 111, 113–14, 117 evaluation of literature, 54–7, 110, 118, 123–4, 126–32 explicitness/visibility, 126–32 foregrounding/schema refreshment, 54–7, 109, 110–4, 126–7, 131, 134 genre, 116–17 L1 research on, 110–3, 114–18 L2 research on, 113, 118, 122–4, 126–32 literary competence, 57 metaphor awareness-raising, 117, 122–4 richness, 116–17, 118, 122, 126–7, 131 similarity, 114–15 source domain associations, 113 ‘Eveline’ (Joyce), 146–7 explicitness of metaphor, 48–9, 64–5, 72–9, 107–8, 126–33, 139, 152–3, 156–7 F-emotions, 33, 35–7 fantasy, 80–1 focus-on-cultural understanding, 20, 32–3, 142–3 focus on form, 14–15, 28–9, 32 foregrounding theory, 4–6, 8–9, 17–18 comprehension, 4–6, 17, 28–9, 48–9, 60, 68, 72, 134 critical discourse analysis, 23–4 defamiliarization, 17, 23–4 evaluation, 4–6, 9, 18, 34, 37, 54–7, 109, 110–4, 126–7, 131, 134 habitualization, 23–4 interpretation, 4–6, 9, 18, 31–2, 37, 88, 106–8, 134 reader-response theory, 21, 134–5 stylistics, 18–19, 134–5 see also schema refreshment functionalization of metaphor, 146 genre theory, 5, 28, 89–90, 116–17, 122–3 graded readers, 13, 14, 151–6 see also metaphor in graded readers grammar, story, 27–8 group-work discussion of poetry, 123–6 habitualization, 23–4 ‘Hollow Men, The’ (Eliot), 29, 33, 83 Index identification (noticing, recognition) of linguistic metaphor, 46 conceptual metaphors, 48–9 Cooperative Principle, 41 effect on evaluation, 117 explicitness/visibility, 48 genre, 89 incoherence, 40 ‘is-like’ test, 41 L2 learners’, 92–8 stage in metaphor processing, 46 teaching of, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146 identification of conceptual metaphors, 44, 47–8, 92–8 idioms, 44–5, 61–2, 69–72, 85, 86–7, 112–13, 113–14, 138, 149 image metaphors, 43–4 interpretation of literature, 29–33 culture, 20, 32–3, 139, 142–3 definition of, 30 effect on evaluation, 37, 117–18, 119, 121–2, 125–6 feelings about, 33, 121–2, 125–6 foregrounding/schema refreshment, 4–6, 18, 31–2, 37 interpretation of metaphor in literature, 29 L1 research on, 29–32, 117–18 L2 research on, 32–3, 119, 121–2, 125–6 literary expertise, 30–1, 32 point-driven reading, 30–1 interpretation of metaphor, 1, 50–4, 83–108 comparison, 84–5 conceptual metaphors, 50–4, 83–4, 84–7, 88, 98–106 difficulty of, 91 effect on metaphor evaluation, 117–18, 126–32 entailments, 50–1, 83–4, 86, 88 foregounding/schema refreshment, 4, 6, 88, 106–8, 134 genre, 89–90 L1 research on, 85–6, 88–91 L2 research on, 86–7, 91–2, 98–106 metaphor awareness-raising, 98–106 socio-cultural factors, 86–7 171 vs metaphor comprehension, 50, 84, 90–1 ‘Inversnaid’ (Hopkins), 1, 4, 31–2 linguistic metaphor, see metaphor, linguistic linguistics, corpus, see corpus linguistics literal meaning, 47, 79–82 literary theory, 2–5, see under individual literary theories literature in language teaching, see metaphor in WWL; WWL; WWL, arguments for literature, children’s, 13, 16–17 literature, definition of, 2–3 literature, empirical study of, 5–6 materials, see dictionaries; graded readers; textbooks meaning, literal, 47, 79–82 megametaphor, 93 metaphor, conceptual, 39–40, 42–6, 50–4 basic metaphors, 43 blending, 44–5, 53 composing of, 52 corpus linguistic research on, 44, 98, 113 creativity, 52–3 culture, 43, 45, 86–7, 139 entailments of, 50–1, 83–4, 86, 88 genre, 45 identification of, 44, 47–8, 92–8 Invariance Principle, 42–3 in literature, 48–9, 50–4, 55–6 main meaning focus of, 141–2 questioning of, 52 role in metaphor comprehension, 48–9, 66–7 role in metaphor evaluation, 55–6, 111, 113–14 role in metaphor identification, 48–9 role in metaphor interpretation, 50–4, 83–4, 84–7, 88, 98–106 scope of, 137 source domain of, 42 target domain of, 42 172 Index metaphor, conceptual – continued teaching of, 136–8, 139, 140–1, 143, 147–8, 149–50, see also awareness-raising, metaphor unidirectionality of, 42, 44–5, 53 universality of, 43, 45, 86–7, 139 see also metaphor, linguistic and conceptual metaphor, image, 43–4 metaphor, linguistic, 39–42 collocation, 40, 146 context, figurative and literal bias of, 61–4, 67–8 Cooperative Principle, 41 degree of conventionality, 41–2, 55–6, 61–7, 95–6, 111–12, 136 degree of explicitness/visibility, 48–9, 64–5, 72–5, 127, 132, 139 grounds of, 40 lexical cues, 64–5, 73, 139, 141 nominal, 41, 73, 77–8, 139–40, 154 sentential, 41 simile, 64–5 topic of, 40 vehicle of, 40 verbal, 41, 140, 154 vs metonymy, 40 see also corpus linguistics; explicitness of metaphor; identification (noticing, recognition) of linguistic metaphor; idioms; metaphor, linguistic and conceptual; topic-vehicle connections in linguistic metaphor metaphor, linguistic and conceptual, 39–40, 42, 43–4, 45, 47–9, 52–4, 66–7, 68, 85–6, 92–106, 143, 149–50 metaphor, synaesthetic, 111–12 metaphor awareness-raising, see awareness-raising, metaphor metaphor in graded readers, 150–6 authenticity, 13–14 conventionality of, 154, 155–6 elaboration of, 152, 156–7 in exercises, 153, 156 explicitness/visibility of, 152, 157 in glossaries, 152–3 in introductions, 155–6 literary experience, 150–1 motivation, 14 pictures, 153 quantity of, 154 simplification of, 152 in stories, 151–2, 154 metaphor in the L2 curriculum, 135–8 age of the learner, 138 contrastive and continuum principles, 15, 136 inferencing principle, 136, 138 metaphor awareness-raising, 136–8 order of conceptual metaphors, 137–8 source domains, 136–7 see also metaphor in WWL metaphor in WWL, 138–40, 142–7, 150–6 critical work, 141–2 eclectic approaches, 146–7 focus-on-cultural understanding, 142–3 metaphor awareness-raising, 143 methodology, 142–7 reader response, 145–6 selection of literary texts, 138–40 stylistics, 142, 144–5 see also graded readers; metaphor in graded readers; metaphor in the L2 curriculum metaphors, list of conceptual Anger Is Hot Fluid In A Container, 50, 84, 85 Anger Is Wind, 86 Argument Is A Building, 42 Argument Is War, 147 Careers Are Buildings, 137 Childbirth Is Dawn, 56 Debate Is A Race, 66–7 Debate Is A War, 66–7 Economic Systems Are Buildings, 137 Fear Is Wind, 86 Hand Is Control, 86 Happy Is Up, 43 Human Behaviour Is Animal Behaviour, 149 Human Is A Machine, 94 Index Ideas Are Food, 44, 85–6, 95–6 Kidnapping Is Butterfly Collecting, 53 Knowing Is Seeing, 43 Landscape Is A Human Body, 93 Life Is A Journey, 43, 99–106, 123, 139 Life Is A Mirror, 139 Lifetime Is A Day, 51–2, 55 Love Is A Journey, 99, 104–5 Music Is Food, 96 People Are Plants, 43 Purposes Are Destinations, 43 Relationships Are Buildings, 137 Sad Is Down, 57 Theories Are Buildings, 137 Time Is A Pursuer, 52 Time Is Money, 149 ‘Metaphors’ (Plath), 91–2 methodology of metaphor teaching, 140–7 brainstorming, 141, 142, 147, 155 evaluation of metaphor, 135, 138, 141–2, 143, 144, 145, 146 identification/noticing of metaphor, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146 interpretation of metaphor, 134–5, 136, 138, 141, 142–3, 144–5, 147, 150–1, 155, 156–7 main meaning focus, 140–1 metaphoric thinking ability, 141, 142 WWL, 142–7 see also awareness-raising, metaphor; metaphor in WWL metonymy, 40 ‘Morning Song’ (Plath), 55, 56 motivation, 14 Mrs Dalloway (Woolf), 92 narratology, 36 ‘Nazis’ (Santa), 36 ‘Night’ (Lott), 6, 127–9, 130–3 noticing of metaphor, see under entries for identification organization of the book, 7–9 173 ‘Pillowed Head, A’ (Heaney), 55, 56 point of view, 36, 146 proverbs, 67–8, 87 ‘Rauhreif’ (Benn), 29 reader-response theory, 2, 3–4, 8–9, 20–3, 134–5, 145–6 readers, graded, 13, 14, 151–6 see also metaphor in graded readers reading aesthetic, 21, 22, 145 efferent, 21, 30–1, 145 information-driven, 30–1 leisurely, 26, 29, 50, 59, 83–4 point-driven, 30–1 story-driven, 30–1 time-limited, 26, 46–7, 50, 59–60, 84 recognition of metaphor, see under entries for identification ‘Road Not Taken, The’ (Frost), 30, 102–4 schema refreshment, 4–5, 54–7, 110–4, 127, 131 schema theory, 27–8, 54 ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ (Frost), 41, 48–9, 100–2, 104–6, 118–26 story grammar, 27–8 stylistics, 2, 3–4, 8–9, 18–20, 25, 31–2, 51, 58, 92, 134–5, 144–5, 146 ‘Suzanne Takes You Down’ (Cohen), 32 synaesthetic metaphor, 111–12 text world theory, 79–80 textbooks, 149–50 theories of metaphor processing Attributive Categorization view, 85–6 career-of-metaphor hypothesis, 64–5 cognitive constraints theory, 111–12, 114 174 Index theories of metaphor processing – continued conceptual structure view, 66–7, 85–6, see also metaphor, conceptual direct access view, 66, 67–8, 70 Graded Salience Hypothesis, 61–4, 71, 113 literal salience view, 71–2, 93 optimal innovation view, 112–13 Standard Pragmatic Model, 60–1, 70, 82 theory, foregrounding, see foregrounding theory theory, genre, 5, 28, 89–90, 116–17, 122–3 theory, reader-response, 2, 3–4, 8–9, 20–3, 134–5, 145–6 theory, text world, 79–80 topic-vehicle connections in linguistic metaphor copula, 73 genitive link, 77–8 parallelism, 73 replacement, 73 ‘Trout, The’ (Ó’Faoláin), 36–7 Vanity Fair (Thackeray), 151–6 ‘Very Short Story, A’ (Hemingway), 25 visibility of metaphor, see explicitness of metaphor ‘Woodchucks’ (Kumin), 145 WWL, 2, 3–4, 9–10, 11–26, 135–6, 138–40, 142–7 curriculum, 15, 135–6, 138–40 materials, 138–4, see also graded readers; children’s literature methodology, 19–20, 22–3, 25–6, 32–3, 123–6, 142–7 see also under individual approaches to literature; awareness-raising, metaphor; metaphor in WWL; WWL, arguments for WWL, arguments for, 11–26 authenticity, 12–14 creativity, 15–16 critical thinking, 23–6 cultural understanding, 16–17, 20, 25–6 figurative language competence, 15–16, 140 focus on form, 14–15 interpretative skills, 18–20, 136 motivation, 14 personal value, 20–3 stylistic comparison and contrast, 19, 135–6 see also under individual approaches to literature