LEARNERS IN A CHANGING LEARNING LANDSCAPE Lifelong Learning Book Series VOLUME 12 Series Editors David N Aspin, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia Judith D Chapman, Centre for Lifelong Learning, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia Editorial Board William L Boyd, Department of Education Policy Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA Karen Evans, Institute of Education, University of London, UK Malcolm Skilbeck, Drysdale, Victoria, Australia Yukiko Sawano, Department for Lifelong Learning Policies, National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER), Tokyo, Japan Kaoru Okamoto, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Government of Japan, Tokyo, Japan Denis W Ralph, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia Aims & Scope “Lifelong Learning” has become a central theme in education and community development Both international and national agencies, governments and educational institutions have adopted the idea of lifelong learning as their major theme for address and attention over the next ten years They realize that it is only by getting people committed to the idea of education both life-wide and lifelong that the goals of economic advancement, social emancipation and personal growth will be attained The Lifelong Learning Book Series aims to keep scholars and professionals informed about and abreast of current developments and to advance research and scholarship in the domain of Lifelong Learning It further aims to provide learning and teaching materials, serve as a forum for scholarly and professional debate and offer a rich fund of resources for researchers, policy-makers, scholars, professionals and practitioners in the field The volumes in this international Series are multi-disciplinary in orientation, polymathic in origin, range and reach, and variegated in range and complexity They are written by researchers, professionals and practitioners working widely across the international arena in lifelong learning and are orientated towards policy improvement and educational betterment throughout the life cycle For other titles published in this series, go to www.springer.com/series/6227 Jan Visser • Muriel Visser-Valfrey Editors Learners in a Changing Learning Landscape Reflections from a Dialogue on New Roles and Expectations Dr Jan Visser Learning Development Institute Jupiter, Florida, USA & Eyragues, France jvisser@learndev.org Dr Muriel Visser-Valfrey Learning Development Institute Jupiter, Florida, USA & Eyragues, France mvisser@learndev.org ISBN 978-1-4020-8298-6 e-ISBN 978-1-4020-8299-3 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8299-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008925052 © 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Printed on acid-free paper springer.com Editorial by Series Editors This volume in the Lifelong Learning Book Series is a further flowering of the thinking and writing that first saw light in the International Handbook of Lifelong Learning, edited by David Aspin, Judith Chapman, Yukiko Sawano and Michael Hatton, published by Kluwer (now Springer) in 2001 In the International Handbook we laid down a set of agenda for future research and development, analysis and expansion, strategies and guidelines in the field of lifelong learning It had become clear that the domain of lifelong learning was a rich and fertile ground for setting out and summarising, comparing and criticising the heterogeneous scope and remit of policies, proposals, and practices in its different constitutive parts across the international arena This volume is a further and more detailed enquiry into and development of some of the important issues that were raised in the International Handbook pertaining to an understanding of human learning and the essential features of being human, that contribute to making learning meaningful The book was constructed by Jan Visser and his colleagues, through a process beginning with a dialogue around 32 questions, which were used as starting points for a process of group interactions “on line” This then led to a face-to-face workshop and panel discussion with a wider audience This emphasis on evolving dialogue was central to the development of the book and is sustained in the manner in which the reader is invited into the dialogue and provided with concrete suggestions for ways of entering and participating in the conversation Extremely helpful questions are formulated, resources identified for further exploration, and questions generated for comprehension, discussion and application Authors address critical questions and issues, such as: What is learning? Why we learn? How we learn on the Internet? What are the strengths and weaknesses of learning in formal and informal settings? How we learn in a changing learning landscape? How we respond to ‘feral’ learners, to those who are ‘gifted’ and those that are ‘at risk’? What delivery strategies must be applied to facilitate learning in a context of distance and distributed modalities? What are the new online learning technologies and new online learner competences? What are the implications of emerging technologies of learning for influencing the learning landscape? What makes online instruction good and effective? And what are the basic principles of instruction arising from the new modalities and technologies of learning in the v vi Editorial by Series Editors changed learning landscape? The enquiries, analyses and explorations with which Jan Visser and his colleagues address such issues, and the suggestions and recommendations that they derive from them and proffer here, have widespread implications and applicability to all those interested in and concerned about the topics, issues and problems of learning and learners in the 21st century This is a ground-breaking publication, which we believe helps carry forward the agenda of the Springer Series on Lifelong Learning We thank the anonymous international reviewers and assessors who have considered the work and who have played such a significant part in the progress of this work to completion We trust that its readers will find it as stimulating, thought-provoking and controversial as we who have overseen this project and its development have found it: we commend it with confidence to all those working in this field We trust that this further volume in the Springer Series will provide the wide range of constituencies working in the domain of lifelong learning with a rich range of new material for their consideration and further investigation We hope that it will encourage their continuing dialogue, critical thinking, research and development, academic and scholarly production, and individual, institutional and professional progress January 2008 David Aspin Judith Chapman About the Authors Michael F Beaudoin is professor of education at the University of New England in Portland, Maine, where he was previously founding dean of a new college He is recognized for designing and directing innovative projects, including several successful distance education programs He has held senior administrative positions and faculty appointments at institutions in Maine, Massachusetts, Washington, DC and Germany, and has been a visiting scholar at institutions in Germany, China and Ghana With over 75 publications and presentations, including two books, Dr Beaudoin has written extensively in the field of distance education and related areas, frequently presents at conferences, and serves as an evaluator and consultant for distance education programs and courses John Bransford is an internationally renowned scholar in cognition and technology He is the James W Mifflin University Professor of Education at the University of Washington Prior to 2003 he was Centennial Professor of Psychology and Education and co-director of the Learning Technology Center at Vanderbilt University Dr Bransford co-chaired several National Academy of Science and a National Academy of Education committees, resulting in the publication of multiple volumes on How People Learn and Preparing Teachers for a Changing World He is director of the LIFE (Learning in Informal and Formal Environments) Center and serves on the International Board of Advisors for Microsoft’s Technology and Learning program Ileana de la Teja is associate professor and researcher at the Télé-université in Montreal She is also a consultant in competency-based learning in academic and corporate settings, and serves on the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction Her work has resulted in numerous publications and conferences on different aspects of online learning She is co-author of Instructor competencies: Standards for face-to-face, online, and blended settings (2004), and Evaluator competencies: Standards for the practice of evaluation in organizations (2008) Ileana received her M.A and Ph.D degrees in educational technology from the Université de Montréal Mary Hall started her working life as an economist but re-engaged with education when her oldest child started Playcentre, a parent-run Early Childhood co-operative Since then she has been involved in the sector in a wide range of roles from Early vii viii About the Authors Childhood teacher to school Trustee (Governor), university tutor, school administrator and policy advisor She has been involved in the development of print-based and web-based learning materials as well as in the selection of educational personnel Mary holds an honors degree in economics and is currently working towards her Masters in Education through the University of Southern Queensland’s online program Deborah LaPointe is the assistant director of education development within the Learning Design Center at the Health Sciences Library and Informatics Center at the University of New Mexico Her educational and professional background is in organizational learning and instructional technology with a specialization in distance learning She is a recipient of the University Continuing Education Association’s William Rainey Harper Research Award Deb’s research interests center on using synchronous and emerging technologies in the online environment to facilitate learning through peer interaction and group dynamics M David Merrill, Ph.D 1964 University of Illinois He is an instructional effectiveness consultant, a visiting professor at both Florida State University and Brigham Young University Hawaii, and professor emeritus at Utah State University He is internationally recognized as a major contributor to the field of instructional technology, has published many books and articles in the field and has lectured internationally He received the 2001 AECT Life Time Achievement Award Together he and his wife Kate have nine children and 37 + (by marriage) grandchildren which he claims as his most important accomplishment Susan Mosborg is a research scientist at the LIFE (Learning in Informal and Formal Environments) Center at the University of Washington Her current research investigates how people learn to collaborate to address complex challenges; in particular the role played by ‘adaptive expert’ and ‘innovator designer’ mindsets and by systems thinking and practice more generally She received her Ph.D in educational psychology from the University of Washington in 2004, where she studied historical sense-making Earlier in her career she served as an educational policy analyst and as a high school social studies teacher Christina Rogoza joined the University of Manitoba in 2007 as an instructional designer in the Extended Education Department Previously she served as the director for the Center for Learning, Teaching & Technology at the University of Texas Pan American Her focus has been on faculty development in the appropriate pedagogical use of technology in curriculum design She has taught in both traditional and online environments and is an instructor in the Worldwide Instructional Design System (WIDS) for performance based curriculum development Her academic interests include research on technology enhanced learning and the relationship between epistemological beliefs and learning Mary Slowinski is director of curriculum design services at Bellevue Community College in Washington State where she works with faculty and administrators to integrate advances in the learning sciences and technology into campus-based and About the Authors ix online courses Prior to accepting this position, she received tenure as a faculty member and chaired the college’s Digital Media Arts program Mary is also a doctoral student in the learning sciences at the University of Washington, where she is investigating the use of technology to further shared inquiry and collaborative knowledge-building Timothy W Spannaus, Ph.D is program coordinator and senior lecturer in the instructional technology program at Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan He teaches courses in multimedia, message design, games and simulations and consults with business and industrial clients Previously Tim was principal consultant with The Emdicium Group, Inc He was president of ibstpi, the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction, and ADCIS, the Association for Development of Computer-based Instructional Systems Tim has contributed chapters to The ID casebook and was co-author of Training manager competencies: The standards He is a frequent conference presenter, with papers on interactive technologies and faculty development J Michael Spector is associate director of the Learning Systems Institute, professor of instructional systems, and principal investigator for the International Center for Learning, Education and Performance Systems at Florida State University He earned a Ph.D in philosophy from The University of Texas at Austin in 1978 His recent research is in the areas of intelligent performance support for instructional design, assessing learning in complex domains, and technology integration in education Dr Spector is editor of ETR&D—Development and edited the third edition of the Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology Diana Stirling is a painter and educator who lives in the desert of the southwestern USA Her particular interests include complexity theory and its potential application to the study of learning in the individual; ideas about how to create dynamic, individualized, computer mediated learning experiences; and ways to support self-directed learning through free access to information and the conscious exploration of human experience Slavi Stoyanov is a researcher at the Educational Technology Expertise Centre of the Open University of the Netherlands He has a M.Sc degree in psychology and educational sciences from Sofia University, Bulgaria, a M.Sc in educational and training system design from Twente University (The Netherlands), and a Ph.D in instructional technology from Twente University His prior research interests are creative cognition, learning to solve ill-structured problems, cognitive mapping, individual differences in learning, and peopleware Slavi Stoyanov is an advanced practitioner of Kirton’s Adaptation/Innovation Inventory for measuring problem solving cognitive styles Jeroen J G van Merriënboer (1959) is professor of educational technology and scientific director of the Netherlands Laboratory for Lifelong Learning at the Open University of The Netherlands He holds a Master’s degree in psychophysiology from the Free University of Amsterdam and a Ph.D in Instructional Technology from the 286 M.Visser-Valfrey things fundamentally and lives up to the expectations it generates A group of authors converge on the point that there seems to be too much ‘hype’ around technology and that the evidence that it has lived up to its promise and has fundamentally changed the nature of learning is simply not there Others speculate and put forward arguments (see for example Mary Hall’s discussion on feral learning) that technology has not only fundamentally changed the learning landscape by offering opportunities for learning that did not exist before, but that the advent of technology has also changed how individuals learn Deb LaPointe’s chapter argues that “all of this adds up to a different kind of play and developmental environment, which influences a different developmental process and a way of seeing the world and thinking than experienced by generations before” (p 286) 14.3.2.5 New Areas of Inquiry are Added and Explored The deviation from original questions, the way in which authors build on each other’s analysis and the areas in which authors disagree are all a testimony to the evolving nature of the dialogue around the overall theme over the more than two years that this project developed and matured In this context it becomes interesting to reflect on whether the fact that certain questions were changed means that these are less relevant to the dialogue, or whether simply in the course of the discussion and reflection other thematic areas and questions became more pressing Thus we also find through the analysis that new themes emerged, in part because the group expanded to include new members who were not at the discussion in Orlando Mary Hall—a new member to the group—explores an area that was not originally part of the dialogue by looking at the characteristics of feral learning environments and the capacity of the formal education system to nurture the feral learner Dave Merrill— also a new addition—adds to the reflection by examining and arguing for the importance of basic principles of instruction, regardless of the context in which learning takes place Another example is, as we saw above, Yusra Visser’s reflection on the role of formal post secondary institutions in the context of the dynamic and broader learning landscape These ‘unanswered’ and only partially answered questions, together with the new avenues of discussion that emerged, will hopefully lead the reader of this book to critically reflect on the dialogue and on the extent to which these questions and avenues constitute possible areas for further reflection and research 14.3.3 How Were the Three Initial Themes—Learning Landscape; Learner; and Learning as a Concept and Process—Addressed? Finally, and given the three broad coding categories defined at the outset of this analysis, what are some of the key issues that emerged from the analysis of the contributions to this book regarding the landscape, the learner and learning as a concept and process? 14 We Question, We Reflect, and We Question Again 287 We see reflections on the nature of the changing context of the learning landscape start becoming a much more central part of the discussion in a number of chapters Jan Visser; Jeroen van Merriënboer & Slavi Stoyanov; John Bransford, Mary Slowinski, Nancy Vye, & Susan Mosborg; and Yusra Visser all discuss at length the changes that characterize today’s learning environment and which pose a particular challenge to learners as well as to those who design instructional interventions and facilitate learning This detailed analysis stands in contrast to the approach by some other authors in the volume who acknowledge at the outset of their discussion that the landscape has changed but who choose not to reflect on the changes themselves in detail These differences of approach may be a matter of practical choice; they may also reflect different views regarding the importance of an explicit examination of the changes that occurred A preoccupation with technology as the main driving force of change in the learning landscape also continues to be somewhat dominant Only very few authors examine other changes such as those brought on by conflicts, by environmental change, by migration, by epidemics, by the shifting balance of political and economic power, and by cultural change We see that the learner—around which the majority of the 32 questions were formulated—continues to be central also in the dialogue as it is documented in this book Thus, as already mentioned, Michael Beaudoin reflects at length on the phenomenon of ‘invisible learners’ in online environments Deb LaPointe discusses in detail the extent to which we are ready to facilitate learning for young gamers, for individuals from a rich mix of cultures, as well as for learners who predate the Internet Other authors add further categorizations of learners such as the feral learners in Mary Hall’s chapter and the expert learner in the chapter by Jeroen van Merriënboer and Slavi Stoyanov Overall, in these discussions we see the learner being more firmly discussed as part of the learning landscape as a whole The discussion looks at the learners as individuals but also at learning as a collective exercise and at groups of learners as developing a personality of their own with implications for instructional strategies and settings We also see other authors joining Jan Visser in calling into question the usefulness of the terms ‘online learning’ and ‘online learners’ in a fast changing learning landscape Various definitions of learning are discussed as well as how to measure whether learning took place Yusra Visser makes reference to six conceptions of learning of which the higher order involves learners becoming irreversibly changed as a consequence of learning In this context it is interesting to see Michael Spector proposing to measure learning not in the form of classical outcomes (such as acquired knowledge and skills) but rather in terms of the evidence of ‘sustained interest’ in a given area And John Bransford et al., Jan Visser and Yusra Visser all focus on the need to examine whether the learning process may need to focus much more strongly on fostering the capacity to tolerate (increasing) ambiguity in a changing world In discussing learning there is a clear focus on its lifelong nature and the implications of this for how we deal with formal learning environments (see for example 288 M.Visser-Valfrey the chapter by John Bransford et al.) The importance of the role played by beliefs about learning and how these may differ according to the perspective of various actors in the process—the institution, the instructor, and the learner—emerges prominently from Christina Rogoza’s epistemological considerations Finally, contributors continue to ferry between focusing on online learning and looking at learning from a more holistic perspective Thus some chapters focus specifically on online learners while others feel that the discussion on learning can only usefully take place if we remove this ‘unhelpful’ and somewhat outdated designation of certain learners as being of the online variety 14.4 Concluding Remarks Content analysis is about fitting content into categories Teasing out commonalities and classifying arguments in such a rich and varied dialogue inevitably does not justice to the depth and breadth of thinking presented in this book Nevertheless, the perspectives, concerns, interests and points of contention that brought together this small community clearly resulted in a rich dialogue From a process perspective, the manner in which the dialogue around this book was managed encourages us to think about how the way in which the dialogue was conducted may have contributed to the outcome that the reader has in hand Shakespeare alluded to the fundamental importance of our existence as human beings with his challenging ‘To be or not to be, that is the question.’ The central thread through this book is that learning is fundamental to our present being and to our continuing ‘being’ as humans This book does not provide the answer but should propel us to explore in increasing depth and breadth the real meaning of learning 14.5 Resources for Further Exploration Hsieh, H & Shannon, S (2005) Three approaches to qualitative content analysis Qualitative health research (Vol 15, No 9, pp 1277–1288) London: Sage Visser, M., Hsu, C., & Kalinskaya, S (2003) The story behind the headlines—HIV/ AIDS in a leading South African newspaper Paper presented at the National Communication Association (NCA) Conference (sponsored by NCA’s International and Intercultural Division), Miami, November 19–23, 2003 14.6 ● Questions for Comprehension and Application The first part of this chapter reports on a content analysis of the 32 questions that were formulated by participants at the onset of the dialogue Table 14.1 lists the question numbers under each of the three main coding categories Critically 14 We Question, We Reflect, and We Question Again ● 289 review this categorization either by yourself or collaboratively with others Do you agree with how each of the questions was coded? Do you think the coding categories are sufficiently well defined? How difficult was it to decide on the correct category? What does this tell you about the advantages and limitations of using content analysis? And finally, how relevant you think it is to use content analysis for the purpose of this kind of exercise? Argue your position One of the unique features of this book is the process by which it was created This process is explained in the introductory chapter (Chapter 1, pp 1–10) and is also referred to in the present chapter as well as by a number of the authors in their chapters as having been very stimulating and vital to the learning process that went alongside writing the book If you were to design a strategy for moving forward the dialogue now that this book has been published, what key steps and activities would you suggest and how would you ensure that the further dialogue is ‘captured’ so that others can also reflect on it? References Holsti, O R (1969) Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Learning Development Institute (2005) Web site of the Presidential Workshop and Panel Session at the International Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology on Learners in a changing learning landscape: New roles and expectations, October 18–22, 2005, Orlando, FL Retrieved October 5, 2007, from http://www.learndev.org/ ibstpi-AECT2005.html Sapsford, R., & Jupp, V (1996) Data collection and analysis London: Sage Name Index A Aaron, S., 151 Abd-El-Khalick, F., 104 Abrami, R C., 253 Adams, D., 110, 123 Alba, J., 72 Albright, M., 97 Alexander, B., 242 Allen, I E., 188, 190 Allwood, A C., 19 Amanti, C., 57 Amirault, R J., 27 Anderson, J., 73 Anderson, T., 192 Apollonia, S., 253 Archer, W., 231 Arnold, L., 194 Aronson, E., 50 Arquilla, J., 242 Atman, C., 53 Atman, C J., 53 Augustine, N., 43 Austen, H., 45 Avery, J S., 20 Awramik, S M., 19 Ayres, P., 82 B Baker, M., 145, 150, 152, 153, 159 Banks, J A., 38, 57 Barrington, L., 140, 146 Barron, B., 57 Barron, B J S., 42, 57 Bateman, C., 244 Bateman, H., 59 Bavelier, D., 236 Baxter-Magolda, M B., 104 Beaty, E., 137 Beaudoin, M., 6, 214, 281, 287 Beaudoin, M F., 26, 170, 213–225 Beck, J C., 227, 231, 235, 236, 243 Belenky, M F., 94, 97 Bell, P., 51, 57, 103 Benford, S., 171 Berg, D., 27 Bergmann, H F., 38 Berliner, D., 51 Bernard, R M., 255 Bernicot, J., 200 Bever, T G., 44 Biswas, G., 49 Blaney, N., 50 Blumenfeld, P C., 257 Boekarts, M., 256 Bohm, D., Bonk, C J., 228, 235, 243, 246 Boone, W., 254 Boon, R., 244 Bouchard, P., 194 Bownds, M D., 230, 234 Boyatzis, R E., 201 Bradley, L., 195 Brand-Gruwel, S., 79, 83 Bransford, J., 7, 37–62, 94, 96, 97, 281, 282, 284, 285, 287, 288 Bransford, J D., 3, 7, 31, 43–45, 48–51, 54, 55, 59, 110, 112, 115, 123, 139, 184, 270 Britain, S., 113 Brockband, A., 198 Bronowski, J., 21 Brophy, J., 195 Brophy, S., 59 Brophy, S P., 54 Brown, A L., 31, 50 Brown, S A., 194, 198 291 292 Bruner, J., 58, 233 Bryk, A., 51 Burch, I W., 19 Burnett, R., 15, 27, 96 Bursic, K M., 53 Büscher, M., 171, 172 Butler Kahle, J., 254 Butler, N., 149, 160 Butler, R P., 16 C Cahn, D D Jr., 171 Campillo, M., 72, 73 Campione, J C., 50 Carter, R., 14 Casner-Lotto, J., 140, 146 Casserly, C., 38 Castronova, E., 230, 236, 244 Chadha, R., 270 Chadwick, C., 17 Chambres, P., 72 Chandler, P., 82 Chaplin, H., 229, 230, 233, 245 Charness, N., 74 Chase, W., 74 Cheetham, G., 189 Cheney, R., 99 Chen, Y., 254 Chi, M., 74 Chimka, J R., 53 Chi, M T H., 57 Chivers, G., 189 Cho, K., 71 Christensen, C M., 151 Chuang, S., 100, 103 Churchland P S., 244 Clark, R., 79 Clark, R C., 270 Clark, R E., 74, 205, 271 Clark, W., 151 Claxton, G., 85, 231 Cliff, A F., 137 Clinchy, B A., 94 Clough, G., 43 Cocking, R R., 31 Cohen, P A., 253 Conley, D., 147 Constantine, L., 79 Corbalan, G., 78 Crane, S., 154 Creswell, C., 200 Cushman, D P., 171 Name Index D Dall’Alba, G., 137 Daly, J., 180 Daniel, J., 17 Darling-Hammond, L., 38, 49 Davenport, P., 153, 154 Davidson, J., 72 Davis, J., 51 Dawson-Tunik, T L., 137, 160 De Bono, E., 72, 73 De Ciantis, S., 83 De Croock, M B M., 74 De Groot, A., 74 Deijkers, R., 137 De la Teja, I., 7, 17, 92, 102, 158, 187–208, 256, 270, 281, 282, 285 Delors, J., 23 De Marco, T., 79 Dennen, V P., 228, 235, 243, 246 Derrida, J., 159 Derry, S., 51 De Vaney, A., 16 Dewey, J., 48, 138, 175, 224 Diller, K., 48 Dillon, S., 179 Dimitrov, V., 119, 121, 122 DiSessa, A A., 50 Do Nacimento, H D., 191 Doughty, P L., 255 Downes, S., 240 Dreyfus, H L., 25, 28, 29 Driscoll, M P., 17, 231, 234 Duckworth, E., 175 Duffy, T M., 38 Dufrenes, R., 50 Dziuban, C., 228 E Edelman, G M., 14 Elby, A., 50 Eliot, T S., 253 Engle, R., 72 Englund, G., 55 Ericsson, K., 73, 74 Ericsson, K A., 44, 57, 73, 74, 254 Evertson, C., 195 F Factor, D., Fano, A E., 261 Faure E., 109, 118 Name Index Feltovich, P., 74 Ferrari, M., 105 Fields, D., 207 Fields, D C., 188 Filak, V F., 254 Fishman, B, J., 25 Flowers, B S., 114, 125 Foxon, M., 188, 207 Franks, J J., 54, 55 Fraser, M., 171 Fredricks, J A., 257 Freed, J., 116 Freire, P., 158 Frensch, P., 72, 74 Frick, T., 270 Friedman, T L., 38 Frielick, S., 120 Fritsch, H., 213, 215 Fujii, N., 176 Fulford, C P., 217 Fullan, M., 43, 44 Furnas, G., 172 G Gagne, R M., 270 Gallagher, J J., 158 Ganesan, R., 257–259 Gardner, R III., 183, 195 Garrett, P., Garrison, D R., 231 Garrison, L., 57 Gawel, D., 60 Gee, J P., 231, 236, 237, 243 Genge, C D., 27 Gentner, D., 57 Georgieva, E., 239 Georgiev, T., 239 Gerace, W., 50 Ge, X., 71 Gick, M., 72 Gick, M L., 57 Glaser, R., 74 Gobet, F., 74 Goldberger, N R., 94 Gonzalez, N., 57 Gopnik, A., 26, 31 Gould, S J., 251 Grabowski, B., 200, 207, 256 Gredler, M E., 228 Greenfield, S., 14 Green, P., 270 Green, S C., 236 293 Grossi, T., 195 Gunderson, S., 140 H Hadfield, J., 257 Hall, E T., 27, 165, 167–170, 182 Halliday, M A K., 233 Hall, M., 109–130, 175, 286 Hambrick, D., 72 Hameroff, S R., 105 Hamer, R., 137 Hammer, D., 50 Hammerness, K., 51 Harris, W J A., 38 Hartman, J., 227, 229, 230, 232 Harvey, S., 116 Hatano, G., 42, 44, 45 Hayes, E., 246 Heath, C., 171 Heath, S B., 57 Hendriks, M., 81 Herz, J C., 235, 236 Hess, D J., 231, 234 Heward, W., 195 Higdon, J., 241 Hilgard, E R., 16 Himanen, P., 130 Hindmarsh, J., 171 Hipkins, R., 128 Hirumi, T., 94, 103 Hodge, L L., 54 Hofer, B., 91, 97–98, 105 Hofer, B K., 92, 93, 98–100, 102, 104 Hoge, M A., 189 Holmberg, B., 214, 225 Holsti, O, R., 278 Holtzblatt, K., 79 Holyoak, K., 72–74 Holyoak, K J., 50, 57 Honey, P., 83 Hongmei, L., 97 Hong, N., 71 Hoshower, L B., 254 Hseih, W.-L., 191 Huemer, M., 105 Hutter, R., 98 Huxor, A., 171–173 I Ihalainen, T., 159 Inagaki, K., 42, 44, 45 294 Iyengar, S S., 78 Izaute, M., 72 J Jain, S., 17 Jaworski, J., 114, 125 Jennings, L., 201 Jin, P., 82 Jochems, W., 230 Johnson, D W., 257 Johnson, R T., 257 John-Steiner, V., 230, 231 Jonassen, D., 85 Jonassen, D H., 17, 71, 73, 85 Jones, R., 140 Jones, S., 235, 236 Joseph Pine II, B., 178 Jowit, J., 38 Judd, C H., 42, 45, 57 Jupp, V., 279 K Kalyuga, S., 78, 82 Ka márová, A., 200 Kamber, B S., 19 Kassop, M., 188 Kaszneiak, A W., 105 Keane, M., 72 Kearsley, G., 151, 217, 225 Keen, A., 242 Kerka, S., 201 Kester, L., 75, 78 Kicken, W., 79 Kierstead, J., 189 King, J., 38 Kintsch, W., 73, 82 Kirkley, J R., 38 Kirriemuir, J., 227, 235 Kirschner, P A., 72–75, 83, 271 Kirton, M., 83 Kizlik, R J., 194 Klee, T., 59 Klein, J D., 200, 207, 256, 257, 259 Koch, C., 14 Koike, N., 176 Kolb, D A., 237, 238 Könings, K D., 83 Koper, R., 230 Koster, R., 228, 245 Koszalka, T A., 261 Kozma, R., 79 Kozma, R B., 205 Name Index Kuhl, P K., 26 Kuhn, D., 99 Kuniavsky, M., 79 L Ladson-Billings, G., 38 Lagemann, E C., 160 Lambert, R., 149, 160 Land, S., 71 LaPointe, D., 6, 26, 94, 116, 123, 184, 227–246, 282, 286, 287 Lasswell, H D., 198 LeBuffe, M., 160 Lederman, N G., 104 Lee, T., 51 Leonard, W., 50 Lepper, M R., 78 Lepsinger, R., 189 Lerner, D., 198 Levi-Strauss, C., 234 Levy, F., 46 Liber, O., 113 Lindeman, E C., 158 Linn, M., 103 Lin, X., 45, 59 Lin, X D., 51 Lister, T., 79 London, S., 148 Lowman, J., 257 Lubart, T., 72 Lucia, A., 189 Lundin, R., 110, 119, 120 Luursema, J J., 77 M Macedonia, M R., 235, 236 Marescaux, J P., 72 Markman, A B., 57 Marks, J., 114 Marks, K., 124 Marmolejo, E., 195 Marquardt, M J., 151 Marrelli, A., 189 Marrelli, A F., 189 Marshall, C P., 19 Marshall, S P., 21 Marsh, H W., 253 Martich, D., 59 Martin, L., 50 Martin, R., 45 Martin, T., 48, 49 Marton, F., 137, 138 Masie, E., 191 Name Index Maslow, A H., 76, 118 Mayer, R E., 270, 271 McBrian, L., 59 McClelland, D C., 201 McDonald, D., 197 McDonald, J., 206 McDonald, J K., 103 McGee, S., 71 McGill, I., 198 McGrath, A., 170–172 McIsaac, M S., 195 McLagan, P., 189 McNamara, D., 82 McTighe, J., 57, 58 Meighan, R., 232 Meltzoff, A N., 26 Mendenhall, A., 270 Merrill, D., 3, 286 Merrill, M D., 3, 71, 75, 76, 86, 123, 246, 267–273 Mestre, J., 50 Metcalfe, J., 72 Mezirow, J., 109, 118, 120 Michael, A L., 59 Middlehurst, R., 151 Miller, D E., 194, 198 Miller, V., 27 Mirabile, R., 189 Mirel, B., 71 Moll, L., 57 Moran, L., 38 Morgan, A., 158 Morin, E., 21–24, 30 Morrison, J., 95 Mosborg, S., 3, 37–62, 110, 139, 184, 270, 284, 287 Moskal, P., 228 Mouchiroud, C., 72 Mulhauser, G., 126 Mumford, A., 83 Murnane, R J., 46 N Nachtmann, H L., 53 Naples, A., 71 Neff, D., 57 Nelson, H G., 43, 46, 53 Nisbett, R E., 231, 233 Noble, D., 149 Nolan, P., 189 Norman, D A., 203 Nunan, T., 119 Nussbaum, M., 229 295 O O’Brien, J., 171 Ochs, V L., 111, 112, 126 O’Connor, K., 57 Ohrazda, C., 86 Okita, S., 49 Olsen, S., 147 O’Mahony, K., 50, 59 Osborne, H., 95 Osguthorpe, R T., 103 Osuro, Y., 42, 44, 45 P Paas, F., 72, 77, 81 Papert, S., 175 Paquette, G., 192 Paquin, C., 192 Paris, A H., 257 Paris, S., 73 Patel, V., 16 Pea, R., 50, 57 Perry, W G Jr., 92, 94, 98 Piaget, J., 48, 175 Pierson, J., 48 Piller, F., 180, 181 Pine, B J., 180 Pintrich, P., 105 Pintrich, P R., 91, 98, 256 Plato, 9, 262 Pool, I de S., 198 Prensky, M., 116, 123, 228, 230, 235, 239, 243, 268 Pretz, E., 71–73 Prichard, D., 191 Prinz, W., 170–172 Q Quillian, M., 73 Quinn, C N., 237 R Ragan, T J., 102 Ramage, T., 206 Ramaley, J., 227, 229 Rawe, J., 238 Raybourn, E M., 171, 172, 174 Rebello, N S., 50 Redish, E F., 50 Reigeluth, C M., 103, 117 Reiser, B J., 99, 103, 104 Renkl, A., 72 Reuben-Lorenz, P., 81 296 Rheingold, H., 242 Rhoads, K., 127 Ricciardi-Rigault, C., 192 Richardson, V., 117 Richardson, W., 229, 240, 241 Richey, R., 207 Richey, R C., 188, 189, 207, 259 Rivale, S R., 48 Robertson, S., 72 Roberts, R., 207 Roberts, R C., 207 Robinson, A G., 43 Rodden, T., 171 Rogers, B T., 198 Rogers, C., 109, 111, 118, 143 Rogers, E M., 43 Rogoza, C., 8, 26, 91–106, 281, 282, 288 Ronfeldt, D., 242 Roschelle, J., 244 Roselli, B., 59 Rowland, G., 15, 91 Ruby, A., 229, 230, 233, 245 Rumi, M J., Rushkoff, D., 230 Russell, T., 79, 188 S Sagan, C., 252 Sahin, M S., 188 Salden, R J C M., 77 Salgo, P., 178 Salomon G., 24, 234, 235 Sandoval, W A., 99, 103, 104 Sapsford, R., 279 Scanland, K., 140 Schank, R C., 261 Scharmer, O., 114, 125 Schellekens, A., 77 Scherr, R E., 50 Schiesel, S., 233, 236 Schmidt, H G., 81 Schneider, B., 51 Schoenfeld, A H., 92, 97 Schommer-Aikins, M., 98 Schommer, M., 91, 93 Schön, D., 71 Schumpeter, J A., 45 Schwartz, D., 49–51, 59 Schwartz, D L., 44, 45, 48–50, 59 Schwartz, S B., 78 Schwartzmyer, 200 Scott, A C., 105 Scriven, M., 253 Name Index Seaman, J., 188, 190 Sears, D L., 44 Seeley, K., 116 Seely Brown, J., 47, 119, 121, 122 Sejnowski, T J., 244 Senge, P., 109, 114, 118, 125 Sheldon, K N., 254 Sherwood, R D., 54, 55 Shimamura, A., 72 Siemens, G., 115, 119, 121, 122 Sikes, J., 50 Silverman, L., 113, 116, 123 Simon, H., 74 Simonson, M., 97 Simpson, E S., 227, 231, 245 Slaidinis, I., 191 Slavin, R E., 254 Slowinski, M., 3, 37–62, 110, 139, 184, 270, 284, 287 Smaldino, S., 97 Smith, B K., 191 Smith, M., 38 Smith, M K., 9, 10 Smith, P L., 102 Smrikarov, A., 239 Snapp, M., 50 Snider, M., 235 Songer, N B., 82 Spannaus, T., 207 Spannaus, T W., 158, 187–208, 270 Spector, J M., 25, 62, 79, 86, 92, 102, 200, 207, 251–265 Spector, M., 5, 281–284, 287 Spinoza, B., 160 Spitzer, D., 80 Spohrer, J., 18 Srihari, R., 200 Steinberg, D., 14 Steinkuehler, C, A., 236 Stephanou, S E., 191 Stephin, C., 50 Sternberg, R., 71, 74, 105 Stern, S., 43 Sternstein, A., 241 Stevens, R., 39, 57 Stewart, M., 147 Stirling, D., 4, 25, 103, 144, 165–185, 270, 281, 282 Stokes, P J., 152 Stolterman, E., 43, 46, 53 Storrings, D A., 255, 256, 259 Stoyanov, S., 24, 69–86, 92, 270, 284, 285, 287 Sweller, J., 72, 75, 78, 81, 82, 271 Sykes, C., 25 Name Index T Tang, B A., 191 Tapscott, D., 234 Tarule, J M., 94 Taylor, T L., 227, 228, 234 Templeton, A R., 19 Thaden-Koch, T., 50 Thagard, P., 72 Thomas, L., 165 Thompson, C., 229, 237, 244 Thomson, 270 Tondora, J., 189 Tononi, G., 14 Trevor, J., 171 Trow, M., 149 Tsai, C., 100, 103 Tuovinen, J., 82 U Usuki, M., 194 V Vaill, P B., 48 Vaknin, S., 235 Van Gerven, P W M., 81 Van Merriënboer, J G., 97, 103, 282 Van Merriënboer, J J G., 5, 24, 26, 69–86, 92, 97, 103, 230, 270, 282, 284, 285, 287 Van Rossum, E J., 137, 138 Van Schaack, A., 86 Varma, S., 50 Visser, J., 1–32, 39, 43, 46, 57, 61, 70, 71, 76, 92, 95, 118, 119, 121–124, 138, 139, 141, 166, 173, 206, 277, 281, 282, 284, 287 Visser, M., 3, 15, 27 Visser-Valfrey, M., 3, 277–289 Visser, Y., 7, 281, 282, 284–287 Visser, Y L., 15, 17, 25–27, 58, 135–161, 281, 282, 284–287 Volckaert-Legrier, O., 200 Von Glasersfeld, E., 94 Von Hippel, E., 43 Von Wodtke, M., 72 Vrasidas, C., 101, 195 Vye, N., 3, 37–62, 110, 139, 184, 270, 284, 287 Vye, N J., 48, 54, 55, 59 Vygotsky, L., 158, 230, 233 297 W Wade, M., 227, 231, 235, 236, 243 Wagner, J R., 50 Walker, J M T., 54, 55 Walter, M R., 19 Wang, Y., 270 Warlick, D F., 228, 241 Warnakulasooriya, R., 191 Warren, S F., 59 Watson, C., 270 Weigel, V., 38, 39 Weinstein, C E., 198 Weinstock, M., 99 Weisberg, R., 72 Wells, G., 231 Wendell, J., 79 Wenger, E., 77 Wenke, D., 72 Wertheimer, M., 42 Whitehead, A N., 138, 140 Wiggins, G., 57, 58 Wilder, D., 195 Wiley, D A., 86 Williams, A., 232 Wilson, R., 253 Windschitl, M., 103 Wineburg, S S., 103 Winograd, P., 73 Witherspoon, J., 180 Wood, S., 79 Wylie, C., 128 Y Yager, R., 254 Yager, S., 254 Yanchar, S C., 103 Yeung, A., 82 Yonai, B A., 255 Yoskowitz, N A., 16 Yukita, S., 176 Z Zeidner, M., 256 Zhang, S., 217 Zhang, X., 172 Zia, L., 227, 229 Zimbardo, P G., 166, 182, 184 Zimmerman, B., 72, 73 Zull, J E., 237 Zurita, G., 229 Zvacek, S., 97 Subject Index Page numbers coming in bold represent the footnotes A Activation principle, 269 a-curricular, 111, 115, 129 Adaptive behavior, four levels of, 16–17 expertise, 44, 45, 50, 97, 112 instruction, 84 organizations, 45–46 Adumbrations, 165, 169–170, 182 Alienation of learning, 124–125 Application principle, 269 Architecture of education, 95 Assessment, 37, 39, 40, 43, 47, 50, 61, 75, 77, 99, 110, 137, 142, 144, 146, 147, 175, 188, 218, 224, 230, 252, 253, 261, 272 Assessment of effectiveness, 51, 261–262 Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT), 3, 188, 277, 278, 283 Asynchronous dialogue, 38, 85, 158 Augmented reality, 42, 80 Auto-didactic learner, 214 B Blogs, 56, 130, 193, 228, 232, 234, 238, 240–241 Bohmian, Book of Problems dialogues, 15 C Categories of learners, 281, 283 Coding frame, 277, 281, 283, 284 Cognitive aging, 81 Cognitive load theory, 81 Cognitive style, 83, 115 Collaborative reflection, 14 Commercialization, 135, 136, 148–149, 152 Commoditization, 148–149 Compensatory adaptive approaches, 84 Competencies profile, 188, 189, 201, 202, 204, 205 Complex, 113–114 Complexity, levels of, 16, 17 Complex thinking, 11, 18, 21, 30, diversity, 12, 19, 20, 22, 122, 125, 135, 148, 150, 151, 156, 201, 281 transdisciplinarity, 57 thinking/mindset, 20–21 Computer games, 227–229 Connected knowledge structures, 40 Consciousness, 14–16, 105 higher-order consciousness, 14 primary consciousness, 14 Constructive interaction with change, 11–17 Constructivism, 94, 99, 100, 102, 117–118, 175–178, 271 cognitive constructivism, 271 social constructivism, 117, 271 Constructivist, 48, 94, 98–100, 102–104, 109, 117, 118, 120, 129, 175–177, 181, 182, 271 Content analysis, 277–279, 288 Context density, 165, 169, 173–174, 182 Courseware design, 165, 166, 171, 172, 175, 177, 181 Creative destruction, 45 Curricula, 37, 43, 92, 101, 103, 113, 115, 119, 125, 147–148, 151, 152, 156, 176, 185 D Definition of human learning, 15 Demonstration principle, 269 Designs for learning, 40, 61 299 300 Dialogue, n1, 2–9, 12, 15–18, 21, 25, 38, 46, 61, 95, 104, 122, 124, 158, 193, 206, 214 Digital natives, 47, 123–124, 269 Disciplinary approaches/perspective, 20, 32 Discipline-based knowledge, 22 Distance education, 13, 28, 37, 38, 102, 142, 148, 152, 153, 158, 195, 213–215, 218, 224, 285 Distance learning, 8, 102, 149, 152, 153, 159, 251, 256 Domain-general competence, 70–72, 76, 84, 284 Dynamic selection of tasks, 77 E Earth identity, 22–23 Ecological perspective of learning, 95 Effectiveness, 8, 25, 50, 51, 62, 77, 141, 145, 148, 151, 175, 187, 218, 224, 225, 246, 251–253, 261–262, 268, 282 e-learning, 26, 48, 49, 85, 130, 176, 181, 195, 198 Embodied presence, 28, 29 Emerging technologies, 228, 229, 237–244 Emotion/emotional, 13, 16, 21, 25, 28, 41, 170 Epistemological dissonance, 96, 100, 101 Epistemology, 91, 93–104 Expertise reversal effect, 82 F Feedback, 38, 42, 45, 47, 48, 50, 53, 56, 79, 150, 192, 200, 220, 236, 239, 240, 244, 253, 269 Feral, 27, 109–119, 123, 124, 128, 129, 270, 286, 287 Flexible delivery, 109, 119, 120, 129 Flexible factory model, 181 Flexible skills, 40 Formal education, 3, 9, 17, 42, 43, 48, 52, 57, 76, 104, 109, 110, 112, 117, 119, 124, 125, 140, 143, 152, 155, 156, 167, 182, 185, 286 Formal learning, 43, 46, 52, 54, 57, 93, 95, 96, 127, 136, 139, 159, 167, 177, 183, 185, 190 Funding, 135, 153, 158 G Game generation, 83–84 Games, 85, 124, 128, 183, 204, 227–230, 233–240, 243–245 Subject Index Gaming industry, 235 Guided instruction, 271 H Hints for online learners, 188–190, 192–200, 204, 205 Holistic, 74, 103, 104, 111, 114, 120, 126, 129, 288 I Identity, 22–24, 127, 182, 236–238 Ill-structured problems, 70, 71, 84, 284 Informal learning, 37 n2, 40, 42, 57, 80, 93, 95, 96, 100, 139, 140 Innovation, 11, 19, 30, 37–39, 43, 45, 46, 55, 60, 76, 83, 86, 97, 144, 146, 261 International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (ibstpi), n1, 14, 187–189, 200, 206, 258, 259, 263 Instruction and assessment systems, 43 Instructional design, 13, 28, 69–71, 74, 76, 79, 84–86, 92, 101–103, 258, 271, 272 strategy, 84 Instructional environment, 267 Instructional platform, 103 Instructional strategies, 58, 60, 83, 101, 206, 257, 267–272, 287 Instructivism, 272 Instructor competencies, 92, 101–102, 190 Integration principle, 269 International Board of Standards for Training, n1, 14, 187, 200, 206, 258, 263 Iterative analysis of unstructured data, 279 K Knowledge worker, 135, 140, 143, 144 L Learner, 1–8, 11, 12, 14, 17, 21–32, 38, 39, 45, 47–53, 56, 57, 59, 60, 69, 70, 74–85, 91–104, 109–125, 129, 135–146, 148–161, 165, 166, 170, 172–185, 187–207, 213–219, 222–225, 228–233, 236–240, 243–244, 251–254, 258, 267–273, 277, 278, 280–288 as consumer, 144, 178 definition, 278 Learner-directed, 176–177, 182, 270, 272 Subject Index Learning animal learning, 16 communities, 23, 77, 80, 85, 129, 219, 271 as a concept and process, 283, 286 definition of, 13–15 ecology, 11, 30, 119–120 environment, 3, 5, 7, 21, 25, 26, 28–30, 38–40, 48, 49, 52, 83, 85, 91–97, 99–102, 104–105, 111–114, 119, 123, 127, 129, 137, 157, 165–171, 173–175, 177, 182–184, 193–196, 202, 208, 223–224, 230, 232, 234, 237, 239–240, 242, 245, 256, 258, 264, 267, 270–271, 273, 281, 285–287 human learning, 1, 3, 4, 15, 17, 31, 39, 95, 125, 129, 272 landscape, 2–4, 11, 12, 17, 19, 24, 28, 30, 40, 52, 61, 69, 84, 85, 92, 94, 96, 101, 104, 112, 119–120, 124, 135–140, 142, 144, 148, 150–154, 157–159, 161, 165, 177, 183–184, 234, 267–268, 270, 277–278, 280–287 machine learning, 16 mechanisms, 267–269 outcomes, 70, 78, 80, 225, 238, 255, 260, 267, 272 space, 24, 26, 27, 30, 31, 61, 91, 92, 95–96, 99, 101, 102, 104, 115, 139 styles, 80, 83, 85, 213, 216, 218, 224, 232, 267, 270 Learning Development Institute (LDI), 10, 105 Learning to learn, 18, 43, 75, 196, 230 Letting go, 45, 285 Lifelong learning, 47, 54, 61, 76, 80, 82, 85, 92, 129, 143, 146, 184 Local expertise, 42 M Mass customization, 77, 178, 180–182 Mass education, 135, 145, 149–150 Meaning and context density, 165, 174 Meaning of learning, 31, 137, 284, 288 Meaning of learning research, 91, 97, 104 Mentoring/mentor, 29, 177, 183, 218, 219, 223 Metacognitive strategies, 70, 198 m-learning, 26 Modalities for learning, 282 MTV, 268, 269 MySpace, 228, 238 301 N New technologies, 37, 38, 40, 51, 61, 75–77, 79, 85, 92, 228, 244, 251 No significant difference, 72, 86, 187, 188, 200, 205, 206, 256 O Objectivist, 95, 99, 101–103 On-demand advisory models, 78 Online communication, 29, 165, 170, 174, 198 Online course interaction, 173, 214, 216, 217, 225 Online games, 228, 235 Online instruction, 166, 251, 256, 257, 259–261, 284 Online learner, 3, 4, 14, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 80, 81, 85, 96–97, 187–194, 196–202, 204, 205, 213, 224 competencies, 187–190, 201, 202, 205 learning, 24–26, 37, 38, 46, 77, 79–81, 91, 97, 100, 103, 104, 165–184 Online learning, 7, 24–26, 37 n2, 38, 46, 77, 79–81, 91, 97, 100, 103–104, 165–171, 173–175 Online presence, 171, 195 Open learning environment, 270–272 P Paradox of knowledge structure, 73 Pedagogy, 25, 103, 104, 214, 223, 241 Peopleware, 79 Performance and Instruction (ibstpi), n1, 14, 187, 200, 206, 258, 263 Personal epistemological beliefs, 91, 93, 99, 101, 104 Personalities of online learning groups, 257–258 Personalization, 85, 180, 181 Positivism, 94, 95, 102 Postsecondary education, 135–136, 139, 140, 144–160, 285 Preferential adaptive approaches, 84 Principles of instruction, 269, 270, 273, 286 Private education, 144, 151 Problem-solving, 69–73, 80, 176 Professional training, 135, 140–141, 143 Public education, 149, 180 Q Qualitative analysis, 72, 278 Quality standards, 251 Quantitative analysis, 280 302 R Remediation, 142 Respectful, 111–112, 129 Roles in context, 169 Rote learning, 92, 95, 98 S Seamless, 38, 111, 114–115, 129, 138 Self-directed learner, 47, 48, 217 Shared responsibility models, 77 Sociocultural perspectives on learning, 233 Spontaneous orders, 114 Student, definition, 11 Student-centered, 117, 175–177, 180, 182, 270 Student-led, 111, 115, 129 Survival, 125–126, 129 System-controlled models, 77, 78 T Task-centered instructional strategy, 269 Technology, 19, 20, 24–26, 30, 37–40, 44, 46–47, 50, 51, 56–57, 60–61, 75, 79–80, 92, 94, 96–97, 102–104, 123, 129, 141, 146, 150, 165, 173, 187, 189–190, 192–198, 200–201, 203–206, 227–229, 232, 234–235, 237–238, 240, 241, 243–244, 258, 260–261, 282–283, 285–287 Technology-enabled learning, 40, 61 Subject Index Threaded discussion, 214, 218, 220, 221, 260 Time-and place-independent learning, 75–77, 85 Transactional distance, 225 Transfer, 42, 50, 57–59, 70, 73, 75, 78–80, 84, 95, 102, 120, 229, 244 Transformative, 11, 37, 61, 109, 118–119, 129, 137 Transparent, 111–113, 129 U University, 12, 13, 27, 31, 38, 51, 94, 110, 140, 145, 150, 151, 154, 156, 159 Unlearning, 45, 223, 282 V Video games, simulations, 228 Visual-spatial, 116, 123, 235 W Wikis, 193, 228, 232, 234, 241–242 Wisdom, 18, 28, 46, 54, 111, 114, 125–126, 129 Witness learners, 214, 215 Workforce education, 147 Workplace learning, 141 Worldview, 6, 13, 15, 114, 232