A kaleidoscope of models and strategies for teaching english to speekers of other languages by de

Pref acePref aceThis ka lei do scope is a col lec tion of var i ous ESOL Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages meth odsand mod els or ori en ta tions for those who teach or will teac

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A Kaleidoscope of Models and Strategies for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

Deborah L Norland, Ph.D.,

Terry Pruett-Said

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A Ka lei do scope of Mod els and Strat e gies for Teach ing Eng lish to Speak ers of Other Lan guages

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A Ka lei do scope of Mod els and Strat e gies for Teach ing Eng lish to Speak ers of

Other Lan guages

Deborah L Norland, Ph.D., and Terry Pruett-Said

Teacher Ideas Press, an im print of Li brar ies Un lim ited

Westport, Con nect i cut • Lon don

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Norland, Deborah L.

A ka lei do scope of mod els and strat e gies for teach ing Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages /

by Deborah L Norland and Terry Pruett-Said

p cm

In cludes bib lio graph i cal ref er ences and in dex

ISBN 1-59158-372-1 (pbk : alk pa per)

1 Eng lish lan guage—Study and teach ing—For eign speak ers 2 Ef fec tive teach ing I Pruett-Said, Terry II Ti tle

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Printed in the United States of Amer ica

The pa per used in this book com plies with the

Per ma nent Pa per Stan dard is sued by the Na tional

In for ma tion Stan dards Or ga ni za tion (Z39.48–1984)

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Con tents

Pref ace vii

In tro duc tion ix

Chap ter 1—His tor i cal Ap proaches 1

Au dio-Lin gual Method 2

Di rect Method 5

Gram mar-based Ap proaches 7

Chap ter 2—Solo Ap proaches 11

Com mu nity Lan guage Learn ing 12

Si lent Way 14

Suggestopedia 15

Chap ter 3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proaches 17

Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing 18

Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing 21

Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing 25

No tional-Func tional Ap proach 27

To tal Phys i cal Re sponse (TPR) 28

Chap ter 4—Lan guage Arts Ap proaches 31

Lan guage Ex pe ri ence Ap proach 32

Lit er a ture-based Ap proach 34

Nat u ral Ap proach 36

Whole Lan guage Ap proach 38

Chap ter 5—Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proaches 41

Cog ni tive Ac a demic Lan guage Learn ing Ap proach 42

Con tent-based Sec ond Lan guage In struc tion 44

Eng lish for Ac a demic Pur poses 49

Eng lish for Spe cific Pur poses 52

Lex i cal Ap proach 55

Com pe tency-based Ap proach 57

Crit i cal Ped a gogy 60

Fam ily Lit er acy 64

Learner-cen tered Ap proach 66

Vo ca tional Eng lish as a Sec ond Lan guage 68

Bib li og ra phy 71

In dex 81

v

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Pref acePref ace

This ka lei do scope is a col lec tion of var i ous ESOL (Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages) meth odsand mod els or ori en ta tions for those who teach or will teach Eng lish-lan guage learn ers (ELLs) ESOLteach ers may come in con tact with these or wish to learn them for fu ture ref er ence The meth ods and mod -els are not just those that we, the au thors, prac tice or rec om mend In fact, we have tried to list as manystrat e gies and mod els or ori en ta tions as pos si ble in the hope that read ers will be able to eval u ate and dis -cover which meth ods and mod els will work best for their par tic u lar teach ing sit u a tions

In an at tempt to be as in clu sive as pos si ble, we have tried our best to cover the di verse realms ofESOL teach ing We have in cluded meth ods and ori en ta tions that are prac ticed in K–12 schools, at the col -lege and uni ver sity level, and in adult ed u ca tion pro grams A num ber of these meth ods and ori en ta tionsmay have dif fer ent names in dif fer ent sit u a tions, and we have tried to list the vari a tions of these names

No doubt, how ever, there are terms for these meth ods and mod els that we have not en coun tered In fact,there may be meth ods and mod els that we have not in cluded, al though we have tried our best to cover asmuch ter ri tory as pos si ble No meth ods, strat e gies, mod els, or ori en ta tions have been pur posely left out.You may also no tice that some of the meth ods/strat e gies and mod els/ori en ta tions may not be in cur rentfash ion In an at tempt to be in clu sive we have in cor po rated these, but with com ments re gard ing what wesee as their in her ent ca ve ats

Sug ges tions for Us ing the Text

The ESOL mod els and meth ods are listed in al pha bet i cal or der in the hand book Vari a tions on the ori

-en ta tions’ and meth ods’ names are listed next to the name we most com monly found at tached to the method

or ori en ta tion We have then in cluded a brief back ground on the method or model that in cludes when pos si ble, a the o ret i cal sum ma ri za tion of the method, its de vel op ment, and its cur rent use and ap pli ca tion.This is fol lowed by the gen eral strat egy fre quently used to teach and/or pre pare cur ric u lum us ing this method or model In an at tempt to make the strat egy eas ily ac ces si ble we have pre sented the strat egy insteps Nev er the less, it is pos si ble that in dif fer ent sit u a tions cer tain steps might be elim i nated or othersteps added In or der to help read ers con cep tu al ize the method or ori en ta tion we have in cluded some ex -

am ples and ap pli ca tions Again read ers should be aware that these ex am ples may not al ways be ap pro pri ate as is for their par tic u lar sit u a tion But we would hope such ex am ples would give read ers the guid anceneeded to de velop their own ap pli ca tions

-Al though our goal is to pres ent a re source of meth ods and mod els with ob jec tiv ity and lim ited bias,

we nev er the less feel it nec es sary to pres ent ca ve ats re gard ing the meth ods and mod els as we see them In

ad di tion, we want read ers to be aware that all meth ods and mod els may be in ap pro pri ate in cer tain sit u a tions, and thus, we have made com ments in the “Weak ness/Mod i fi ca tions” section re gard ing lim i ta tions

-of the meth ods and ori en ta tions as well as mod i fi ca tions that can be made in dif fer ent sit u a tions

In the pro cess of ac cu mu lat ing these meth ods and ori en ta tions we have dis cov ered that many ofthem over lap, and are def i nitely not en ti ties in and of them selves Thus, we have in cluded a “See also”sec tion that lists other meth ods which are com pat i ble At the end of each method and ori en ta tion we have

in cluded a list of ma te ri als in which read ers may find more in for ma tion re gard ing the method ormodel Some of these ma te ri als give the the o ret i cal and de vel op men tal back ground re gard ing themethod or model Oth ers are col lec tions of mod els for les sons and other ap pli ca tions The lists are by

no means ex haus tive The ma te ri als listed were cho sen to give read ers ini tial en try into the method ormodel pre sented

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In tro duc tion

What Is ESL?

The ac ro nym ESL stands for Eng lish as a sec ond lan guage In the United States, ESL re fers to theteach ing of those stu dents for whom Eng lish is not a first lan guage Some peo ple don’t like the term ESL,point ing out that in many cases Eng lish may be the third or fourth lan guage of the stu dents In ad di tion, insome coun tries, like In dia, Sin ga pore, or Kenya, ESL has a slightly dif fer ent mean ing In those places, it

re fers to the fact that Eng lish is a sec ond of fi cial lan guage that is learned in school and of ten used in gov ern ment and busi ness but may not be the first lan guage of the majority of people

-In fact, a num ber of other terms are used to de scribe ESL You may see the term ESOL (Eng lish forstu dents of other lan guages) The ac ro nym TESOL re fers to “teach ing Eng lish to stu dents of other lan -guages.” TESOL is also the name of the pro fes sional in ter na tional or ga ni za tion of teach ers of ESOL You may also see other terms such as ELL (Eng lish lan guage learn ing) and ELD (Eng lish lan guage de vel op -ment) used to de scribe stu dents and pro grams that serve stu dents who are learn ing Eng lish as a sec ondlan guage You may also see the term LEP (lim ited Eng lish pro fi ciency) to de scribe ESL stu dents How -ever, most ESL prac ti tio ners dis like this term be cause they do not feel that ESL students are limited.You may also see the term EFL, which stands for Eng lish as for eign lan guage Gen er ally, EFL isused to de scribe Eng lish teach ing that oc curs in places where Eng lish is not the na tive lan guage, and ESL

is used to de scribe Eng lish teach ing that oc curs in places like the United States, Can ada, Eng land, andAus tra lia where the first lan guage of most people is English

Who Are ESL Stu dents?

In the United States, many dif fer ent peo ple are ESL stu dents Many are K–12 stu dents, of ten im mi grants who have re cently ar rived with their fam i lies In other cases, they and their fam i lies may have been

in the United States for a lon ger pe riod of time Many im mi grant chil dren, es pe cially from ref u gee fam i lies, may have re sided in a num ber of coun tries be fore ar riv ing in the United States Some of them mayhave lim ited school ing Some of them may not know how to read and write in their na tive lan guage Butother ESL stu dents may have had very good school ing and may al ready be able to read and write in morethan one lan guage Other stu dents who may need ESL ser vices are chil dren adopted from overseas byAmerican parents

-There are also na tive-born non-Eng lish stu dents who may re ceive ESL ser vices un der the um brella

of bi lin gual ed u ca tion These may in clude Na tive Amer i cans, Pa cific Is land ers, and many His pan ics An other group that some times re ceives lan guage ser vices un der the um brella of ESL are di a lect-dif fer entstu dents These are stu dents who speak a di a lect of Eng lish dif fer ent from the stan dard Eng lish used in aschool or job set ting in the United States Many of these stu dents may come from the Ca rib bean or coun -tries such as Hong Kong and Ma lay sia where Eng lish is spo ken but the di a lect may be dif fer ent enough tocause communication problems in the United States

-Many ESL stu dents are adults In some cases, they are in ter na tional stu dents who have come to theUnited States to study in higher ed u ca tion but need to im prove their Eng lish skills be fore en roll ing at acol lege or uni ver sity In other cases, they are al ready en rolled but need Eng lish sup port to help them im -prove their Eng lish In other cases, adults im mi grate to the United States Like chil dren, they have a widerange of ed u ca tion and lan guage lev els Some adults may not be lit er ate in their own lan guage In othercases, adults may have ad vanced de grees from their own coun tries and al ready know a num ber of otherlan guages Other adults come to the United States as vis it ing pro fes sion als in busi ness or gov ern ment.While here they may want to im prove their Eng lish Thus, the needs of ESL students can vary widely

ix

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What’s the Dif fer ence be tween an Ap proach,

a Method, and a Tech nique?

In gen eral an ap proach is viewed as an over all the ory about learn ing lan guage, which then lends it self to “ap proach ing” lan guage teach ing and learn ing in a cer tain man ner A method is of ten viewed as a

-se ries of pro ce dures or ac tiv i ties u-sed to teach lan guage in a cer tain way A tech nique is usu ally -seen as

one ac tiv ity or pro ce dure used within a plan for teach ing The re al ity is, how ever, that lan guage teach ingpro fes sion als of ten find them selves in dis agree ment over these terms De pend ing on how one is de fin ingthe term and the cir cum stances in which the term is be ing used, an ap proach may be come a method or a

method may be come a tech nique For this rea son, we have de cided to use ap proaches to de scribe all the

ways of lan guage teach ing we pres ent in our book Af ter our read ers are in tro duced to these var i ous ap proaches, they may de cide for them selves how they wish to categorize them and how they fit into theirsyllabus

-So Which Ap proach Is Best?

There is no one best ap proach be cause the cir cum stances and needs of ESL stu dents vary so greatly

To choose ap proaches that are the most ap pro pri ate for your stu dents, you must take into ac count manyvari ables What are your stu dents’ needs? Where will they use their Eng lish? Will they need their Eng lishfor school? Will they need their Eng lish for work? What kind of work do they do? How old are they? How much time do they have to learn Eng lish? Have they stud ied Eng lish or an other lan guage be fore? Howwell do they know their own lan guage?

Which Ap proach Is Best for Cer tain Groups?

Even within cer tain groups there may not be one best ap proach None the less, there are cer tain ap proaches that tend to be used more of ten with cer tain groups than oth ers For ex am ple, in K–12 many ESL

-ap proaches are sim i lar to the lan guage arts -ap proaches used to teach lan guage to na tive speak ers We have grouped those ap proaches in the Lan guage Arts sec tion But just as com mu ni ca tive ap proaches are alsoused with na tive speak ers learn ing their own lan guage, so they are fre quently part of the teach ing ped a -gogy of K–12 ESL teach ers It is also im por tant to un der stand that stu dents in school must learn the Eng -lish used in school This is es pe cially im por tant for ESL stu dents who ar rive in the United States at anolder age such as mid dle school or high school You will find some ap pro pri ate ap proaches for these stu -dents discussed under the Academic/Professional section

In the United States, there are pro grams avail able for var i ous types of adult ESL stu dents Many stu dents who have just ar rived may find them selves in adult ba sic ed u ca tion ESL pro grams spon sored by thegov ern ment These pro grams of ten use some of the ap proaches dis cussed in the Adult Lit er acy sec tion.But such pro grams also make use of lan guage arts ap proaches In some cases, such as fam ily lit er acy pro -grams, both K–12 and adult ba sic ed u ca tion pro grams are in volved in the same pro gram Other adult stu -dents are here as stu dents in higher ed u ca tion or on a pro fes sional ba sis Many of the ap proaches used forthese stu dents can be found in Chap ter 5, “Ac a demic and Pro fes sional Ap proaches.”

-Why Do We Need to Know about Var i ous Meth ods and

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needs of their stu dents They put these ap proaches to gether to cre ate a var ied syl la bus and an op ti mumlearn ing ex pe ri ence Some times this is re ferred to as se lec tive eclec ti cism It may also be re ferred to as an

or ganic or in te grated syl la bus or cur ric u lum This does not mean that teach ers can just put to gether abunch of ac tiv i ties to cre ate a plan Good teach ers must al ways con sider what the re sults of these ac tiv i ties will be and how these will form a long-term, effective program to teach another language

Aren’t Some Ap proaches Out dated?

Al though it is true that some ap proaches be come out dated as ESL prac ti tio ners find that they do not

do a very good job of meet ing ei ther teach ers’ or stu dents’ needs, most have some strong points aboutthem that tend to be bor rowed to use with other ap proaches and thus have be come a part of con tem po raryteach ing ap proaches In ad di tion, there is a ten dency in ed u ca tion for the pop u lar ity of ap proaches toswing back and forth Thus, an ap proach that may be pop u lar one de cade may find it self out a fa vor in thenext This makes it all the more im por tant that teach ers be aware of the many ap proaches, with theirstrengths and weak nesses, so that they can use this knowl edge to create an effective curriculum

In tro duc tion xi

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Au dio-Lin gual Method

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ate Grade Level: El e men tary to Adult (al though older adults may find the quick re call dif fi cult)

Back ground

The au dio-lin gual method (ALM) was de vel oped dur ing World War II in re ac tion to ap proaches that did not ad e quately de velop speak ing skills ALM was strongly in flu enced by ideas from be hav ioral psy -chol ogy that led to the be lief that lan guage was a sys tem of hab its that could be taught by re in forc ing cor -rect re sponses and pun ish ing in cor rect re sponses In an ALM les son, stu dents are asked to re peatcor rectly the word or phrase that the teacher has said Stu dents are praised for cor rectly mim ick ing theteacher or are asked to re peat the phrase un til it is cor rect Al though as pects of this method, such as drills

in the be gin ning stages of lan guage learn ing, con tinue to be used, most lan guage ed u ca tors now re al izethat language is more complex than mere mimicking

Strat egy

1 The teacher orally pres ents a phrase to the stu dents

2 Stu dents are then asked to re peat the phrase quickly

3 If a stu dent pro nounces the phrase cor rectly and gram mat i cally, the stu dent is praised Stu dentswho do not say it cor rectly are asked to re peat un til they can say it cor rectly

4 The teacher mod i fies the phrase by chang ing a word in the phrase

5 Stu dents con tinue with drills in which they try to say the phrase quickly and ac cu rately with var

-i ous mod -i f-i ca t-ions

Ap pli ca tions and Ex am ples

Teach ing Sim ple Pres ent Tense

1 The teacher pres ents the sim ple pres ent tense forms of a verb (or verbs) such as “like.”

2 The teacher says, “I like, he likes (em pha siz ing the end ing “s”), she likes, it likes, we like, youlike, they like.” The teacher may also add, “John likes, My mother likes,” etc

3 Stu dents re peat cho rally, “I like, he likes, she likes, it likes, we like, you like, they like.”

4 The teacher then says the sen tence “I like cof fee.” Then the teacher cues an in di vid ual stu dentwith the word “he.” The stu dent is ex pected to re spond with “He likes cof fee.” If the re sponse is

in cor rect, the stu dent is cor rected and asked to try again un til he or she can say the sen tence cor rectly The teacher cues other stu dents with other sub jects, so that a re place ment drill oc curs rap -idly around the room

-5 The teacher may then change not only the sub ject but also the ob ject For ex am ple, the teachermay say to a stu dent, “He/tea.” The stu dent would cor rectly re spond, “He likes tea.” Then theteacher might give the cue, “They/par ties.”

6 The teacher might also use pic tures in stead of vo cal cues The teacher might then in tro duce theneg a tive by mod el ing it, hav ing stu dents re peat it, and then do a drill in which stu dents are cued(per haps by an up turned or down-turned thumb) to make an af fir ma tive or neg a tive sentence

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Learn ing a Di a logue through ALM

1 The teacher pres ents a di a logue to the stu dents The teacher shows a pic ture of two peo plespeak ing to each other Go ing through the di a logue, the teacher points to the pic ture to in di catewho is speak ing

2 The teacher then re peats each line of the di a logue The stu dents re peat af ter the teacher

3 The teacher re peats two lines of the di a logue as spo ken by each per son One stu dent is cued tosay the first line of the di a logue An other is cued to say the re spond ing line The teacher cuesvar i ous stu dents around the room to say the same thing The teacher and stu dents go through the

di a logue in this man ner un til they have prac ticed all the lines of dialogue

4 Then stu dents are asked to per form the whole di a logue as a pair

A Vi sual ALM Les son

Pre sented by Becky Sutter, a Lu ther Col lege ed u ca tion stu dent

1 The teacher holds up a se ries of pic tures of peo ple with spe cific oc cu pa tions While show ingeach pic ture, the teacher says, “He is a firefighter” or “She is a po lice of fi cer,” etc The stu dentsare in structed to re peat cho rally the ex act phrase that the teacher says right af ter she or he says it

2 The teacher praises the stu dents as a group for re peat ing the phrase cor rectly or will ask them to

re peat it again if sev eral stu dents have trou ble with it

3 The teacher goes through the set of pic tures again, this time call ing on in di vid ual stu dents andprompt ing them with the same prompts pro vided be fore The teacher praises the stu dents who

re peat the phrase cor rectly and asks stu dents who re peat it in cor rectly to try again

4 The teacher goes through the pic tures a third time, this time chang ing the prompt She or he calls

on a stu dent, prompts that per son with a pic ture of an oc cu pa tion, and says, “I,” “you,” “she,”

“we,” or “they.” The stu dent is ex pected to pro duce a sen tence such as, “They are cooks.” Theteacher ei ther praises the stu dent or asks the stu dent to re peat the sen tence af ter her (or him) de -pend ing on the ac cu racy of the response

Strengths

• Con trolled drills may en cour age shy stu dents to speak

• Be cause ALM les sons and drills tend to go very quickly, they may help cre ate a sense of flu ency for some stu dents

-Weak nesses

• Stu dents who need the writ ten word to re in force their speak ing and lis ten ing may find “pure”ALM very con fus ing

• ALM fre quently uses nonauthentic lan guage

• Some stu dents may be un able to make the tran si tion from con trolled drills to moreopen-ended and cre ative lan guage use

Mod i fi ca tions

Al though “pure” ALM in sists on stu dents learn ing lis ten ing and speak ing be fore be ing ex posed tothe writ ten word, in many cases, teach ers may mod ify the method by writ ing in for ma tion on the board orgiv ing stu dents the di a logues in written form

See also: Di rect Method

Au dio-Lin gual Method 3

From A Ka lei do scope of Mod els and Strat e gies for Teach ing Eng lish to Speak ers of Other Lan guages by Deborah L Norland, Ph.D.

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Fur ther Read ing

Chastain, K (1971) The de vel op ment of mod ern lan guage skills: The ory to prac tice Phil a del phia:

Cen ter for Cur ric u lum De vel op ment

This book pro vides a lot of back ground as well as ex am ples of teach ing prac tices us ing

Au dio-lin gual and cog ni tive ap proaches

Colvin, R J (1986) I speak Eng lish: A tu tor’s guide to teach ing con ver sa tional Eng lish (3rd ed.) Syr a cuse, NY: Lit er acy Vol un teers of America.

Al though not a book on ALM, this book pres ents a num ber of drills that was of ten used inALM

Larsen-Free man, D (2000) The au dio-lin gual method In Prin ci ples and tech niques of lan guage

teach ing (2nd ed., pp 35–51) Ox ford, Eng land: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press.

This re source is a pre sen ta tion and anal y sis of an au dio-lin gual class

Rich ards, J C., & Rodgers, T S (2001) The audiolingual method In Ap proaches and meth ods in

lan guage teach ing: A de scrip tion and anal y sis (pp 50–69) Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge

Uni ver sity Press

Rich ards and Rog ers pro vide an over view of ALM in clud ing its the o ret i cal and his tor i calback ground and ba sic ped a gog i cal pro ce dures

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in pub lic ed u ca tion, it has, with mod i fi ca tions, in flu enced some con tem po rary ap proaches such as com

-mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing, the nat u ral ap proach, and to tal phys i cal re sponse

Strat egy

This method of ten de vel ops around a set of pic tures that por trays life in the coun try of the tar get lan guage From the be gin ning, stu dents are taught, and must re spond, in the tar get lan guage Be sides pic -tures, realia and sim ple ac tions are used to get across mean ing Les sons of ten fo cus aroundques tion-and-an swer di a logues Cor rect pro nun ci a tion is also em pha sized, but cor rect struc ture is not.Stu dents may also read pas sages for in for ma tion about the tar get cul ture Teach ers may ask ques tionsabout the read ing to check com pre hen sion, but it is never trans lated

-1 The teacher shows a set of pic tures that of ten por tray life in the coun try of the tar get lan guage

2 The teacher de scribes the pic ture in the tar get lan guage

3 The teacher asks ques tions in the tar get lan guage about the pic ture

4 Stu dents an swer the ques tions as best they can us ing the tar get lan guage Pro nun ci a tion is cor rected, but gram mat i cal struc ture is not

-5 Stu dents may also read a pas sage in the tar get lan guage

6 The teacher asks ques tions in the tar get lan guage about the read ing

7 Stu dents an swer ques tions as best they can us ing the tar get lan guage

1 The teach ers shows a pic ture of a beach in Florida (Tour ist post ers work well for this.)

2 The teacher de scribes the pic ture: “There is a beau ti ful beach in Mi ami It is near the ocean.There are some peo ple on the beach They are wear ing bath ing suits The woman is wear ing ahat The man is swim ming The chil dren are build ing a sand cas tle There is a man sell ing icecream The chil dren want to buy some ice cream Their fa ther will buy them some ice cream.”The teacher may also use realia and other ma te rial to help stu dents un der stand the vocabulary

Di rect Method 5

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3 Stu dents are asked ques tions such as:

Where is the beach?

What are the peo ple wear ing?

What is the woman wear ing?

What is the man do ing?

What are the chil dren do ing?

What is the man sell ing?

What do the chil dren want?

Who will buy them ice cream?

4 Stu dents give the an swers The teacher cor rects pro nun ci a tion but is not overly con cerned aboutgram mat i cal cor rect ness The main goal is that stu dents are com mu ni ca tive

5 Stu dents are then given a short read ing about tour ist at trac tions in Mi ami

6 Stu dents are then asked ques tions about the read ing

Strengths

• This is a quick way for stu dents to learn ba sic con ver sa tion skills

• This teach ing method is help ful to teach ers who do not know their stu dents’ first lan guage (L1)

Weak nesses

• Some stu dents may be over whelmed with out ac cess to their first lan guage

• Higher-or der dis course is not likely to be learned through this method

• Not ap pro pri ate for learn ing ac a demic lit er acy skills

See also: Nat u ral Ap proach, Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing

Bowen, J D., Madsen, H., & Hilferty, A (1985) Where we’ve been: in sights from the past In

TESOL: Tech niques and pro ce dures (pp 3–30) Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This text pro vides an in for ma tive sum mary of past lan guage teach ing ap proaches

Celce-Murcia, M (2001) Lan guage teach ing ap proaches: An over view In Teach ing Eng lish as a

sec ond or for eign lan guage (3rd ed., pp 1–11) Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This text pro vides an over view of past lan guage teach ing ap proaches with bulleted lists oftheir main points

Larsen-Free man, D (2000) Tech niques and prin ci ples in lan guage teach ing (2nd ed.) Ox ford,

Eng land: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press

This vol ume pro vides a dis cus sion of the di rect method in clud ing a sam ple les son fol lowed by an anal y sis of the prin ci ples of the method

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-Gram mar-based Ap proaches

1—His tor i cal Ap proaches

Gram mar-based Ap proaches

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vanced Grade Level: Up per El e men tary to Adult

Back ground

Gram mar-based ap proaches to lan guage learn ing have been used since an cient times The mostwell known of his tor i cal gram mar-based ap proaches is the gram mar-trans la tion method in which stu -dents are pre sented a text and are asked to trans late the text word for word While trans lat ing, stu dents’

at ten tion is brought to the ap pro pri ate gram mar points to be taught Al though the gram mar-trans la tionmethod has fallen out of fa vor mainly be cause of its in abil ity to fos ter com mu ni ca tive abil ity, othertypes of gram mar-based ap proaches are still in com mon use What most con tem po rary uses of gram mar-based teach ing have in com mon is the use of gram mat i cal struc tures to guide the syl la bus or les son Un -like ear lier gram mar-based ap proaches, more con tem po rary ap proaches, while pre sent ing and us inggram mar points as a guid ing force, en large on the gram mar point to make the syl la bus or les son morecom mu ni ca tive and au then tic

Strat egy

1 The teacher pres ents the gram mat i cal struc ture or rule

2 Stu dents prac tice of the struc ture

3 Stu dents use the struc ture in a ho lis tic, au then tic man ner (in con tem po rary gram marbased ap

-proaches)

Teach ing the Pres ent Per fect Verb Tense

1 Stu dents read a pas sage that makes use of the pres ent per fect Stu dents are asked to rec og nizethe pres ent per fect Stu dents may also be asked why they think the pres ent per fect is used in thereading

2 The teacher then orally and vi su ally ex plains the pres ent per fect One way to do this is to writethe fol low ing on the board or over head:

a How to make: sub ject + has/have + past par ti ci ple

Ex am ple: He has done his home work over

Ex am ple: They have vis ited Chi cago sev eral times

b When to use:

For ac tions that be gan in the past and con tinue in the pres ent

– I have lived in New York for five years

For re peated ac tions

– John has seen that movie five times

For an ac tion that hap pened at an un spec i fied or un known time

– She has al ready eaten lunch

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For an ac tion that was just com pleted.

– Jane and George have just fin ished paint ing their house

3 Stu dents then do ex er cises to prac tice the tense These ex er cises may be spo ken or writ ten ex er cises Stu dents may be gin with ex er cises in which they only need to write in the cor rect form.Stu dents may then do ex er cises prac tic ing ad verbs that of ten go with the pres ent per fect such as

re cently, un til now, and so far In ad di tion, they may prac tice ex er cises that ask them to rec og

-nize the dif fer ence be tween the sim ple pres ent and the present perfect tense

4 Stu dents then do ex pan sion and ap pli ca tion ex er cises in which they prac tice writ ing or speak ingabout a topic that en cour ages them to make use of the pres ent per fect For ex am ple, stu dentsmay write or speak about places they have vis ited or ac tiv i ties they have done since com ing tothe coun try they are in now

to help learn a lan guage, not a means to an end

• Stu dents may fo cus so much on gram mar that they don’t learn the other as pects of lan guage

• Stu dents who are more ho lis tic learn ers may find gram mar les sons bor ing or even con fus ing

Barbier, S (1994) Trou ble some Eng lish: A teach ing gram mar for ESOL in struc tors Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Re gents

This teacher-friendly ref er ence and source book in cludes ac tiv i ties that can be used toteach stu dents gram mar

Celce-Murcia, M (1991) Gram mar ped a gogy in sec ond and for eign lan guage teach ing TESOL

Quar terly, 25, 3.

This in for ma tive ar ti cle ex plains when gram mar should be taught based on age, ed u ca tional back ground, need, and goals of the learner

-Larsen-Free man, D (1997) Gram mar and its teach ing: Chal leng ing the myths Wash ing ton, DC:

Eric Clear ing house on Lan guage and Lit er a ture Re trieved May 3, 2006, from http://www.cal.org/re sources/di gest/Larsen01.html

This brief ar ti cle re futes ten pop u lar lan guage-learn ing myths about gram mar learn ing and teach ing

Lock, G (1996) Func tional Eng lish gram mar: An in tro duc tion for sec ond lan guage learn ers Cam

-bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press

An in-depth pre sen ta tion on the as pects of see ing gram mar from a func tional point of view

as op posed to cat e go riz ing gram mar for mally

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Pen ning ton, M C (Ed.) (1995) New ways in teach ing gram mar Alexandra, VA: Teach ers of Stu

-dents of Other Lan guages (TESOL)

This col lec tion of ac tiv i ties and les sons is cat e go rized by the gram mar points that can beused to teach It also in cludes an in for ma tive dis cus sion of the sit u ated pro cess view of gram -mar learn ing and teach ing

Com puter-As sisted Lan guage Learn ing (CALL)

Gram mar ap proaches lend them selves well to com puter pro grams A num ber of re cent ESL gram mar text books now have ac com pa ny ing CDs and Web sites Other gram mar prac tice soft ware in clude thefollowing:

-Eng lish on call, McGraw-Hill Con tem po rary.

This three-level pro gram uses contextualized, in ter ac tive ac tiv i ties to prac tice gram mar

ESL fit ness, Merit Soft ware.

This be gin ner to low-in ter me di ate pro gram in cludes three lev els that help stu dents withEng lish gram mar, us age, and spell ing

ESL pic ture gram mar, avail able from Au dio-Fo rum.

This in ter ac tive pro gram helps stu dents de velop sen tences and form verb tenses

Fo cus on gram mar CD-ROM, Longman.

This four-level soft ware pro gram gives gram mar prac tice through read ing, lis ten ing, andwrit ing ac tiv i ties

Gram mar 3D: Contextualized prac tice for learn ers of Eng lish, Heinle & Heinle.

This four-level tu to rial in cludes five hun dred ac tiv i ties and thirty-four gram mar top ics

The gram mar cracker, Miller Ed u ca tional Ma te ri als.

This CD-ROM pres ents gram mar rules and ac tiv i ties in an or ga nized man ner with work

be gin ning with sen tences and lead ing to es says and re ports

Let’s go, Miller Ed u ca tional Ma te ri als.

Twelve CDs can be used to teach chil dren lan guage and gram mar with di a logues, songs,

vo cab u lary, pho nics, and games

Rosetta stone, Fairfield Tech nol o gies.

This se ries fo cuses on lis ten ing ex er cises and is or ga nized around gram mar points

Verbcon, Au dio-Fo rum.

This two-part pro gram fo cuses on verb tense, as pects, moods, and voice

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Solo Ap proaches2—Solo Ap proaches

Solo Ap proaches

11

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Com mu nity Lan guage Learn ing

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ate Grade Level: El e men tary to Adult

Also Called: Coun sel ing-Learn ing

Back ground

The psy chol o gist Charles Curran de vel oped com mu nity lan guage learn ing (Coun sel ing-Learn ing in

Sec ond Lan guages, 1976) Curran be lieved that stu dents were of ten in hib ited in learn ing a sec ond lan

-guage In his method, teach ers are viewed more as coun sel ors and are ex pected to fa cil i tate lan guagelearn ing as op posed to teach ing it He be lieved that cre at ing a hu man is tic learn ing com mu nity wouldlower stu dents’ de fenses and en cour age open com mu ni ca tion, thus al low ing stu dents to com pre hend and

ab sorb lan guage more ef fi ciently This ap proach is an ex am ple of an af fec tive ap proach Af fec tive ap proaches at tempt to make stu dents more emo tion ally com fort able within the class room in the be lief that if students are relaxed and open, they will be able to perform better

-Strat egy

1 Stu dents sit in a small cir cle

2 The teacher stands be hind a stu dent

3 The stu dent makes a state ment or poses a ques tion in his or her own lan guage

4 The teacher trans lates the state ment or ques tion into the lan guage be ing learned

5 The stu dent re peats what the teacher said

6 The new phrase is re corded on a tape re corder

7 The pro ce dure is re peated with other stu dents un til a short con ver sa tion is re corded

8 Stu dents take a tape home or copy writ ten con ver sa tion from the board to study at home

9 Di rect in struc tion of gram mar or vo cab u lary may take place from con ver sa tion

Bed time Rou tine

Sub mit ted by Megan Larsen, Lu ther Col lege ed u ca tion stu dent

1 The teacher reads the story ¿Es hora? (M Janovitz, North-South Books,1994) to the class The

class fol lows along with their own cop ies

2 The teacher brings the class to gether in a cir cle

3 The teacher chooses a stu dent and stands be hind him or her

4 The teacher starts the ac tiv ity by ask ing, “¿Que es la primera cosa Lobito hacer en la cuenta?”

5 The stu dent makes a state ment about the story in Span ish by an swer ing the ques tion He or shemay an swer, “Lobito se da un chapuzon.”

6 The teacher re peats the state ment the stu dent made in Eng lish: “Si, Baby Wolf takes a bath.”

7 The stu dent re peats the state ment in Eng lish, “Baby Wolf takes a bath,” while the teacher re cords it, ei ther on au dio or vid eo cas sette

-8 The teacher moves on to the next stu dent, who is asked to re spond to the story

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9 Af ter all the stu dents have had a turn at speak ing, the teacher and stu dents lis ten to the tape to gether and make a list of new vo cab u lary the stu dents learned—in both Eng lish and Spanish.

-10 Stu dents take home both the tape and the writ ten vo cab u lary from the board

Strengths

• CLL’s hu man is tic ap proach, which views stu dents and teach ers as a com mu nity, and thus theteacher as more fa cil i ta tor than teacher, fits in nicely with cur rent trends in education

Weak nesses

• CCL re quires a num ber of con di tions that may make it dif fi cult to use in many sit u a tions To

be most ef fec tive, it re quires teach ers who are spe cif i cally trained in this method and also,ide ally, trained in coun sel ing techniques

• CLL re quires bi lin gual teach ers and small, ho mo ge neous classes

Blair, R W (1991) In no va tive ap proaches In M CelceMurcia (Ed.), Teach ing Eng lish as a sec

-ond or for eign lan guage (2nd ed.) Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

A va ri ety of tech niques and ap proaches are pre sented in this text, in clud ing com mu nitylan guage learn ing

LarsenFree man, D (2000) Com mu nity lan guage learn ing In Tech niques and prin ci ples in lan

-guage teach ing (2nd ed., pp 89–106) New York: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press, 2000.

An ex am ple of a com mu nity lan guage learn ing les son is pre sented and then an a lyzed

Rich ards, J C., & Rodgers, T S (2001) Com mu nity lan guage learn ing In Ap proaches and meth

-ods in lan guage teach ing (2nd ed., pp 90–99) Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity

Press

Com mu nity lan guage learn ing is among the mod els in this text ex am ined for lan guageteach ers

Stevick, E W (1998) Work ing with teach ing meth ods: What’s at stake? Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This is one of the vol umes of the TeacherSource se ries In this text, Stevick mod els a tech nique for teach ers that en ables them to be more self-re flec tive about the choices they makeabout the strat e gies and ma te ri als they choose to use

-Com mu nity Lan guage Learn ing 13

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si lent Teach ing is viewed as sub or di nate to learn ing Stu dents are en cour aged to work with one an other

to fig ure out mean ing Stu dents are in tro duced to new ma te rial once through the use of Cuisinare rods(small col ored rods of vary ing lengths) and a se ries of wall charts Af ter the teacher in tro duces the ma te -rial, it is up to the stu dents to de ter mine what they need to learn and in de pend ently work to ward their ac a -demic goals Cer tain as pects of this ap proach, such as the use of Cuisinare rods and de vel op ing stu dent

in de pend ence, con tinue to be used How ever, this ap proach alone is rarely used be cause it is not prac ti calwithin the class room, and students need and desire more teacher input

Strat egy

1 The teacher in tro duces a dis crete sound or struc ture by point ing at Si lent Way charts or by us ingCuisinare rods to dem on strate a struc ture or gram mar point

2 Stu dents then fig ure out what they are learn ing and re pro duce the sound or struc ture

3 Be tween ac tiv i ties or ses sions, stu dents may ask ques tions of the teacher

4 The teacher then in tro duces an other dis crete sound or struc ture in the same man ner

5 Stu dents again fig ure out the mean ing and re pro duce the sound or struc ture

6 As time goes on, stu dents are ide ally able to com bine dis crete sounds and struc tures to cre atelon ger strings of lan guage

Strengths

• Stu dents are in an en vi ron ment that en cour ages in de pend ence

Weak nesses

• Some stu dents may need more teacher in put than what is pro vided through this method

• Lan guage is not learned as a whole nor is it au then tic

• Teach ers must have ac cess to ma te ri als and to the sys tem

Stevick, E (1980) One way of teach ing: The si lent way In Teach ing lan guages: A way and ways

(pp 37–84) Boston: Heinle & Heinle

The si lent way is only one of many strat e gies dis cussed for lan guage teach ers

Rich ards, J C., & Rodgers, T S (2001) The si lent way In Ap proaches and meth ods in lan guage

teach ing (2nd ed., pp 81–89) Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

A col lec tion of strat e gies and tech niques are in cluded in this work for teach ers of lan guage

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2—Solo Ap proaches

Suggestopedia

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to In ter me di ate

Grade Level: El e men tary to Adult (al though adults who dis like back ground noise may findSuggestopedia frus trat ing)

Back ground

Suggestopedia was de vel oped in the 1970s by Georgi Lozanov, a Bul gar ian psy chol o gist who con tended that stu dents have dif fi culty learn ing an other lan guage be cause of psy cho log i cal bar ri ers He be -lieved it is nec es sary to reach the stu dents’ un con scious for the new lan guage to be suc cess fully ab sorbed

If these bar ri ers are re moved, then stu dents would be suc cess ful To re move such bar ri ers, Lozanov sug gested drama, art, phys i cal ex er cise, psy cho ther apy, and yoga He also en cour aged stu dents to choosenew names and iden ti ties He es pe cially be lieved that play ing mu sic in the back ground dur ing a class,par tic u larly Ba roque mu sic, cre ated a re laxed state of mind in the stu dents leading to the ability to absorblarge quantities of information

-Strat egy

1 Stu dents sit in com fort able arm chairs in a semi cir cle to cre ate a re laxed at mo sphere

2 The teacher reads or speaks a new text in har mony with the mu sic

3 Stu dents read the text that has been trans lated into the tar get lan guage at the same time as theteacher says it in the na tive lan guage

4 There is a pe riod of si lence

5 Next, the teacher re peats the text while the stu dents lis ten but do not look at the text

6 At the end, stu dents si lently leave the class room

7 Stu dents are told to read the text quickly once be fore go ing to bed and once af ter get ting up inthe morn ing

Strengths

• Some of the re lax ation meth ods, in clud ing back ground mu sic, may be help ful to stu dents

Weak nesses

• The method re quires a class in which all the stu dents share the same first lan guage

• It does not ad dress speak ing and writ ing

• It is not com mu ni ca tive or cre ative

• The ma jor ity of lan guage ac qui si tion re search ers feel that Suggestopedia does not work

• Few class rooms have com fort able arm chairs

• Some stu dents may be both ered in stead of re laxed by back ground mu sic

Suggestopedia 15

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Rich ards, J C., & Rodgers, T S (2001) Suggestopedia In Ap proaches and meth ods in lan guage

learn ing (2nd ed., pp 100–107) Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

Suggestopedia is ex am ined in this col lec tion of tech niques for lan guage learn ing

Stevick, E (1980) The work of Georgi Lozanov In Teach ing lan guage: A way and ways (pp.

229–243) Boston: Heinle & Heinle

Suggestopedia is one of mul ti ple strat e gies for teach ing and learn ing lan guage pre sented

Stevick, E (1980) Some Suggestopedic ideas in nonSuggestopedic meth ods In Teach ing lan

-guage: A way and ways (pp 244–259) Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Suggestopedia is one of nu mer ous strat e gies for teach ing and learn ing lan guage pre sented

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Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing

Eng lish Skill Level: Be gin ning to Ad vanced Grade Level: El e men tary to Adult

Back ground

Com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing (CLT) was de vel oped in the 1960s from the re search and writ ings of ap plied lin guists in both Eu rope and North Amer ica who em pha sized that lan guage equaled com -

-mu ni ca tion (Canale & Swain, 1980; Savignon, 1983; van Ek, 1975) In Eu rope, this ap proach led ini tially

to the in sti tu tion of the no tional-func tional ap proach In CLT, the goal of lan guage teach ing should not betrans lat ing and learn ing a set of rules but should be based on the goal of com mu ni ca tive com pe tence.Com mu ni ca tive com pe tence is most fre quently de fined as the abil ity to cre ate mean ing when in ter act ingwith oth ers in the tar get lan guage Thus, the fo cus in CLT is on com mu ni ca tion in au then tic sit u a tions.Since the 1970s, this ap proach has been ex panded on and has come to play a central role in mostcontemporary language teaching situations

Strat egy

Be cause CLT is such a broad ori en ta tion, it is dif fi cult to give spe cific strat e gies How ever, the broad guide lines are as fol lows:

1 De ter mine the com mu ni ca tive goals of the stu dents

2 Cre ate sit u a tions and ac tiv i ties in which stu dents pro duce au then tic, mean ing ful, andcontextualized com mu ni ca tion

3 Fo cus on ac cu racy only in as much as er rors that would im pede com mu ni ca tion are cor rected

Au then tic Role-Plays

In this les son, stu dents are in tro duced to a num ber of con ver sa tions that might oc cur when one is avis it ing in ter na tional stu dent Ex am ples might in clude be ing in vited to some one’s house, mak ing smalltalk at a party, be ing of fered re fresh ments, and be ing asked to go out

1 Stu dents are asked what they would do and say in these var i ous sit u a tions This gives the teacher the chance to dis cuss not only vo cab u lary used but also cul tural dif fer ences that might oc cur

2 Stu dents are given di a logues to prac tice in groups of two or three

3 Stu dents are en cour aged to cre ate their own vari a tions on the di a logues

4 Stu dents are then given color-coded in dex cards that give them in for ma tion about their role For

ex am ple:

a Blue card 1 says: You in vite a friend over for pizza and beer

b Blue card 2 says: A friend in vites you over for pizza and beer You want to come, butyou don’t drink al co hol

OR

c Pink card 1 says: You and a friend are at the mall shop ping when you run into yourroom mate

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d Pink card 2 says: Your friend in tro duces you to his or her room mate You re al izeyou’ve al ready met.

e Pink card 3 says: You run into your room mate at the mall The room mate in tro ducesyou to her or his friend

5 Stu dents with the same color cards come to the front of the room at the same time Stu dents arenot al lowed to see the other stu dents’ cards The teacher tells the first per son to start Then theother stu dents do ing the role-play must re spond spon ta ne ously

6 Other groups with the same color cards then par tic i pate in their role-plays

7 By not al low ing stu dents to see each other’s cards, the scene is set for a more spon ta ne ous sit u a tion that is more au then tic than if stu dents prac tice set role-plays

-Pre sent ing a Cul tural Item to the Class

1 Stu dents are asked what things or ob jects come to mind when they think of the coun try they arevis it ing For ex am ple, if they are study ing in the United States, they might say Amer i can foot -ball, rap mu sic, ham burg ers, or cow boy mov ies The teacher writes these on the board as the stu -dents say them

2 Stu dents are asked to ex plain why they chose this par tic u lar ob ject Other stu dents may also give their ideas on why this ob ject rep re sents the coun try they are vis it ing Stu dents may be asked ifthey agree or disagree

3 Stu dents are given the as sign ment for the next class pe riod, when they are to bring in an ob jectthat rep re sents an as pect of their cul ture If they don’t have the ob ject, they may bring a pic ture

or a mock-up

4 Stu dents show the ob ject to their class mates They ex plain what the ob ject is, what it is used for

or how it is used, and in what way it rep re sents their cul ture Other stu dents are en cour aged toask ques tions

Strengths

• Be cause the orig i nal im pe tus for this ori en ta tion was in re ac tion to gram mar-based and au dio- lin gual ap proaches, the strength of CLT is that it cre ates a learn ing en vi ron ment that closelyrep li cates how stu dents will use lan guage in real-life sit u a tions That is, stu dents par tic i pate in real, au then tic, and in ter ac tive language use in the classroom

Weak nesses

• A ca veat to this ap proach is that some prac ti tio ners may see com mu ni ca tion as only oral/au ral skills and may not put enough em pha sis on the read ing and writ ing skills that some stu dentsmay need An other ca veat is that in an at tempt to pro duce com mu ni ca tive skills quickly, ac -

cu racy may be over looked or given lit tle at ten tion Whether stu dents will ob tain that ac cu racy

in time on their own con tin ues to be an area of discussion in the ESOL field

See also: Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing; Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing; LearnerCen tered Ap

-proach; No tional-Func tional Ap proach

Com mu ni ca tive Lan guage Learn ing 19

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Brumfit, C J., & John son, K (Eds.) (1979) The com mu ni ca tive ap proach to lan guage teach ing.

Ox ford, Eng land: Ox ford Uni ver sity Press

This vol ume com piles one of the first col lec tions of ar ti cles ad vo cat ing the com mu ni ca tive ap proach

Canale, M., & Swain, M (1980) The o ret i cal bases of com mu ni ca tive ap proaches to sec ond lan

-guage learn ing and test ing Ap plied Lin guis tics, I(1), 1–47.

Larimer, R E., & Schleicher, L (Eds.) (1999) New ways in us ing au then tic ma te ri als in the class

-room Alexandra, VA: TESOL.

This col lec tion of les sons uses re sources such as TV, ra dio, video, news pa pers, mag a zines, ac a demic and pro fes sional texts, and other au then tic ma te ri als

-Lee, J F., & VanPatten, B (1995) Mak ing com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing hap pen New York:

McGraw-Hill

This teacher train ing text dis cusses what is meant by com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ingand pro ceeds to de scribe com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing in spo ken lan guage and read ingand writ ing

Savignon, S J (1983) Com mu ni ca tive com pe tence: The ory and class room practice Read ing, MA:

Savignon, S J (2001) Com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing for the twenty-first cen tury In M

Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage (3rd ed., pp 13–28).

Boston: Heinle & Heinle

In this chap ter, Savignon pro vides an over view and dis cus sion of the evo lu tion of com mu

-ni ca tive lan guage teach ing

Scarcella, R C., An der son, E S., & Krashen, S (Eds.) (1990) De vel op ing com pe tence in a sec ond

lan guage New York: Harper & Row.

The ed i tors com piled a col lec tion of ar ti cles that ex plore com mu ni ca tive com pe tencefrom a more the o ret i cal lan guage ac qui si tion per spec tive

Scarcella, R C., & Ox ford, R L (1992) The tap es try of lan guage learn ing; The in di vid ual in the

com mu ni ca tive class room Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This teacher train ing text uses com mu ni ca tive lan guage teach ing as its base

Shameem, N., & Tickoo, M (Eds.) (1999) New ways in us ing com mu ni ca tive games in lan guage

teach ing Alexandra, VA: TESOL.

Us ing a col lec tion of games, this text pres ents op por tu ni ties for stu dents to be more com

-mu ni ca tive in the class room

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Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing

3—Com mu ni ca tive Ap proaches

Eng lish Skill Level: All Grade Level: All Also Called: Col lab o ra tive Lan guage Learn ing, In ter ac tive Lan guage Learn ing

Back ground

An in ter ac tive ap proach re fers to lan guage learn ing that is au then tic and gen u ine and takes place be tween two or more peo ple, and co op er a tive learn ing is the most fre quent ap pli ca tion of this ap proach The goal of an in ter ac tive ap proach such as co op er a tive learn ing is to cre ate mean ing ful learn ing ex pe ri encesthat will help stu dents de velop gen u ine flu ency in an other lan guage Co op er a tive learn ing con sists ofgroups of stu dents work ing to gether in a co op er a tive, as op posed to com pet i tive, man ner to com plete atask, an ac tiv ity, or a pro ject While work ing to gether, the stu dents have mean ing ful in ter ac tion with one

an other in the tar get lan guage Both co op er a tive and col lab o ra tive learn ing re fer to stu dents work ing to gether in a group to ward a goal, but col lab o ra tive group ings may also re fer to teach ers and stu dents,parents and students, students and the community, or the school and the family collaborating

in ter views, in for ma tion gap ac tiv i ties, or opin ion ex change

2 The teacher de cides how to put the groups to gether Teach ers might do this by count ing off; byplac ing stu dents in mixed-pro fi ciency, sim i lar-pro fi ciency, or dif fer ent or same lan guagegroups; or by al low ing the stu dents to choose their own part ners In gen eral, the teacher should

de cide this ahead of time

3 Once the teacher has de cided on the co op er a tive ac tiv ity, he or she ex plains to the group mem bers what they will do Some times each per son in a group will be as signed a role such as re -corder, leader, or ne go ti a tor At times, it may also be nec es sary to model the tech nique and to

-ex plain why they will be work ing in groups Then di vide the class into groups

4 Stu dents be gin, and the teacher checks with the groups to make sure that they un der stand whatthey are sup posed to be do ing The teacher mon i tors the groups by walk ing around to make surethey stay on task if this is an in-class ac tiv ity He or she is also avail able to an swer any ques tions

or prob lems that may arise

5 When the group is fin ished with its ac tiv ity, which may take sev eral min utes to sev eral weeks

de pend ing on the ac tiv ity, there should, in most cases, be a fi nal prod uct or dis cus sion Gen er ally the fi nal prod uct, or parts of it, should be shared with the whole class This might take theform of a for mal pre sen ta tion, a dis cus sion, or a chance for ev ery one to ask questions

-Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing 21

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Group Ac tiv ity in an EAP Bridge Course

1 Stu dents are or ga nized into mixed-lan guage groups They ask each other pre view ques tions that pre pare them to be gin a group study of an ac a demic area such as psy chol ogy, so ci ol ogy, mar ket -ing, lan guage learn ing, or ag ri cul ture For ex am ple, if the topic were lan guage learn ing, stu dents might be asked to discuss the following:

a What lan guages do you know?

b How did you learn those lan guages?

c Did you study them in school or learn them in some other way?

d What way do you think is best to learn a lan guage?

e How old were you when you learned those lan guages?

f Do you think age makes a dif fer ence?

g What are some other vari ables that af fect lan guage learn ing?

As a group, de scribe your con clu sions about the best ways to learn an other lan guage

2 Af ter stu dents are fin ished dis cuss ing the pre view ques tions, the teacher asks each group toshare its con clu sions with the other groups

3 Stu dents are given an ar ti cle to read about lan guage learn ing They are told to mark any ar eas ofthe ar ti cle they find con fus ing

4 Af ter read ing the ar ti cle, stu dents meet in groups to dis cuss both the con tent and the me chan ics

of the ar ti cle First, stu dents com pare the ar eas of the ar ti cle that they found con fus ing or dif fi cult and ask for help from other group mem bers The teacher then asks the groups mem bers what they found dif fi cult or con fus ing about the ar ti cle and clar i fies any in for ma tion that may begiving them difficulties

-5 Stu dents are given a set of ques tions or ex er cises to do as fol low-up to the ar ti cle Stu dents can

ei ther do the ex er cises in de pend ently and then com pare an swers, or they can work on the ex er cises to gether The teacher can put an swers to ex er cises on the board or an over head, or the stu -dents and teacher can dis cuss follow-up questions

-6 Stu dents are as signed to do a group speech on lan guage learn ing Stu dents must re search theirspeech by find ing one jour nal ar ti cle, do ing an in ter view, and find ing in for ma tion on theInternet Stu dents are given in-class time to work on or ga niz ing their speeches

7 Stu dents give their group speeches Each per son in the group must give part of the speech, but it

is up to the group to de cide how the speech will be or ga nized and who will be re spon si ble foreach part

8 Other class mem bers are also asked to make writ ten com ments on the group speeches Af ter allspeeches have been given, groups write up their com ments re gard ing the other speeches andturn this in to the teacher

9 At the end of group work, stu dents are asked to as sess their groups as well as their con tri bu tion

to the group

10 The teacher gives a group grade for both the speeches and the group par tic i pa tion as well as in di vid ual grades based on each stu dent’s work and par tic i pa tion in the group

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-Tall Tales

Sub mit ted by Megan Larsen, Lu ther Col lege education stu dent

1 This les son is based on the book Amer i can Tall Tales by M P Osborne (Al fred A Knopf,

1991) Groups of stu dents per form dif fer ent tall tales for the class The teacher en ters the class

-room dressed as a char ac ter from a tale from Amer i can Tall Tales and tells that tall tale to the

6 The groups re hearse act ing out their tale Stu dents use their own words to act out the tale, al though they can use lan guage sim i lar to that in the book The teacher walks around the class -room help ing groups and check ing their prog ress

-7 Af ter stu dents have had a chance to re hearse, each group per forms its tale for the class

8 Af ter each group has per formed its tale, stu dents write a jour nal en try on the var i ous tall talesthat were per formed, as well as the spe cific tall tale their group per formed Stu dents write abouthow they felt about work ing with their group to com plete the fi nal pre sen ta tion and about whathis or her per sonal role in the group It can also in clude in for ma tion that they have learned abouttall tales so far

Strengths

• When stu dents are in ter act ing in groups, they are re quired to use au then tic and fairly flu entcom mu ni ca tions skills, which pre pare them for the ac tual com mu ni ca tion skills they willneed in real life

Weak nesses

• For group work to be suc cess ful, it must be care fully planned A weak ness in this method isthat some teach ers may just put stu dents in groups with out plan ning and find that the groupsare not par tic u larly suc cess ful Some stu dents may re sist co op er a tive work if they do not un -der stand the purpose

Brown, H D (1994) Teach ing by prin ci ples: An in ter ac tive ap proach to lan guage ped a gogy Up

-per Sad dle, NJ: Prentice Hall

This book pres ents an over view of when teach ers should use or avoid group work and how

to im ple ment group work suc cess fully in the class room

Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing 23

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Enright, D S (1991) Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

This gen eral ar ti cle on sup port ing Eng lish lan guage learn ers in the class room in cludessec tions on col lab o ra tion group ing and de vel op ing a sense of com mu nity in the class room (Alater edi tion of the book does not in clude this sec tion.)

John son, D M (1994) Ed u cat ing sec ond lan guage chil dren: The whole child, the whole cur ric u

-lum, the whole com mu nity Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press.

John son main tains that it is not enough to fo cus on only lan guage learn ing in the Eng lishlan guage class room Ed u ca tors also need to re view and con sider the col lab o ra tive roles of fam -ily, school, and com mu nity

Kessler, C (1992) Co op er a tive lan guage learn ing: A teacher’s re source book Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice Hall

This col lec tion of ar ti cles cov ers a wide range of is sues with lots of teach ing ex am ples Apar tic u larly strong sec tion on co op er a tive meth ods in main stream sub ject ar eas will help ESLand multi cul tural stu dents suc ceed

Nunan, D (1992) Col lab o ra tive lan guage learn ing and teach ing Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge

Uni ver sity Press

The chap ters in this text rep re sent a va ri ety of is sues per tain ing to col lab o ra tive learn ingand teach ing, in clud ing ex per i men tal lan guage learn ing, lit er acy con sid er ations for Eng lishlan guage learn ers, how to build col lab o ra tive lan guage learn ing en vi ron ments, co op er a tivelearn ing, and team teach ing and cur ric u lum de vel op ment

Prapphal, K (1993) Meth ods that work: Ideas for lit er acy and lan guage teach ers (2nd ed.) Boston:

Heinle & Heinle

Rivers, W (1987) In ter ac tive lan guage teach ing Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni

-ver sity Press

TESOL Jour nal (1999, Sum mer) Col lab o ra tive class rooms: Where com pe tence, con fi dence, and cre ativ ity con verge, 8(2).

This spe cial is sue is de voted to col lab o ra tive lan guage teach ing with ar ti cles on col lab o ra tive writ ing, build ing cul tural com mu nity, and do’s and don’ts of col lab o ra tive learn ing

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-Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vanced Grade Level: El e men tary to Adult

Also Called: Task-based Teach ing, Pro ject-based Teach ing

Back ground

Ex pe ri en tial lan guage teach ing (ELT) ini tially grew out of ed u ca tional and psy cho log i cal the o riespro pos ing that a sub ject is learned best if stu dents are in volved in con crete, hands-on ex pe ri ences with the sub ject The Amer i can ed u ca tor John Dewey was one ad vo cate of the method The be lief is that stu dentswill learn better if they use the lan guage as op posed to be ing pas sive re cep tors of ar ti fi cial lan guage It isalso thought that stu dents will be able to an a lyze and dis cover their own in for ma tion about the topic andlan guage use as they are in volved with tasks or pro jects In lan guage teach ing, ELT cre ates sit u a tions in

which stu dents use their new lan guage in stead of just learn ing about it This method is seen as par tic u larly

well suited for use with chil dren but is now be ing practiced with students of all ages in many learningsituations

Strat egy

ELT’s main strat egy is to have stu dents be in volved in do ing An ex pe ri en tial lan guage les son can be con ducted in mul ti ple ways, and a num ber of dif fer ent ac tiv i ties can be in cluded un der the um brella ofELT For ex am ple, realia, show-and-tell, games, and vid eos are ex am ples of teacher-fronted ELT ac tiv i -ties Be cause the fo cus of ELT is more of ten on the stu dent than on the teacher, how ever, stu dent-cen tered

ac tiv i ties such as hands-on pro jects, cross-cul tural ex pe ri ences, field trips, role-plays, and sim u la tions are fre quently used ELT ac tiv i ties In ad di tion, po etry, songs, and drama may also be considered ELTactivities

1 The teacher iden ti fies a task or ac tiv ity that will help stu dents learn the lan guage needed in theirpar tic u lar con text

2 The teacher plans how the task should be im ple mented in clud ing any nec es sary lan guage itemsthat may need to be in tro duced or re viewed for the stu dents to per form the task or activity

3 The teacher ex plains the task to the stu dents

4 The stu dents dis cuss the task and iden tify their roles

5 The stu dents do their task or ac tiv ity

6 The stu dents per form or dem on strate what they have learned or ac com plished

Ex am ples and Ap pli ca tions

If a stu dent needs to know how to do a job in ter view in Eng lish, the fol low ing ac tiv i ties might be ex e cuted:

1 The stu dent does an ex er cise in which he or she is asked to com pre hend ques tions with ques tion

words such as what, where, how, who, when, and so on.

2 The stu dent lis tens to ex am ples of job in ter views

3 The stu dent and teacher an a lyze the gram mar, vo cab u lary, and dis course of the in ter views

4 The teacher or the stu dents (or both to gether) cre ate the di a logue for their own in ter view

5 The stu dents prac tice and then role-play in ter views

Ex pe ri en tial Lan guage Teach ing 25

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• Stu dents are in volved in ac tu ally us ing the lan guage in au then tic sit u a tions

Weak nesses and Mod i fi ca tions

• Ex pe ri en tial ac tiv i ties must be care fully thought out with their goals and ped a gog i cal pur poses kept in mind or ex pe ri en tial ac tiv i ties may end up hav ing lit tle or no educational value

-See also: Co op er a tive Lan guage Learn ing; Whole Lan guage

Bygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M (Eds.) (2001) Re search ing ped a gogic tasks: Sec ond lan

-guage learn ing, teach ing and test ing Harlow, Eng land: Longman

This col lec tion of re search-based ar ti cles ex plores the foun da tions of tasks for lan guagelearn ing in clud ing their use in the class room and test ing

Eyring, J L (2001) Ex pe ri en tial and ne go ti ated lan guage learn ing In M Celce-Murcia (Ed.),

Teach ing Eng lish as a sec ond or for eign lan guage (pp 333–344) Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

The au thors be gin the ar ti cle by sum ma riz ing the his tory of ex pe ri en tial learn ing and con clude with lots of in for ma tion about var i ous pro jects and guide lines on how to or ga nize pro jectwork

Moss, D., & Van Duzer, C (1998) Pro jectbased learn ing for adult Eng lish lan guage learn ers Na tional Cen ter for ESL Lit er acy Ed u ca tion Re trieved No vem ber 17, 2005, from http://www.

-cal.org/caela/esl_re sources/di gests/ProjBase.html

This on line ar ti cle on line pres ents an over view of pro ject-based learn ing

Nunan, D (1989) De sign ing tasks for the com mu ni ca tive class room Cam bridge, Eng land: Cam

-bridge Uni ver sity Press

Nunan’s sem i nal book on de sign ing tasks cov ers the de sign and im ple men ta tion of tasks

in the class room It also in cludes an ap pen dix of tested ex am ples

Rodrigues, R J., & White, R H (1993) From role play to the real world In J W Oller (Ed.), Meth ods that work: Ideas for lit er acy and lan guage teach ers (2nd ed.) Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

-This is an early col lec tion of prac ti cal strat e gies for teach ing read ing, writ ing, lis ten ing,and speak ing

Wil lis, D., & Wil lis, J (2001) Task-based lan guage learn ing In R Carter & D Nunan (Eds.), The Cam bridge guide to teach ing Eng lish to speak ers of other lan guages (pp 173–179) Cam -

bridge, Eng land: Cam bridge Uni ver sity Press

The text at tempts to con nect lan guage the ory and re search into prac ti cal class room

ap pli ca tions

Wil lis, J (1996) A frame work for task-based learn ing Essex, Eng land: Ad di son Wes ley Longman.

Wil lis’s teacher-friendly text guides teach ers through the pro cess of set ting up task-basedlearn ing in their class rooms

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No tional-Func tional Ap proach

Eng lish Skill Level: Ad vanced Be gin ning to Ad vanced Grade Level: El e men tary to Adult

-Strat egy

The fol low ing for mat is of ten used:

1 A di a logue fo cus ing on cer tain func tions and no tions is pre sented

2 Stu dents prac tice the di a logue with class mates

3 Stu dents may cre ate their own di a logues for role-play ing

4 Stu dents may re in force us age through as sign ments in which they choose or fill in the ap pro pri ate words in a writ ten di a logue

-5 Stu dents may ex pand on the pre vi ous tasks by go ing into the com mu nity and prac tic ing

“real-life” di a logues

Strengths

• Prag matic, au then tic use of lan guage is em pha sized

• The ap proach helps stu dents to un der stand dif fer ent reg is ters of lan guage

Weak nesses

• The ap proach can be too lim ited with lit tle fo cus on ac a demic or pro fes sional needs and skills

Finocchiaro, M., & Brumfit, C (1983) The func tional-no ta tional ap proach New York: Ox ford

Uni ver sity Press

A pre sen ta tion of the func tionalno ta tional ap proach with an em pha sis on learn ing lan guage in real-life sit u a tions

-No tional-Func tional Ap proach 27

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