A comparative grammar of british english dialects

A Comparative Grammar of British English Dialects ≥ Topics in English Linguistics 50.1 Editors Elizabeth Closs Traugott Bernd Kortmann Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York A Comparative Grammar of British English Dialects Agreement, Gender, Relative Clauses by Bernd Kortmann Tanja Herrmann Lukas Pietsch Susanne Wagner Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, Berlin ȍ Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines Ț of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A comparative grammar of British English dialects : agreement, gender, relative clauses / by Bernd Kortmann … [et al.] p cm Ϫ (Topics in English linguistics ; 50.1) Includes bibliographical references and index Contents: The Freiburg English Dialect Project and corpus / Bernd Kortmann, Susanne Wagner Ϫ Relative clauses in English dialects of the British Isles / Tanja Herrmann Ϫ “Some and some doesn’t” : verbal concord variation in the north of the British Isles / Lukas Pietsch Ϫ Gender in English pronouns : southwest England / Susanne Wagner ISBN 3-11-018299-8 (hardcover : alk paper) English language Ϫ Dialects Ϫ Great Britain English language Ϫ Great Britain Ϫ Grammar English language Ϫ Relative clauses English language Ϫ Agreement English language Ϫ Gender I Kortmann, Bernd, 1960Ϫ II Series PE1721.C66 2005 427Ϫdc22 2005001607 Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at Ͻhttp://dnb.ddb.deϾ ISBN 3-11-018299-8 ” Copyright 2005 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Berlin Printed in Germany Preface Bernd Kortmann Since the 1980s, but especially over the last ten years or so, the study of the grammar of English dialects has been very much on the rise after more than a century of neglect in English dialectology and dialectology, in general Witness, in particular, Trudgill and Chambers (1991), Milroy and Milroy (1993), and, on a global scale, Kortmann and Schneider (2004) Apart from these and several other publications related in spirit, however, the vast majority of publications on the grammar of English dialects concentrates on just one particular phenomenon in one particular dialect or dialect area, is based on a very small database and purely descriptive Moreover, the small size of the available databases often makes it very difficult to formulate valid descriptive generalizations Virtually non-existent in English dialectology are systematic comparative studies of individual grammatical subsystems across a selection of dialects (like comparative studies of the tense and aspect systems, pronominal systems, relativization or complementation patterns, etc.) Exceptions in this respect form the sociolinguistic studies by Tagliamonte and her research team (e.g Tagliamonte 1999, 2002, 2003), and the contributions, especially the regional and global synopses, in Kortmann and Schneider (2004) However, useful as the synopses are in providing general orientation, they can be no more than very useful starting-points for systematic comparative analyses of individual phenomena of dialect grammar The present volume, the first in a series of volumes which will be published at irregular intervals, tries to set an example as to how this gap in English dialectology can be filled Secondly, it will away with another problem that has beset the study of English dialect syntax for many decades, namely the lack of a sufficient amount of reliable data The Survey of English Dialects, for example, compiled in the 1950s and serving as the most important data source for English dialectologists and dialect geographers ever since, was simply not geared to the systematic collection of data on grammar Just a fraction of the more than 1300 questions in the SED questionnaire was explicitly designed to collect morphological and syntactic information Only since the late 1980s have efforts been made at compiling large data collections, such as the Survey of British Dialect vi Bernd Kortmann Grammar (Cheshire, Edwards and Whittle 1989), the Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English (NECTE; see Allen et al., forthcoming), and, largest of all, the computerized Freiburg English Dialect Corpus It is the latter, FRED for short, which will take centre stage in this volume Thirdly, all studies in this volume are informed by a typological approach to English dialect grammar (apart from the fact that two of the dialect phenomena investigated here, namely the Northern Subject Rule and pronominal gender, are typologically very rare) This approach is the hallmark of the Freiburg research group on English dialect syntax, initiated and coordinated by Bernd Kortmann, and will be outlined in the scene-setting paper by Kortmann and Wagner It is in this paper, too, that the nature and design of FRED, and its advantages for both qualitative and quantitative analyses of dialect phenomena will be discussed in some detail The subject matter of the three studies forming the backbone of this volume can briefly be characterized as follows: Tanja Herrmann examines (adnominal) relative clauses in six dialect areas of the British Isles (Central Midlands, Central North, Central Southwest, East Anglia, Northern Ireland, Scotland) The results of this cross-dialectal study she relates to typological hierarchies, particularly to Keenan and Comrie’s (1977) Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy The Accessibility Hierarchy is largely verified for all relative clause formation strategies found in the data, including the zero relative marker strategy (as in The man _ called me was our neighbour) From a diachronic perspective, the Accessibility Hierarchy also helps to reveal the pattern underlying the way individual relative markers (e.g the relative particles as and what) enter or exit an existent relative marker system Lukas Pietsch investigates, synchronically as well as diachronically, the so-called Northern Subject Rule (NSR), a feature found in the Northern dialects of England, but also in Scotland, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland This rule is concerned with subject-verb agreement, and can roughly be formulated as follows: every verb in the present tense can take an s-ending unless its subject is an immediately adjacent simple pronoun (Third person singular verbs always take the s-ending, as in Standard English) In other words, the NSR involves a type-of-subject constraint (pronoun vs common/proper noun) and a position constraint (+/immediate adjacency of pronominal subject to verb) Thus, in NSRvarieties we get the following examples: I sing vs *I sings, Birds sings, and I sing and dances Preface vii Susanne Wagner, finally, provides a comprehensive account of a special semantic system of (pronominal) gender marking, which is distinctive of the traditional dialects in Southwest England What we encounter in Somerset, in particular, is pronominal gender that is primarily sensitive to the mass/count distinction and only secondarily to the animate/inanimate and human/nonhuman distinction It is only used for mass nouns Count nouns take either he or she: she is used if the count noun refers to a female human, and he is used for count nouns either referring to male humans or to nonhuman entities Thus we get a contrast as in Pass the bread – it’s over there (bread = mass noun) and Pass the loaf – he’s over there (loaf = count noun) Most gendered pronouns are masculine pronominal forms (he, him and Southwestern un, en < OE hine) referring to inanimate referents Acknowledgments All authors most gratefully acknowledge the generous support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Without the funding of the Projects KO 1181/1-1,2,3 over a five-year period (2000-2005) the studies published here and the compilation of FRED, the Freiburg English Dialect Corpus, would have been impossible References Allen, Will, Joan Beal, Karen Corrigan, Warren Maguire, and Hermann Moisl forthc Taming Unconventional Digital Voices: The Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English In Using Unconventional Digital Language Corpora Vol I: Synchronic Corpora, Joan Beal, Karen Corrigan and Herman Moisl (eds.) Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Cheshire, Jenny, Viv Edwards, and Pamela Whittle 1989 "Urban British dialect grammar: The question of dialect levelling English World-Wide 10: 185-225 Kortmann, Bernd, Edgar W Schneider in collaboration with Kate Burridge, Rajend Mesthrie, and Clive Upton (eds.) 2004 A Handbook of Varieties of English, Vol 2: Morphology and Syntax Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter viii Bernd Kortmann Milroy, John, and Lesley Milroy (eds.) 1993 Real English The Grammar of English Dialects in the British Isles London/New York: Longman Tagliamonte, Sali 1999 Was/were variation across the generations: View from the city of York Language Variation and Change 10: 153–191 2002 Variation and change in the British relative marker system In Relativisation in the North Sea Littoral, Patricia Poussa (ed.), 147– 165 Munich: LINCOM EUROPA 2003 ‘Every place has a different toll’: Determinants of grammatical variation in cross-variety perspective In Determinants of Linguistic Variation, Günter Rohdenburg, and Britta Mondorf (eds.), 531–554 Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter Trudgill, Peter, and Jack K Chambers (eds.) 1991 Dialects of English Studies in Grammatical Variation London/New York: Longman Table of Contents Preface v Bernd Kortmann The Freiburg English Dialect Project and Corpus (FRED) Bernd Kortmann and Susanne Wagner Comparative dialect grammar from a typological perspective .1 The Freiburg English Dialect Corpus (FRED) .4 Linguistic consequences of using oral history material 13 Relative clauses in English dialects of the British Isles 21 Tanja Herrmann Abstract .21 Introduction 21 Data 22 Overall distribution of relative clauses and relative markers 24 Previous investigations of relative markers 28 Restrictiveness/nonrestrictiveness 38 Personality/nonpersonality .41 Preposition placement 45 Accessibility Hierarchy 48 Resumptive pronouns 70 10 Which as ‘connector’? 87 11 Conclusion 94 Appendix 97 Appendix 105 “Some and some doesn’t”: Verbal concord variation in the north of the British Isles 125 Lukas Pietsch Abstract .125 Introduction 125 The Northern Subject Rule: Descriptive problems 128 Data from twentieth-century northern dialects 132 The history of the Northern Subject Rule 173 Theoretical accounts of the Northern Subject Rule 179 Discussion: Variation and usage-based theories 190 x Table of Contents Gender in English pronouns: Southwest England 211 Susanne Wagner Introduction 211 Gendered pronouns 215 Gender in English and elsewhere 221 The corpora 235 Special referent classes .251 Non-dialectal studies of gender assignment .261 Persistence of gendered pronouns 275 SED – Basic Material 285 The SED fieldworker notebooks data 292 10 Southwest England oral history material 319 11 Material from Newfoundland .339 12 Overall summary 346 Appendix 353 (Additional) corpus material .353 Index 368 360 Susanne Wagner issues first A follow-up study could investigate those areas that turned out to be a promising field for future work References Anderwald, Lieselotte and Susanne Wagner forthc The Freiburg English Dialect Corpus (FRED) - Applying corpuslinguistic research tools to the analysis of dialect data In Using Unconventional Digital Language Corpora Vol I: Synchronic Corpora, Joan Beal, Karen Corrigan and Herman Moisl (eds.) Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan Attwell, James 1987 Dorset Dialect Days Sherborne: Dorset Publishing Company Barnes, William 1886² A Glossary of the Dorset Dialect with a Grammar Guernsey/St 1970 Peter Port: Toucan Press 1844 A dissertation on the Dorset dialect of the English language In 1994 William Barnes - Selected Poems, Andrew Motion (ed.), 117–138 Hardmondsworth: Penguin Baron, Naomi S 1971 A reanalysis of English grammatical gender Lingua 27: 113–140 Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan 1999 Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English London: Longman Birner, Betty J and Gregory Ward 1998 Information Status and Noncanonical Word Order in English Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins Bremann, Rolf 1984 Soziolinguistische Untersuchung zum Englisch von Cornwall Frankfurt: Lang Brinton, Laurel J 2000 The Structure of Modern English Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins Burchfield, R.W and H.W Fowler (eds.) 1998³ The New Fowler’s Modern English 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Personal Pronouns in Present-Day English Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Welsh, Kinsley 1971 MUNFLA transcripts of Tapes 71-131/C1033-35 Widdowson, J.D.A 1963 MUNFLA transcripts of Tapes 63-002/C0005, C0010-11 Wiseman, Sherman 1976 MUNFLA Tapes 76-295/C2913-14 Wood, Brian 1971 MUNFLA Tapes 72-089/C1187-88 Yother, Larry 1971 MUNFLA Tapes 73-046/C1958-59, C1961 Index Accessibility Hierarchy 2, 21, 48– 70 adverbial relative clause 50, 112 affix loss 173–175 agreement verbal see verbal concord analogy 177–178 analytical genitive 59, 111 and-coordination 61, 79 animals (as referents) 253–259 in CanE 270–271 apparent-time variation 158 see also verbal concord finite be forms 136, 140, 142 generalized am 140 generalized is 141 Belfast 181–186 British National Corpus (BNC) 14, 23, 112, 256, 353 BE Cheshire 138 Chester-Wash line 138 clauses existential 129, 138, 156–161 interrogative 129, 161, 165–168 locative inversion 129 relative 130, 161, 164 tags 161, 166–167 cleft 62–70, 112, 130, 164 pseudo-cleft 62–67, 70, 93 cliticization 177 Cognitive Grammar 192–193 concord see verbal concord ‘connector’ which 21, 88–93 Construction Grammar 193 contact Old English and Brythonic 173 Old English and Scandinavian 176 coordinate construction constraint 79 copies 70, 116 Cornwall 218, 220, 239–241, 245– 246, 251, 291, 312–322, 327, 330–338, 354, 358 Cumberland 135, 141, 150 Derbyshire 138, 150 Devon 211, 239, 241, 244–245, 251, 315–324, 327, 330, 333– 338, 354, 358 Dorset 216–218, 241, 246, 315– 318, 337, 358 Durham (county) 135, 150 Early Modern English 40, 57, 178 elided preposition 45, 51, 88, 90, 93 English Dialect Grammar 29 entrenchment 192–193 existential 40, 63–71, 75, 76, 91 focussing 62–64 Folktales of Newfoundland 242, 248–251, 259, 342–346, 350 fossilization 171 Freiburg English Dialect Corpus (FRED) 8–22, 132–133, 140– 142, 154, 212, 319–338, 353 (dis)advantages of orthographic transcripts 10–11 corpus design 11–13 principles of compilation 4–6 role of oral history 6–7, 13–15 frequency 192–193 fronting 45–47, 93 see also piedpiping gapping see also zero subject relative clause Index gender history of, in English 225–226 in PrDE 227–235 in the world's languages 222–225 gender assignment in American English 261–270 in Tasmanian Vernacular English 274 genitive avoidance 59–62 grammaticalization of existential there 156 habitual 131 have forms in -n 140 Herefordshire 140 Hierarchy Constraints 48–49 historic present 146 in Irish English 146 idioms 171 inherent variation 191 Irish English 146 Lancashire 131, 138, 147–150 Late Modern English 40 left dislocation 61–62 Lexical-Functional Grammar 186– 189 ‘lexically empty’ antecedent 62, 65– 70, 112 Lincolnshire 144, 150, 178 Lowman Survey 29–31, 35, 54 markedness 180–181, 186–189, 256, 275, 287, 342 microparametric variation 181–186 Middle English 40, 42, 58, 65, 75– 76, 91, 112, 225–226 dialect boundaries 162 Midlands dialects 175 Midlands verbal systems 140 northern dialects 173–179 369 southern dialects 176 modification 62, 67, 88 MUNFLA 242, 247–251, 339–340 narrative present see historic present negation 2–3 and verbal concord 151, 156, 160 negative polarity items 184 Newfoundland 211–214, 235, 242, 247–250, 253, 264, 272–277, 280–284, 293, 338–342, 345, 350–352 Newfoundland English, varieties of see Newfoundland nonreduction 21, 85–86 Northern Ireland see Ulster Northern Ireland Transcribed Corpus of Speech (NITCS) 23, 111, 132, 144, 149, 158, 170 Northern Subject Rule 124–199 see also verbal concord Celtic substrate hypothesis 173 conserved only with forms of BE 150, 169 definition 128 extension to BE 178 extension to forms of BE 149 history 173–179 markedness relations 180–181 Position-of-Subject Constraint 129, 131, 144–146, 185–190 southern boundary 178 southern limits 162–164 Type-of-Subject Constraint 129 Northumberland 135, 142, 150–151 Nottinghamshire 144 noun count 211, 214–222, 277–280, 293–296, 303, 305, 310–313, 326–327, 340, 346–351 mass 211, 216–220, 249, 277– 280, 293, 302–303, 312, 314, 347–351 370 Index Old English 65, 213, 224–226, 234 Northumbrian dialect 173–177 West Saxon dialect 177 Old Norse 174, 176 paratactic (construction) 30–31, 40, 60–61, 73–75, 92–93 partitive genitive 43–44, 47–48, 75– 76, 90, 112 personal(ity)/nonpersonal(ity) 41– 45 personification 232–235, 252–254, 262, 264, 269–270, 306, 308, 310, 356–357 pied-piping 45–46, 76 see also fronting Position-of-Subject Constraint see Northern Subject Rule possessive have or get construction 60–61 Present-Day English 212–213, 224– 227, 230, 233–235, 338 Principles-and-Parameters theory 146, 181–186 pronoun retention 21, 52, 71–79, 95–96 pronouns demonstrative 165 indefinite 165, 168 strong subject forms 183 referent types abstract referents 269, 339–340, 343–345 body parts 309–310, 330–331 feminine 311–312 man-made objects 294–306, 320– 328, 339, 342 masculine 293–311 nature 306–309, 328–330 restrictive(ness)/nonrestrictive(ness) 38–41, 77–78, 86, 96, 111 resumptive (pronoun) 48, 60, 70– 86, 88, 90–96 Scotland 154 singular there’re 156–159 Scots 170 see also Ulster Scots Older 150 SED see Survey of English Dialects she non-referential 251, 259–261, 268, 271–272, 340, 344, 349, 351 Shropshire 138, 140 Somerset 215–218, 239–245, 251, 280–283, 291, 315–322, 327– 328, 330–338, 354, 357–358 Southwest England 211–214, 275, 287, 293, 319, 339, 342, 346, 350–352, 359 see also West Country Staffordshire 138 Standard English 2–3, 22, 28, 38, 41, 46–47, 50, 55, 58, 63–68, 76, 78, 81, 84, 94–96 standard variety see Standard English stochastic grammars 191 structural markedness 72 Survey of English Dialects 355 Survey of English Dialects (SED) 4, 31–34, 37, 54, 56, 59, 94, 111, 132–135, 138, 144, 161, 213– 214, 220–221, 235–243, 247, 250–251, 319–322, 325–327, 331–337, 345, 349, 351, 355 Basic Material 285–292 Fieldworker notebooks 292–319 Tape-Recorded Survey of HibernoEnglish Speech (TRS) 132–133 Teesside 141–142 thae (demonstrative) 165 there (existential marker) 129, 156– 161 Index they as demonstrative – see thae loan from Scandinavian 177 thou–you distinction 135–136, 142– 144 topicalization structures 62–68 Tyneside 151 Type-of-Subject Constraint see Northern Subject Rule Ulster 144, 149, 154, 170 communal variation 159 singular there’re 156–159 Ulster Scots 157, 159 Ulster Scots 170 Varbrul 132, 160, 170 verbal concord formalist analyses 146, 179–190 in ‘Central North’ 135, 141–142, 150, 154 in ‘Lower North’ 137, 155, 158 in ‘Upper North’ 136, 142 in East Midlands 136 in Middle English 162, 173–179 in Northwest Midlands 136–142, 150 in Old English 173–177 in Scotland 138, 154, 170 in Southwest England 147, 179 in Ulster 138, 149, 154, 170, 181– 186 in West Midlands 136, 142 -n forms 136, 138–140, 151 past tense, in Old English 149 present-tense be 136, 140–142 was–were 136, 142, 149–155, 158 with coordinated verbs 131, 144– 146 371 with demonstrative pronouns 165 with existential clauses 129, 138, 156–161 with habitual clauses 131, 147– 148 with historic present 146 with indefinite pronouns 165, 168 with intervening adverbs 130, 146, 160, 182 with inversion 129, 161, 165–168, 182 with locative inversion 129 with negation 151, 156, 160 with relative clauses 130, 164 with thou 142–144 vernacular primitives 179 Welsh 173 West Country 211, 218, 221, 244– 245, 250, 254, 264–265, 272– 273, 277, 291, 293, 305, 310– 320, 323, 330, 332, 336–342, 346–351 see also Southwest England Westmorland 135, 150 Wiltshire 217, 239, 242–244, 251, 299, 315–322, 325, 327, 330, 335–338, 358 Worcestershire 140 Word Grammar 189–190 York 151, 170 Yorkshire 131, 138, 147–150, 166 zero relatives see zero subject relative clause zero subject relative clause 21, 29, 35–39, 48, 55, 62–70, 77, 79, 84, 89, 94–95, 111–112 Q!(ANDBOOKOF 6ARIETIESOF%NGLISH !-ULTIMEDIA2EFERENCE4OOL 6OLUME0HONOLOGYs6OLUME -ORPHOLOGY 3YNTAX %DITEDBY"ERND+ORTMANNAND %DGAR73CHNEIDER TOGETHERWITH +ATE"URRIDGE