A course in language teaching practice and theory ur penny

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRES S Cambridge, New York,Melbourne,Madrid, CapeTown,Singapore, Sio Paulo,Delhi CambridgeUniversityPress The EdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB2 8RU,UK www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org19780521,449946 @ CambridgeUniversity Press1991 It is normallynecessary for writtenpermissionfor copyingto be obtainedin aduancefrom a publisher.The worksheets,role play card,testsandtapescripts at the backof this book aredesigned to be copiedand distributedin class.The normal requirements are waivedhereand it is not necessaryto write to CambridgeUniversity Pressfor permissionfor an individual teacherto make copiesfor use within his or her own classroom.Only thosepageswhich carry the wording 'O CambridgeUniversityPress'may be copied Firstpublished1996 lTth printing2009 Printedin the United Kingdomat rhe UniversiryPress,Cambridge A cataloguerecordfor this publicationis auailablefrom the British Library Library of CongressCataloguingin Publicationdata Ur, Penny A coursein languageteaching:practiceand theory / PennyUr p cm Includesbibliographical refrrences ISBN978-0-521 -44994-6paperback Languageand language- Studyand teaching.I Title P51.U71995 41.8'.007- dc20 94-35027 CIP ISBN 978-0-521-44994-6 Paperback CambridgeUniversityPresshas no responsibilityfor the persistence or accuracyof URLs for externalor third-party Internetwebsitesreferredto in this publication,and doesnot guaranteethat any contenton suchwebsitesis, or will remain,accurateor appropriate.Information regardingprices,travel timetablesand other factual information givenin this work are correctat the time of first printing but CambridgeUoiversityPressdoesnot guaranree the accuracyof suchinformation thereafter Gontents Units with a ) symbol are componentsof the 'core' course;thosewith a F symbolare'optional' Acknowledgements ix Readthisfirst To the (trainee)teacher To thetrainer xii xl lntroduction Module 1:Presentations andexplanations ) Unit One: Effectivepresentation D Unit Two: Examplesof presentationprocedures ) Unit Three: Explanationsand instructions LI 1.3 L6 2:Practice Module activities ) ) ) D Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: The function of practice Characteristicsof a good practiceactiviry Practicetechniques Sequenceand progressionin practice Module 3:Tests 'What ) ) ) F F Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: are testsfor? Basicconcepts;the test experience Typ"r of test elicitation techniques Designinga test Testadministration 19 21, 24 27 11 JJ 35 37 41, 42 4:Teaching Pronunciation Module ) F ) F ) , Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: 'What doeste4chingpronunciation involve? Listeningto accents Improving learners'pronunciation Further topics for discussion Pronunciationand spelling 47 50 52 54 56 Contents Mo d u l e:T e a ch ivo n gca bular y ) ) tr ) F Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: \fhat is vocabulary and what needsto be taught? Presentingnew vocabulary Rememberingvocabulary Ideasfor vocabularywork in the classroom Testingvocabulary 60 63 64 68 69 Mo d u l e:T e a ch ignra g mm ar ) F tr ) ) D Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: Six: 'Vfhat is grammar? The place of grammar teaching Grammaticalterms Presentingand explaining grammar Grammar practiceactivities Grammaticalmistakes 75 76 78 81 83 85 Module 7:Topics, situations, notions, functions ) ) ) F F Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: Topics and situations What ARE notions and functions? Teachingchunks of language:from rext to task Teachingchunks of language:from task to text Combining different kinds of languagesegments 90 92 93 96 98 Module 8:Teaching listening ) ) tr ) F Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: \7hat doesreal-life listeninginvolve? Real-lifelisteningin the classroom Learnerproblems Typesof activities Adapting activities 105 1,07 1.1,1, 1,1,2 115 Mo d u l e:T e a ch isp n ge a king ) ) ) F F D Unit One: Unit Two: Unit Three: Unit Four: Unit Five: Unit Six: Successfuloral fluencypracice The functions of topic and task Discussionactivities Other kinds of spokeninteracrion Role play and relatedtechniques Oral testing 120 1.22 1,24 1,29 131 133 Mo d u l1e0T: e a ch ire n ga ding ) F ) ) F VI Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: How we read? Beginningreading Typesof readingactivities Improving readingskills Advancedreading 138 1,41 143 147 150 Contents Module 11:Teaching writing F ) ) D ) Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: Written versus spoken text Teachingprocedures Tasks that stimulate writing The processof composition Giving feedback on writing t59 r62 r64 1.67 170 M o d u l1e2 :T hsyl e labus 'Sfhat is a syllabus? ) Unit One: ) Unit Two: Different fypes of language syllabus ) Unit Three: Using the syllabus 176 777 179 M o d u l1e3 :Ma te ri a l s ) ) ) F F Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: How necessaryis a coursebook? Coursebookassessment Using a coursebook Supplementarymaterials Teacher-made worksheetsand workcards 183 1,84 1,87 1,89 192 Module 14:Topic content ) ) tr ) D Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: Different kinds of content Underlying messages Literature (1): should it be included in the course? Literature (2): teachingideas Literature (3): teachinga specifictext 197 199 200 202 206 M o d u l1e5L: e ssopnl a n n i n g ) D ) F ) Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: What doesa lessoninvolve? Lessonpreparation Varying lessoncomponents Evaluatinglessoneffectiveness Practicallessonmanagement 2t3 2t5 216 2L9 222 16:Classroom interaction Module ) ) ) ) D Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: TWo: Three: Four: Five: Patternsof classroominteraction Questioning Group work Individualization The selection of appropriate activation techniques 227 229 232 233 237 M o d u l1e7Gi : vi nfe g e d b a ck )Unit One: Different approachesto the nature and function of feedback 242 vll Contents D ) ) D Unit Unit Unit Unit Two: Three: Four: Five: Assessment Correctingmistakesin oral work lTritten feedback Clarifying personalattitudes 244 246 250 253 : l a ssrodoim Mo d u l1e8C scipline ) Unit One: What is discipline? ) Unit Two: What doesa disciplinedclassroomlook like? D Unit Three: What teacheraction is conduciveto a disciplined classroom? ) Unit Four: Dealing with disciplineproblems F Unit Five: Discipline problems:episodes 2s9 260 262 264 267 motivation Module 19:Learner andinterest D F ) ) F Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: Motivation: somebackgroundthinking The teacher'sresponsibility Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation and interest Fluctuationsin learnerinterest Module 20:Younger andolder learners 'What ) D D D Unit Unit Unit Unit One: differencedoesagemake to languagelearning? Two: Teachingchildren Three: Teachingadolescents:studentpreferences Four: Teachingadults: a different relationship 274 276 277 280 282 286 288 290 294 Module 21:Large heterogeneous classes ) ) ) ) D Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Five: Defining terms Problemsand advantages Teachingstrategies(L): compulsory + optional Teachingstrategies(2): open-ending Designingyour own activities 302 303 307 309 3L2 Module 22:Andbeyond F F tr F vlll Unit Unit Unit Unit One: Two: Three: Four: Teacherdevelopment:practice,reflection,sharing Teacherappraisal Advancing further (1): intake Advancing further (2): output 318 322 324 327 Bibliography 360 In d e x 367 Acknowledgements I should like to thank all those who have contributed in different ways to this book: - To editor Marion'STilliams, who criticised, suggestedand generally supported me throughout the writing process; - To Cambridge University Press editors Elizabeth Serocold and Alison Sharpe, who kept in touch and often contributed helpful criticism; - To Catherine Walter, who read the typescript at a late stage and made practical and very useful suggestions for change; - To my teachers at Oranim, with whom I have over the years developed the teacher-training methodology on which this book is based; - And last but not least to my students, the teacher-trainees, in past and present pre-service and in-service courses, to whom much of this material must be familiar To you, above anyone else, this book is dedicated; with the heartfelt wish that you may find the fulfilment and excitement in teaching that I have; that you may succeed in your chosen careers, and may continue teaching and learning all your lives The authors and publishersare grateful to the authors,publishersand otherswho have given their permission for the use of copyright information identified in the text \7hile everyendeavourhas beenmade,it has not beenpossibleto identify the sourcesof all material usedand in suchcasesthe publisherswould welcomeinformation from copyright sources p6 diagram from ExperentialLearning: Experienceas the Sourceof Learning and Deuelopmenrby David Kolb, published by PrenticeHall, 1984@ David Kolb; p14 from 'Exploiting textbook dialoguesdynamically' by Zokan Drirnyei, PracticalEnglisb Teacbing,1986,614:1.5-16,and from 'Excuses,excuses'by Alison Coulavin, Practical English Teaching,1983,412:31@ Mary Glasgow MagazinesLtd, London; p14 from English Teacher'sJournal, 1986,33; p48 from Pronunciation Tasksby Martin Hewings, Cambridge University Press,1993;p77 (extracts1 and 2) from 'How nor to interferewith languagelearning' by L Newmark and (extract3) from 'Directions in the teachingof discourse'by H G Widdowson in The CommunicatiueApproach to LanguageLearning bV C.J Brumfit and K Johnson (eds.),Oxford University Press, 1979,by permissionof Oxford Univer3ityPress;p77 (extract4) from Awarenessof Language:An Introdwction by Eric Hawkins, Cambridge University Press,1984;p116 adapted from TeachingListening Comprehensionby PennyUr, Cambridge University Press,1984;p130 (extract 1) from The LanguageTeachingMatrix by Jack C Richards, Cambridge University Press,1990;p1.30(extract2) from Teachingtbe SpokenLanguage by Gillian Brown and GeorgeYule, Cambridge University Press,1983;p130 (extract3) from Discussionsthat Work-by PennyUr, Cambridge University Press,1981;pp 130-1 from Ro/e Play by G Porter-Ladousse,Oxford University Press,1987,by permissionof Oxford Univsrsity Press,pl51 from Task Reading by EvelyneDavies,Norman Whitney, Meredith Pike-Blakeyand Laurie Bass,CarnbridgeUniversity Press,1.990,p152 from Points of Departure by Amos Paran,Eric Cohen Books, 1.993;p153 from Effectiue Reading: Skillsfor AduancedStudentsby Simon Greenall and Michael Swan, Cambridge IX Acknowledgements University Press,1985; Beat the Burglar, Metropolitan Police; p157 (set 3) from A few short hops to Paradise'by JamesHenderson, The Independenton Sunday,l'1'.12'94,by permission of The Independent; p160 from Teaching.Written English by Ronald V 'White,Heinemann Educational Books, 1980,by permissionof R .White;p207'Teevee' from Catch a little Rhyme by Eve Merriam @ 1966 Eve Merriam @ renewed 1994 Dee Michel and Guy Michel Reprinted by permission of Marian Reiner; p251 from English Grammar in[Jseby Raymond Murphy, Cambridge University Press,1985;p269 (episode and 3) from ClassManagementand Controlby E C Wragg,Macmillan, 1981, (episode2 and 5) adapted from researchby Sarah Reinhorn-Lurie;p281 (episode4) and p291 from Classroom Teacbing Skillsby E C Wragg, Croom Helm, L984; p323 based on Classroom Obseruation Tasks by Ruth !(ajnryb, Cambridge University Press,t992 Drawings by Tony Dover Artwork by Peter Ducker Rea dthisfirst This book is a coursein foreign languageteaching,addressedmainly to the trainee or novice teacher,but some of its material may also be found interesting by experiencedpractitioners If it is your coursebookin a trainer-ledprogramme of study then your trainer will tell you how to use it If, however, you are using it on your own for independent study, I suggestyou glance through the following guidelines before starting to read How to use the book Skim through, get to know the'shape'of the book Beforestarting any systematicstudy,have a look at the topics as laid out in the Contents,leaf through the book looking at headings,read one or two of the tasksor boxes The chaptersare called'modules' becauseeachcan be usedindependently; you not have to have done an earlier one in order to approach alatet On the whole, however,they are ordered systematically,with the more basictopics first Do not try to read it all! This book is rather long, treating many topics fairly fully and densely.It is not intendedto be read cover-to-cover.Someof the units in eachmodule are 'core' units, marked with a black arrowhead in the margin next to the heading;you should find that thesegive you adequatebasiccoverageof the topic, and you can skip the rest However,glanceat the 'optional' units, and if you find anything that interestsyou, use it Using the tasks The tasks are headedTask, Question,lnquiry, etc., and are printed in bold They often refer you to material provided within a rectangular frame labelled Boxz for example in Module 1, Unit One there is a task in which you are asked to considera seriesof classroomscenariosin Box 1.1, and discusshow the teacherpresentsnew material in each The objectiveof the tasks is to help you understandthe material and study it thoughtfully and critically - but they are rather time-consuming.Those that are clearly meant to be done by a group of teachersworking togetherare obviously impractical if you are working alone, but othersyou may find quite feasibleand rewarding to on your own Someyou may prefer simply to read through xl Readthis first without trying themyourself.In any case,possiblesolutionsor comments usuallyfollow immediatelyafter the task itself, or areprovidedin the Notes sectionat the endof eachmodule If vou areinterestedin moredetailedrntormatronabout the materialin this book and the theory behindit, go on to reaclthe lntroductron on Pages1-9 To the trainer This book presentsa systematicprogrammeof studyintendedprimarily for preserviceor noviceteachersof foreignlanguages Structure whichI havecalled'modules',sincetheyare It is composedof.22chapters Eachmoduleis dividedinto unitsof study;a unit intendedto befree-standing usuallytakesbetweenoneandtwo hoursto A foundationcourseis providedby the coreunits (labelledwith black arrowheadsin the marginwheretheyoccurin the book,and in the Contents); sucha coursewould takeabout50-80 hoursof classtime if you not it in anyway.Someof the optionalunitsmay be substitutedfor core supplement units whereyou feelit appropriatefor your own context,or simply addedfor further enrichment.An evenshortercoufsemay be basedon the coreunits of onlv the first elevenmodules courses;a Isingle for short snort rn-servrce rn-servrce modulesmay mavbeusedas basestor Individual lndrvrdualmodules module,studiedin its entireryshouldtakeaboutonestudyday (aboutsix tl nours,to get tnrougn Content The materialin the modulesincludesinformation, tasksand study basedon practiceteachingand observation The information sectionscan furnish eithera basisfor your own input checkson sessions or readingfor trainees.Thereareoftenbrieftasks(questions, which may be usedfor shon within thesesections, interspersed understanding) or homewriting assignments discussions to materiallaid out in the boxes:for Tasksareusuallybasedon responses examplea box may displaya shortscenarioof classroominteraction,and the readeraskedto criticizethe way the teacheris elicitingstudentresponses 'Where appropriate,possiblesolutionsor my own ideason the issuesaregiven immediatelybelowthe task.This closejuxtapositionof questionsand answers is intendedto savethe readerfrom leafingback and forth looking for the is that traineesmay be temptedto look but the disadvantage answerselsewhere, first The on to the answerswithout engagingproperlywith the task themselves of fne the probablyto maKe makecopresor problemls proDably practicalsolutron this problem s olutionto thls most practlcal relevantbox (which should be marked@CambridgeUniversityPress)and hand instructionsyourself,so that trainees them out separatelygiving any necessary xll Bibliography and Dialogues in Action, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International Dubin, F and Olshtain, E (1986) CourseDesign, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Duff, A and Maley, A (1'992) Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press Edge,J $989) Mistakes and Correction,London: Longman Edge,J (,991,) Coop eratiue D euelopment: Professional Self-deuelopment through Cooperation utith Colleagues,London: Longman Ellis, G and Brewster,J (eds.)(1.991.1The Storytelling Handbook for Primary Teachers, Harmondsworth: Penguin Ellis, G and McRae, J $991,1Tbe Extensiue Reading Handbooh for SecondaryTeachers, Harmondsworth: Penguin Ellis, R (19901InstructedSecondLanguage A cqu i siti on, Oxford: Blackwell Ellis, R (1994) Tbe Study of SecondLanguage Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford University Press Flanders,N A (1970) AnalyzingTeaching Behauior,Reading,Mass.: Addison-\7esley Fortescue,S and Jones,C (1'987)Using Computers in the Language Classroom, London: Longman Freedman,A., Pringle,I and Yalden,J (eds.) (1983) Learning to Write: First Language/ Second Language, London: Longman Gairns, R and Redman,S (1985) Workinguith Words, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gardner,R (1980) 'On the validity of affective variablesin secondlanguageacquisition: conceptual, contextual and statistical considerations', Language Learning,3O, 255-70 Gardner, R and Lambert, W (7972) Attitudes and Motiuation in SecondLanguage Leaming, Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Gardner, R C and Maclntyre, P D (1993) 'A student's contributions to second-language learning Part II: Affective variables', Language T eaching, 26, 1,'/ -1.7 Gatbonton, E and Segalowitz,N (1988) 'Creative automization: principles for promoting fluency within a communicative framework', TESOL Qwarterly, 22, 3, 47 3-92 Geddes,M and Sturtridge,G (eds.)(1.982)' Indiuidualization, Oxford: Modern English Publications Gerngross, G and Puchta, H (1'992)Pictures in Action,Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall 362 Gimson,A C (1973)APracticalCourseof EnglishPronunciatioz,London:Edward Arnold Girard,D (1,977)'Motivation:theresponsibility r' , ELT I ournal,3l,97-702 of theteache Graham,C (7978)lazz Chants,NewYork: Oxford UniversityPress Greenall,S.andSwan,M (1986)Effectiue Reading:Skilkfor AduancedStudents, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress (1988)ClassReaders, Oxford: Greenwood,J Oxford UniversityPress Grellet,F (1981) DeuelopingReadingSkills, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress Hadfield,J 0984) ElementaryCommunication Nelson Games,London: Hadfield,J 0992t ClassroomDynamics,Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress Harmer,J.,1984lr'Howto giveyour students feedback',PracticalEnglishTeaching,5, 2, 3940 andLearning Harmer,J (.9891Teaching Longman Grammar,London: Harmer,J $9911 ThePracticeof English LanguageTeaching (Znd edn.),London: Longman Cuhureandthe Harrison,B (ed.)(1,9901 LanguageClassroomrHongKong:Modern EnglishPublicationsandthe British Council Hawkins,E (1,984)Awarenessof Language:An lntroduction,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press Haycrah,B (1,971)TheTeachingof Guide,London: A Classroom Pronunciation: Longman Hayward,T (1983)'TestingspokenEnglish- an introduction',PracticalEnglisbTeaching,4, 2, 37-9 Testing,London: Heaton,J B (1990)Classroom Longman .Writing, Oxford:Oxford Hedge,T (1988) UniversityPress Hewings,M (1993)PronunciationTasks, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress Hill, J $986) UsingLiteraturein Language Teaching, London:Macmillan Hughes,A (1989)Testingfor LanguageTeachers, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress A Coursebook, Hurford,J R (1983)Semantics: Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress teaching andstrategy: Hyland,K (1990)'Purpose extensivereadingskills',EnglishTeaching Forum,28,2,74-1,7 Bibliography Hyland, K (1,9911'Developing oral presentation skills', Ezglrsh Teaching Forum, 29, 2, 5-7 Johnson,K (1988) 'Mistake correction',ELT Journal,42,Z,89-96 Johnson,K (1995) Language Teachingand Skill Learning, Oxford: Basil Blackwell Kennedy,C andJarvis,J (eds.)(1,991)Ideasand Issuesin Pritnary ELT, London: 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Longman I7ragg, E C (1981) ClassManagetnentand Control, London: Macmillan Wragg, E C (ed.) (1,984)ClassroomTeaching SAi//s,London and Sydney:Croom Helm STragg,E C and \food, E K (1984) 'Pupil appraisalsof teaching'in Wragg, E C (ed.), ClassroomTeaching Shi//s,London and Sydney: Croom Helm Wright, A (1984) 1000 Picturesfor Teachersto Copy,London: Collins .Wright, A., Betteridge,M and Buckby, M (1984) Gamesfor Language Learning, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wright, A and Haleem,S (1991) Visualsfor the Language Classroom, London: Longrnan lfright, T (1987) Rolesof Teachersand Learners, Oxford: Oxford University Press Yalden,J.(,gSTlPrinciplesofCourseDesignfor Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Zarnel,V (1985) 'Respondingto studentwriting', TESOL Quarterly,19,\,79-1.01 Pagenumbers in italic indicate boxed material abstractconceptualization, 6, 6, accents,listeningto, 50 2,51, 55 ,337 accuracy,103-4 criteriain oral tests,135 achievementneedsof learners, 275 achievementtests,44 'accusations'presentation,14, 15 action research,328-9, 329 activation techniques,237 -8, 238 'activator-activated'relationship, ,296 activeexperimentation,6, 617 activefearning, 219, 219, 221 'active-passive'lessonvariations, 217 adapting activities(listening), 1 - 18, 115- 17, 34 adjectives,80 administration of coursebookactivities.189 o f te sts , 424, 43, 337 adolescents, 2904, 29 1, 301, 3s6 teachingpreferences,2904, 291 adults,294-6, 295, 30t, 6-7 ability to learn,287-8 advancedreading,'J 50-6, 15 14, 345 adverbials.79 adverbs.80 ageof learners,'17 3, 286-301, 355-7 adolescents, 2904,291 adults,294-6,295 children,288-90 learning differ ences,27 3, 286-8,286 learningpronunciation, 55 ageism,200 Alice in Wonderland reading text, L52,'J,55 allophones,52 alphabets,56-7 order.'142 phonetic,48 ambiguity toleranceof learners, 275 analysisstage,literature teaching,204-5,205 anger,and discipline,266 antonyms,52 appearance,teachers',29 1, 292 applied sciencemodel of teacher l e a rn i n gSrT , rS -9 appraisal,teacher,3224, 322-3, ,3 -g appropnatenessof vocabulary, ,,7 arbitration strategies,266, 257 articles, journal,327 aspirations of learners,27 244-5 8, 52-3 assessment, correctroncompared,242-3, 352 coursebook,184-7, 85, 1,934 criteria 245-6 different approaches,243 information as a basisfor 24s students'opinions,29 1, 293 seealso tests 'assessor-assessed' relationship, ,2 assistancewith practrce actrvltles, 23 association dominoes,297 artention in effectivepresentations,12, 1.7 evaluatinglessoneffectiveness, criterion for, 21.9,221 fluctuations 282-3 attitudes about feedback, 25 3, 25 4, 2s6-7 expressedin teaching materials,1.99-200 audio equipment,1.90)1.91,195 'audio-lingualism' assessment, 243 correction of mistakes.244 authenticity of reading texts/tasks,150 'authoritarian' v.'authoritative' discipline,259,270 authoritative demands.as factor in motivation, 279 authority as characteristicof goodteacher,291,292 'authority-subjectsto authority' relationship,294-5, 295 automatization, L9,20 autonomy in skill learning, 19-20,20 auxiliary verbs, 80 'availability' of questions,230 grammarpractice, 'awareness' 84 backgroundinformation, reading,L48,'1,49 backwash,44, 135 'Bay lfindow Restaurant'151, 1.54-5 'Beat the Burglar' text, 153, 155 book reports and reviews,1.64-5, 1.65 booksas supplementary materials, 190, 190-1,,194 boredom in practiceactivities,23 357 lndex 'bottom-up' suategies,1.41,344 brainstorming, 68-9, 31.2 brevity of explanations,17 of informal spoken discourse, 1,06 'burn-out', 318 caring, importance of, 291, 292 cassetterecorders,190, 191.,'1.9 charismatic authority, 260, 261, checkingtest answers,37 children, 288-90, 297, 299-300, 3s6 ability to learn languages, 286-7 learning pronunciation, 55 motivation,288 choral responsesr228 'chunks' of language,see functions; notions; situations;topics clarity of instructions, 12, 26 of goals,281 of questions,230 of test items, 42 classroomdisciplinesee discipline,classroom classroominteraction see interaction classroomresearch,327-9, 328, 331 79,87-8 clauses, 'climbing a mountain' metaphor, 21 ,22 closed-endedcues,228, 239, 310 309-'t').,309, cloze activities,113 in tests,38,40,44-5 'cognitive code-learning' view of mistake corr ection, 4 co-hyponyms,62 collaboration, 228, 237 , 23940 291,293 adolescents, large heterogeneousclasses, 306, 31 2- L3 ,3 'collaborative composition' technique,314 colleagues feedback from, 322, 322-3 sharingproblems and successes, 320-1, 358 368 collocation, 6L combining skills, 151 'common characteristics' activity, ,7 communication, as lesson evaluation criterion, 21.9, 2 ,2 communicative approach to mistake corcection,244 community language learning, 298 'comparison' reading activities, 145 competition as factor in motivation,2T9 complements of sentences,79, 88 'completion' test items, 38, 39 composition, 767-9, 67, L6 8, ,3 comprehensionquestion activities,'!"43-5, L43, 1,44, 145,203,238 'compromise' discipline strategy, 266 'compulsory plus optional' strategy,306, 307-9, 57 computers,190, 190, 795 concentrationspans,288 concepts defined, 3-5 concreteexperience,6, 6, 7, 64 conferences,326,327 connotation,61,173 content balancewith form, L63 of book 1-2 of languagecourses,175 reading texts, 1,47,1.4 I topic seetopics: content 'continue the story' activity,746 245 continuous assessment, control and discipline,259, 260, ,2 studentpreferences,29 1, 292 controlled drills, 84 'conventional construct' aspect of lessons,214 'conversation' metaphor, 21-3, 224 cooperationand discipline,260, 261, co-ordinates,52 corporal punishment,291, 294 correctionof mistakes,'J.70-2, 246-52,255-6 242-3, compared, assessment 243,244,255,352-3 246-7 duringfluentspeech, in grammar,85-7, 340-1' in oral work,246-9,249 in pronunciation,524, 53, 58 in written work, 1,67,1.69, 1.70-'1,250-2, 25L-2, 253 relationship, 'counsellor-clients' 295.296 1.83-9,7934, coursebook, 347-8 86,1,934 assessment,'1.84-7, 1.87,L88 coverage, 1.834,184, for andagainst, 185 listeningactivities,114, 115-18,115-1.7 necessity, 1.83,784,185, 193 g, 1.89-91.,790 supplementin using,187-9,188 courses,teacherdevelopment, 325,326 187, coveraBe of coursebooks, 188 craftmodelof teacherlearning, 5,7 crisisavoidancer266 assessment criterion-referenced 245-6 'critical period' for language learning,287 'cue'itemsr2T cues; seealsoclosed-ended open-ended cues culturalcontent,197, 198, 't99-200,208 g, staffmeetings, decision-makin 321, decoding,'1.38,1.40 'definition guessing'activities, 113 delivery,grammarpresentations, 82,83 denotation,6L,73 density,of written text, L60 'describing'activities pictures,96-97, 97, 125,1'28, 312 writing, 155,1,65-6 lndex detachment,of written text, 151 determiners,80 development, teacher,317, 318-32, 358-9 advancingfurther, 324-9, 328 appraisal,3224, 322-3, 324 practice,reflection, sharing, 318-2r.329-30 diagnostictests,44 dialogues,94,137-2 presentationexample,14, 15 dictation in spelling/pronunciation practice,58 i n te s t s ,38, 40, 70, 72 dictation-translationtests,70, 72 difficulty of Iesson,variations in, 217 discipline,classroom,212, 9- 72, 3534 s, 260-2, 60, characteristic 271 dealingwith problems,264-6, 267 definition,259, 259,270 267-70,259 episodes, classes, largeheterogeneous 4, 304, 305- practical hints, 253 teacheraction, 2624, 263 'discoursecomposition' practice activity, S4 'discrete-point'tests,44 discrimination (betweenwords), 58 discrimination (preludice), 199-200 discussionactivities,124-8, 5- 7, 343 distractors,multiple-choice items,45 'do-ability' of test items,42 'do-it-yourselfquestions'activity, L46 'doctor consultation' metaphor, 3, 224 'doing your own thing' 31.3 techniques, dominoes,297 doodles.297 d ri l l s,84 'eatingmeal' metaphor, 2L3, 224 education,3 educationalcontent, 198 effectivelearning for all, in large heterogeneous classes,304, 304.305 ego-involvementof learners,275 elicitation techniques,tests, 7 ,3 -9 emotions,talk basedon, 129, 130.1,31, encounterstage,literature teaching,202-3,203 'end', writing as an, 162 ending groupwork,234 enjoyment,21.9,221, 29 1, 293 'enrichedreflection'model of teacherlearning,6-9, entertainment,7 13, 28 L errors in pronunciation, 1-4, 58 seealso correction of mistakes theories,4 espoused essaytests,39, 41 evaluationof lessoneffectiveness 219-21,222,225 seealso assessment examinations,157 examples,useof, 17, 82 expectations,listeners'107, 108 experientiallearning theory, 6-7, experientialwork, explanations,16-t8, 3334 grammar,81,-3,82 explicitness,of written/spoken texts compared,150 extendedresponseactivities, 114 extension, in effective questioning,230 extrinsic motiv ation, 27 6, 7 -8 ,3 5 failure, as factor in motivation, 278 fairness,291,2293 familiarisationwith text, 23 in literature teaching,2034, 204 feedback,'I 8, 212, 242-5 8, 352-1, 244-6,255 assessment, colleagues',322, 322-3 correctingoral work, 246-9, 249 different approaches,242-3, 243,244 group work,234 personalattitudes,2534, 54, 2s6-7 self,3234 students',323, 324 on writing activities,t7O-2, 346 written, 250-2, 25 L-2, 253, 255-6 feelings,talk basedon,129, L30, 13l 'film music' activity, 165, 1'66 films, 113 'finding twins' activity, 313 fi rst-yearteachingdiffi culties, 318,329-30 'fi ve-minutewriting storms', 313 flow of speech,49 fluency,103, 135,343 correctingoral work, 246-7 criteria in oral tests,135 successfulpractice,'l'20-2, 1.21,123 'fluid pairs' techniques,313-1'4 'football game' metaphor,213, 224 foreign accent/pronunciation, 50-1 foreign languageteaching, definition,4-5 form/content balance,writing activities,153 formal testing,37 formative ev aluation, 244 'free choice' aspectof lessons, 214 free discourse activity, 14 'free sentencecomposition' activity, S4 29 1,293 friendliness of teachers, full-class inter action, 22 fun in classroom,29 1.,293 functional-notionalsyllabuses, 1,78 functions,46, 92-3, 93, 100, 341-2 combining languagesegments, 98-100.99 369 lndex task to text,96-7,97 text to taskr 93-5, 94 game-likeactivities,281 games,190, \91, t9 5, 281 for children, 289-90, 297, 300-1 gap (slot)-filling activities large heterogeneousclasses, 31 ,3r L reading,746 test items,3 8, 39, 70-1, 72, 1.1.4 generalknowledge content, 198 'giving in' discipline strategy, 266 global motivation, 276, 280 goal orientation of learners,27 'goal-orientedeffort' aspectof lessons,214 goals,see obiectives 'good marriages'text, 154,156 'good teacher'characteristics, 277, 284 gradesof assessment, 246 grammar, 46,7 5-89, 33940 definition, 54,87 of informal spokendiscourse, 106 learner activ ation, mistakes,85-7 place in foreign language teaching,7 6-8, 77 practiceactivities, 83-5, 84 practicescenario,25, 26-7 presenting and explaining, 8't-3,82 terms, 78-80 of vocabulary,60-l grammatical syllabuses,178 grammaticaVlexical syllabuses, 778 group work, 228, 232-3, 234, 239,35't speakingactivities,12L studentpreferences,29 1, 293 guessingactivities,113 'hangman' game,24, 25, 3'1 'hard work', as student preference, 291,293 He Treats them to lce-cream text 207,209 370 heterogeneity of practice activities, 22-3 of test items, 42 heterogeneousclasses,273, 302-76,357-8 'compulsory and optional' strategies,307-9 defining terms, 302-3, 303 activitiesfor, 31 1-15, 315 open-endedcues,309-L 1, 309, 310 problems and advantages, 3 -7,304,305,305 'hidden curriculum', 799:200 'holistic' view of learningr93 'how many things ' activity, 31,2 'Human Rights' text, 754, 75 5-6 humanisticmethodologies,giving feedback,243 humiliation potential of feedback,254,256 hyponyms,52 'ideal school', activity, 1,66 impact stage,literature teaching, plusoptional, 306, compulsory 307-9 'instrumental'motivation,276 'integrative'motlvation,275 'integrative'tests,44 2L2, interaction,classroom, 22742,351.-2 groupwork, 232-3,234 individualization, 233-5, 236, 239 patterns, 227,228,238 questioning, 228-32,229,230, 231 spoken,kindsof, 1,29-31,130 237,238, techniqueselection, 23940 'interaction'aspectof lessons, 2r4 interactional talk, 729, 13 0, 1.3'1 rnterest fluctuations in,282-3 intrinsic motiv ation, 27 6, 280-1,281 large heterogeneousclasses, 304,304,306,306 practice activities, 234 questions,230 202-3,203 speakingactivities,1.20,121, importance, written/spoken texts 1,22 compared, 161 incomprehensiblevocabulary, test items, 42 , 149 interesting lessons,student 'individual awareness'problems, preferences, 291,2934 'interlanguage' view of mistake ,304,306-7 individual-referenced assessment coffectlon,244 246 interpersonalrelationships,and individualiza tion, 228 , 233-5 , discipIine,262 interpretation activities, L4 236,239,240 interpretation stage,literature large heterogeneousclasses, teaching,204-5,205 306,3s',t-2 291, 293 intonation, 47, 48-9, 56 studentpreferences, informalspokendiscourse, 105, intrinsic motivation, 27 6, 280-7, 281,355-6 108 informal testing,37 intuitive imitation, 55 IRF (Initiation-Responseinformationgap,281 inhibitions,talking activities,1.21 Feedback),227,237 in-housestaffmeetings, 321 'items' of vocabulary, 60 Initiation-Response-Feedback |rRF\,227,237 input, in-service courses, 325 instructionsheets, L 55,1,65 instructions,1,6-'1,8,3 334 clarityof,1.2,265 'job application'activity, 65, 1.66 journal artic\es,327 journal writing, 319 'keepingin touch', and discipline, 265 lndex 'keepingup', 7LL, 1.1.2 'known words' activity, 69 Ko l b , D A , 5- 7, language componentsr45 grammaf presentations,82, 82 individual choice,235 as topic of study, 198 written mistakes,170-1 written/spoken texts compared,151 languagelevel readingactivities,L47, L48 speaking activities, 120, 1'21'-2 largeclasses,302 classes seealso heterogeneous learnerdifferences,27 3, 27 4-31.6 learningand discipline,260, 260 learningand teaching,4 learning by heart, 93-5, 94 learningvalue of questions,230 learnt skill, written/spoken texts compared,L61 lessons,272,213-26 aspects,21,3-214,213, 2234 discipline,260, 261, 252, 265 evaluating effectiveness, - 2' , 219, 222, 2 management,222-3, 223 planning, 21.3-26, 349-51 preparation,21.5-L6,21 5, 224-5 varying components, 216-78, 217 'letter answering' activity, L65, 166 lefters as assessmentgradesr246 level of tasks, and individual choice,235 lexical syllabuses,178 listening,103, 105-19, 342-3 adapting activities,1 15-18, 115-17 classroom, 107-1,0 111 learnerproblems, 1.1.'/."-L2, practicescenario,24-6, 25 real-lifesituations,l0 5-7,,1.05 ta sks,108, 110 texts,108, 109-110 typesof activity, ll2-1'74 lists,syllabusesas,176 literature, 175, 198, 2OO-7,349 advantages/disadvantages, 200-2,20L specifictexts,206-7, 206, 207, 208-9 teachingideas,202-5, 203, 204,205 'long gap-filling'activity,114 long turns,speakingactivities, 129,L30,'1,3'1 listening'longerresponse' activities,ll3 looking,andlistening,107,1.08 of lessons, 222-3, management 223,262 'marketplace'activity,3L4 markingof tests,42 291, 293 students'preferences, text,L54, 156 'marriages' matchingactivities,3 1.0, 3lt in testitems,38,40,70,71-2 materials,175, 177,183-96, 347-8 of coursebooks, assessment 184-7,186,L934 largeheterogeneous classes, 304,304,306 183, necessity of coursebooks, 184,185,193 189-91,,L90 supplementary, worksheetsand teacher-made workcards,1J2-3,1.93 187-9, usingcoursebooks, L88 wrltlng oI, 32 / meaning relationships, 62 'meaningfuI drills' practice activity, S4 meanings grammarrT6 reading,1.38,13941 vocabulary,61.-2 means,writing as ar 1.62 memorizing,64-7, 65, 66 'menu' metaphor, 2L3, 224 metaphors activity example,3L3 lesson,213-1.4, 13, 2234 method shaing,327 methodology,262 'teaching' compared, 4-5 'mistake detection' activities ' t3 ,1 mistakes,seealso correction of mistakes in grammar, 85-7 in pronunciation, 5L-4, 58 mixed ability classes,273, 302-3 classes seea.lsoheterogeneous mixed syllabuses,178 modal verbs,80 mode, lessonvariations in,217 models of teacherlearning,5-9, 617 monitor theory of mistake cofiection,244 monologuetest items,39, 41 mood, lessonvariations in,217 moral content, 198 morphemes,79,88 mother-tongue use, speaking activities,121,1,22 motivation, 27 3, 27 4-B5, 355-5 adults',295,295-6 background thinking, 27M, 274 characteristicsof motivated learnerl,27 children's, 288-90, 297 compared to aptitude, 27 4, 274-5 in a disciplinedclassroom250, 261,262 extrinsic,276,277-80 fluctuations in interest, 282-3 global,276 integrative vs instrumental, 276 intrinsic, 27 6, 280, 28 as lessonevaluation criterion 279,219,221 in reading, 148,'1.49 in speaking,120,12L teacher'sresponsibility,27 6-7 in testing, 37 'motivator-motivated' relationship, 295, 29 54 mouth position, and pronunciation, 53,53 multiple-choice tests, 8, 39, 44, 45 vocabulary,70,71 multi-strand syllabuses,178 'names' garnes,297 371 lndex names of students, teachers' knowledge of,291.,293 narrative writing, 65, 1'65 necessityof coursebooks,183, 784, 185, need for achievement,275 'news reports' activity, 1.65,'166 'no overt response'listening activities,11,3 'noise',106 non-native teacheras model, 56 non-repetition, in informal spoken discourse,105, 108 nt, 246 norm-referenced assessme note-taking,114 notional syllabuses,178 notions, 46, 92-3, 93, 1'00, paraphrasing,L14 participation large heterogeneousclasses, 304,304,307 speakingactivities,120, L21, 1,22 'passingit round'techniques, 314 'passivepossibilities'activity, 31.4 peer correction, 771.-2,25 4, 257 'people description' activity, 65 , 1.66 perception, effective presentations,12 permanence of written text, 1.59-60 perseveranceof.learners,27 341,-2 combining language segments, personalreflection,319-20, 358 personalstories,1 55, t65 98-700,99 personalizationof tasks,281, task to text,96-7 , 97 306 text to task,93-5, 94 phonemic alphabet,4S n o uns , 80 phonic rcading,1.42 numbers activities, 28-30, 29 phonology, 47-8,48 phrases,79,88 'obeying instructions' activity, as assessmentgr ades,246 tt3 pictures, 1-90,1.91.,1"95, 289, 300 t7 6, 238, 28L objectiveness, brainstorm activiry, 1.2 anddiscipline,2 60, 26'1.-2 description activities, 97-8, andinterest,281 ,' t28,372 79, 88 objectsof sentences, differences,12 5,'1.28 observation,6, 7, 322-3, 322, play-acting,281 323 seealso role play 'odd oneout'test itemsrT0rTl see ageof learners p l a y s ,1 olderlearners, cues,228, 239, 240, political content, 198, 1.99 open-ended portfolio assessment,245 281 classes, positive feedback, 25 4, 247 for largeheterogeneous positive task orientation of 306,309-t1,309,31.0, learners,275 357-8 posters,790,L9t,19S 'optional'tasks,305, 307-9 postponement strategres,26 options,multi-choiceitems,45 power hierarchies,254, 256 oral skills,seespeaking 'power' v.'authority', 259, 270 organisation,of written text, practice activities, 70, 79-32, 1,61, 'organisation'lessonvariations, 2L7 overheadprojectors,190, 1,91,, 795 own activities,designing, 372-L5,315,358 own experience,astopic content, L98 372 334-5 characteristics,2l,4 designingown, 31.2-15,3 LS function,1.9-20,2L grammar,83-5,84 for heterogeneous classes, 307 andprogression, sequence 27-32.29 and test techniques, 24-7, 25-6,336 practice definition,contrastwith theory,34 praise,254,257 'prediction'activities,58, 148, 1,49 'preface'readingactivity,146 prefxes,62,73 prejudices,199-200 preJearning, andpractice activities,22 pfeparation givingexplanations,t 6-1'7 Iessonplanning,21.5-l 6, 15, 224-5 prepositions,80 'pre-question'readingactivities, 1.46 presentations, L0, 11-18, 3334 effective,ll-13 examples,73-1.5,L4 and instructions, explanations 15-18 grammar,81-3,82 groupwork,234 321 in in-housestaffmeetings, of topicsand situations,90-1, 91 of vocabulary,634 pressurefr om teachers,279 problemsharing,320 problem-solving activities,LL4, 127,1,28 778-9 proceduralsyllabuses, 'processdescription'activity, 165,166 processof groupwork,234 179 processsyllabuses, professionaldevelopment, see development grades, profiles,asassessment 246 progressionof practiceactivities, 27-30,29 pronouns,80 pronunciatio n, 46, 47- 59, 337-8 agein learning,55, 56,286 47-9,48 concepts, issues, 54-6, 55 controversial errors,514, 58 improving,524,53,54 lndex in informal spokendiscourse, 106 intuitive learningof, 55, 56 listeningto accents,50-1, 51 mo d e l J J ) J - and spelling,56-8, 58 of vocabulary,60 purpose of listener,707,108 of reader,148,149 questioningby teacher,22 8, 229-32, 229, 23 0, 23L, 239, 357 310, open-and closed-ended, - 11 questlons l i ste n i n g, 114 readingcomprehension, 3- 5, 143, 144,L45 test,38, 39 quiet,and discipline,260,261, 265 rationale for course.3-9 reading,103, 138-58, 34,1-5 advancedactivities,150-5, 1514 about, 138 assumptions beginning,741.-2,L42, 156-8, 156-7 in classroom inter action 23 comprehensionactivities, 1.43-6,143, 144, 145, 146 improving,1,47-50,148, 149 n a tu reof , 138- 41, 138 ,L , 140 for teacherdevelopment, 324-5 readingaloud activities,58,237, 239 'readingwords' presentation,14, 1 - 15 real-lifelistening,105-7, 105, 342 in the classroom,L07-10 'recall and share'techniques, 31,2-1,3 redundancy,L05 reflection,319-20,358 reflectivemodel of teacher Ie a rning, 5, 6- 9, 6, reflectiveobservation,6, 6, relationships,talk basedon,129, ,1 reliabiliry of test items,44 remembering vocabulary, 64-7, 6 repetrtron of explanations,17 in informal spokendiscourse, ,1 needfor, listeningproblems, 1 1 ,2 're-presentationof content' reading activity,146 research,classroom,327-9, 28, 3 'resource-users' relationship, ,2 re s p e c t,2 ,2 'responding'readingactivities, 146 'responseto listening' interaction,236 responsesto listening,1,1,3-14 o n g o i n g ,1 ,1 08,110 rewrrtlng corrections,L7l testitems,38,40 rhythm, 47,48,56 'role-basedculture' aspectof lessons,214 role play, 96-7, 130,'l'31-3, 28L, 344 rules, gramm atical, 82, 83 'shopping list' activity, 126-7, 1,28 'shopping' metaphor,213, 224 'short response'listening activities,71,3-14 short-term memory, in effective presentations,1.2 short turn, 130 simulations,1,32,28L 'situational' motivation 27 situational syllabuses,178 situations,46, 90-L, 1, 93-100, 341,-2 combining languagesegments, 98-100,99 speakingactivities,1.29,1.30, 1.3r task to text,96-7,97 text to task,93-5,94 skill, theory, 1.9-20,20, 30 243 assessment, 'skill' lessonvariationsin.217 skimming,113 slot-filling exercises,see gapfilling exercises socialproblems,198 socialorientation of coursebooks,200 'soliloquy' presentation,14, 15 songs,1L3 sounds,47-8,48 listeningproblems with, 111, 1,11 speaking,103, 1,20-37,3434 correctingmistakesin, 246-9, 249 'satisfying'aspectof lessons,214 discussionactivities,124-8, scanning,1,13,147, 148 125-7 scores,and testing,37 fluency,1.20-2,120, 121, 23 I 228, 233 self-access, functions of topic and task, self-appraisal,3234 1,224, L23 nt,245 self-assessme other kinds of interaction, self-discipline,254 ' t29-31,,L30 'seller-buyers'relationship,295, problems, 127-2, 12L 296 role play, 131-3 'sentencecompletion' test items, successfulactivities,120-2, L ,7 122 sentence,parts of, 79, 87-B testing,133-5, 134, 344 'sentences'test items, 70, 71 written texts compared, sequenceof practiceactivities, 1.59-61,160,172,345 -3 ,2 ,3 4-5 speech,parts of, 80 sexism,1,99-200 sharingproblemsand successes, speed individualchoice.235 -1 , 373 lndex reading activities,147, 148 speech,'1.'1.1., I1 written/spoken texts compared, 161 spelling and pronunciation, 56-8, 58, 33 practicescenarios,24, 25, 30, syllabuses, 175, t76-82,346-7 charucteristics, L77 definition,'1.76-7, 177 for heterogeneousclasses,307 types,L77-9 using, 179-8 1, L 80 'symphony' metaphor, 21 3, 224 synonyms,62 31,31,3 of vocabulary,60r 372 staff meetings,32L standard language, of written text,161 stems in multiple-choice items, 45 'stir-settle'lessonvariations.217 stories, 113, 289, 300 personal,165,165 strategiesfor word-lea rning, 67 stress(anxiety), and tests, 35 relieving,424,43 stress(pronunciation),47,48, 56 structure-basedpractice activities, 84 sructures grammatical, T5 presentationof,82,82 student activation techniques, 237-8,238 student opinions, 29M, 291 feedbackfrom,323,324 student-teacher relationships, 2944,294 subject matter, seetopics 'subjective'test items, 44 subjectsof sentences,79, 88 success,as factor in motivation, 278 success-orientation of practice activitres,22 successsharing with colleagues, 320 suffixes, 52 suggestions,in-house staff meetings,321 summarisingactivities,1.14,146 summative evaluation, 244-s superordinates, 52 supplementary materials, 189-91., 790, Ig2-3, 193, 194-5 survival, professional, 18, 329-30 374 taking things person ally, 26 5-6 talk, teacher,228,240 outsidethe classroom,291, 294 talking time, learner, L2 target language use in speaking activities,121,122 tasks in languageJearning activities,96-7, 97, 98, 341 authenticity, 1.50 coursebook,188-9 functions of, 1,224, 123, 343 'task' motivationr2T6 teacher appearance, 291,292 appraisal,3224, 322-3, 324 practiceactivities, assistance, 23 development,3l9:2L a good,277,284,355 learningmodels,5-9, 6, reactionsto learnerresponses, 230 trarning,321 teacher-made worksheetsand workcards,192-3,1.93 teacher-student relationship, 291,293,294-6,295 teaching definitions,4-5 process, 1-0 techniquesharing,327 Teeueeliteraturetext, 207, 208-9 tempo,lessonvariationsin,277 terminology,grammar,82, 82 tests,10,3345, 245,335-7 administration, 424, 43 basicconcepts, 35-7, 36 designing,47,42 elicitationtechniques, 3747, 38-9 grammarr85 for heterogeneous classes, 308 motivation to do,279 reasonsf.or,334,34 speaking,133-5, 134, 344 vocabulary, 69-72, 70-1, 339 text in language-learning activities, 93-5, 94, 341, authenticity, 150 comprehensionquestionson, 143-5, L43,144,145 in coursebooks,187-8 seealso literature textbook seecoursebook textbook exercises,235 theatrevisits, 113 theory definition, contrast with practice, 3-4 threats,and discipline,265 'ticking off items' activity, 113 time schedules,tTT tiredness,111, ltz 'title' reading activity, 146 tolerance of ambiguiq, 27 'top-down' strategies,141, 344 topic, 46, 0-1, 0, 3-700, 341,-2 combining language segments, 98-1.00,99 content, 1,75, L97-21,L, 3+8-9 different kinds, 197, 798, 207-8 literature, 200-7, 201,203, 204,205,207 underlying messages, 799-200 functions of, 1.224, 123, 343 individual choicein, 235 lessonvariations in, 2L7 syllabusesbasedon, L78 task to text, 96-7, 97 text to task, 93-5, 94 trainee learning from course, 8-9 notes, x-xi tralner notes,xi-xii, 333-59 role of,7-8 training definition, teacher,321 'transaction' aspectof lessons, 214 lndex transactional talk, 13 transformation test items,38, 40 translation, 52 Iistening activities, 14 test items, 38,40 vocabulary tests, 1.,72 'transmitter-receivers' relationships, 29 ,29 true/false activities Iistening,113 test items, 38,39 'twin finding' activity, 313-74 1.99-200, underlyingmessages, 349 understanding effective presentations, 12 listeningproblems, 1 1, l1,l-12 literature teaching, 2034, 204 reading, 1.3I, 1394L, 50-1, university study, 325 validity of practice activities, 2\-2 of test items,42,44 values,underlying course content,200 'variety show' metaphor, 213, 223 variation of lessoncomponents,276-1'8; 217 of situation, etc in speaking activities,129, 730, 131, of topicsand tasks,236,281 verbalisation in skill learning, 19, 20 verbs,79, 80, 88 vicarious experrence,7, video, 113, 190, l9l, 195 'view description' activity, 155, 166 visibility of speakers,107, 108 visuals,28-1 vocabulary,46, 60-74, 338-9 definition,60-2 grammar of, 60-1 incomprehen sibIe, 14 8, 1.49 of informal spoken discourse, 1.06 practice scenario, 26, 27 presentingnew, 63-4, 63,64, 238 remembering, 64-7, 65, 66 suggestedac:civities,67-9 testing,69-72,70-1 volume in practice activities, 22 written/spoken texts compared,161 warmth ofteachers,291, 293 'wedding' metaphor, 213, 224 'what have peoplesaid' activity, 313 w o rd s ,7 r8 as assessmentgrades,246 f.ormation,62,73 remembering,64-7,339 workcards and worksheets,155, 15 5, 157, 792-3, 193, 23 6, 348 world knowledgecontent, 198 writing,'1,03,159-7 4, 3'1.3, 345-6 composition process,167-9, 167,168,1,73 for content/form, 153 correcting assignments,3 04, 304,306 evaluating activities, 1.64-6, 154,165 feedback, 170-2, 0-2, 25 1-2, 253, 255-6, 346, 53 learner activ ation, as means/end,162-3, 163 for personalreflection,319 written text spoken text compared, t5g-5t,160, t72 stimulating, 1.64-6, L65 teaching materials, 327 teachingprocedures,'l'62-3, 163,173 younger learners,see ageof learners 'zero-content'topics, 1.97,198, 208 375 -4 4994- IS B N978-0-5?1 llllllllll IlllllllIlllll llll u780521u4499 6',> [...]... studS with suggestedreading lntroduction Rationale Defining concepts 'Training' and' education' The terms 'teachertraining' and 'teachereducation' are often usedapparently interchangeablyin the literature to refer to the samething: the professional preparation of teachers.Many prefer 'teachereducation', since'training' can imply unthinking habit formation and an over-emphasison skills and techniques,while... secondlanguagelearning in either 'immersion' or formal classroomsituations.Languagelearning has much in common with the learning of other skills, and it may be helpful at this point to think about what learning a skill entails Learning a skill The processof learning a skill by meansof a courseof instruction has been defined as a three-stageprocess:verbalization, automatization and autonomy At the first stagethe... professionalteaching,including all aspectsof teacher development ,and reserves'education' for the more varied and generallearning that leadsto the developmentof all aspectsof the individual as a memberof society Practice and theory Teacherscommonly complain about their training: 'My coursewas too theoretical,it didn't help me learn to teach at all'; or praisea trainer: 'Sheis so practical!' Or they say: 'It's fine in. .. foreign languageteaching:Part I, for example,is calledThe teacbingprocess )and its modulesdeal with the topics of presentation ,practice and testing.Eachpart has a short introduction definingits theme and clarifying the underlying concepts Each module is composedof severalseparateunits: theseagain are freestanding ,and may be usedindependentlyof one another.Their content includes: l.lnput: background information,... new material, and thus promotes further learning Question If you have learned a foreign langnrage in a course, can ]rou recall a particular teacher presentation or e:rplanation that facilitated your grasp of some aspect of this language? Hovv did it help? What happensin an effectivepresentation? Attention The learners are alert, focussing their attention on the teacher and/ or the material to be learnt,... learnt, and aware that something is coming that they need to take in You need to make sure that learnersare in fact attending; it helps if the target material is perceivedas interestingin itself Perception The learnersseeor hear the target material clearly.This meansnot only making sure that the material is clearly visible and/ or audible in the first place; it also usually meansrepeating it in order... they may be given after learners have akeady engagedwith the LL 1 Presentationsand explanations languagein question, as when we clarify the meaning of a word during a discussion,or read aloud a text learnershave previously read to themselves The ability to mediate new material or instruct effectivelyis an essential teaching skill; it enablesthe teacherto facilitate learners'entry into and understandingof... understoodin this book Learningmay takeplacewithout conscious teaching; but teaching, asI understand it, is intendedto resultin personallearningfor students ,and is worthlessif it doesnot do so .In otherwords,the conceptof teachingis understoodhereasa processthat is intrinsicallyandinseparably boundup with learning.Youwill find, therefore,no separate of languagelearningin discussion this book;instead,both... (A discussionof the importanceof consciousattentionto input in language learning) Reference 'Wragg, E C andWood,E K (1984)'Pupilappraisals of teaching' inVragg, E C (ed.),ClassrootnTeaching Skills,LondonandSydney:CroomHelm (ch.4) a 18 lvlodule 2 :Practice activitie s Practicecan be roughly definedas the rehearsalof certain behaviourswith the objective of consolidating learning and improving performance... discussand criticize ideasput forward by others,whether local They should also colleagues,trainers,lecturers,or universityresearchers promote individual researchand innovation, in both practical and theoretical topics, and encouragethe writing up and publication of original ideasfor sharingwith other professionals References Argyris, C and Schon,D A (1,974 )Theory in Practice: IncreasingProfessional Effectiueness,SanFrancisco:JosseyBass