Book sea level changes (oceanography)

SEA-LEVEL C H A N G E S FURTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES J.L MERO THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE SEA L.M FOMIN THE DYNAMIC METHOD IN OCEANOGRAPHY E.J.F WOOD MICROBIOLOGY OF OCEANS AND ESTUARIES G.NEUMANN OCEAN CURRENTS N.G JERLOV OPTICAL OCEANOGRAPHY V.VACQUIER GEOMAGNETISM IN MARINE GEOLOGY W.J WALLACE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHLORINITY/SALINITY CONCEPT IN OCEANOGRAPHY Elsevier Oceanography Series, SEA-LEVEL CHANGES by EUGENIE LISITZIN ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY Amsterdam - Oxford - New York 1974 ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY 335 Jan van Galenstraat P.O Box 21 1, Amsterdam, The Netherlands AMERICAN ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC 52 Vanderbilt Avenue New York, New York 10017 Library of Congress Card Number: 73-85225 ISBN 0-444-4 1157-7 With illustrations and 67 tables Copyright 1974 by Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Jan van Galenstraat 335, Amsterdam Printed in The Netherlands ACKNOWLEDGEMENT A work covering the different aspects of sea-level researches must necessarily be based on studies and results of many distinguished scientists who have worked or still work in this field Some of these have already departed this life, which made it impossible for me to ask their permission to reproduce some of their figures or tables On the other hand, it is a great pleasure for me to express my warm thanks to the following persons who kindly allowed me to use their results: Prof Dr A Defant, Innsbruck; Prof Dr E PalmCn, Helsinki; Prof Dr W Hansen, Hamburg and Mr G.W Lennon, Birkenhead Moreover, I should like to express my warmest gratitude for permission to reproduce the material from the publications of, at least, the following institutions and publishing companies: The Royal Society, London; Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna; Direction du Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris; Deutsches Hydrographische lnstitut, Hamburg; American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.; Svenska Geofysiska FGreningen, Stockholm; MusCe Ocianographique de Monaco, Monaco-Ville; Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London; Springer Verlag, Heidelberg; and Pergamon Press Ltd, Oxford Helsinki, April 1973 Eugenie Lisitzin This Page Intentionally Left Blank CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v CHAPTER I N T R O D U C T I O N CHAPTER PERIODICAL S E A - L E V E L C H A N G E S Astronomical tides Tidal theory semi-diurnal and diurnal tides Long-period tides 37 The Chandler effect changes in the rotation of the Earth 51 CHAPTER T H E METEOROLOGICAL A N D OCEANOGRAPHIC CONTRIBUTION T O S E A LEVELS 59 Atmospheric pressure and sea level The wind effect storm surges The contribution of water density The effect of currents Evaporation and precipitation 59 69 86 90 102 CHAPTER S E A S O N A L V A R I A T I O N S The seasonal cycle in sea level The Atlantic Ocean The Pacific Ocean The Indian Ocean The seasonalvariation of the slope of the water surface The seasonal water balance of the oceans 109 109 111 115 117 128 137 CHAPTER A WORLD-WIDE MEAN S E A L E V E L A N D ITS D E V I A T I O N S 143 The open deep regions of the oceans 144 The adjacent and Mediterranean seas and the transition areas between them and the oceans 150 The near-shore regions in the oceans and seas 162 165 165 CHAPTER LONG-TERM ( S E C U L A R ) C H A N G E S IN S E A L E V E L Vertical movements of the Earth’s crust VI CONTENTS The eustatic factor 177 185 CHAPTER SEICHES 197 Tsunamis 197 Effect of earthquakes on sea level 202 C H A P T E R T S U N A M I S - E A R T H Q U A K E S A N D M E A N S E A L E V E L C H A P T E R D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F T H E M E A N S E A L E V E L F R O M T H E RECORDS 205 C H A P T E R 10 P R A C T I C A L A S P E C T S O F S E A - L E V E L V A R I A T I O N S 209 Tide prediction and tidal tables 209 Technical aspects and coast protection sea-level statistics 214 Storm-surge forecasts 242 The tsunami warning system 244 Sea-level changes and water pollution 246 APPENDIX A FEW W O R D S A B O U T P H E N O M E N A C O N N E C T E D WITH SEALEVEL CHANGES DURING T H E PRE-CHRISTIAN E R A AND THEIR M O D E R N E X P L A ~ A T I O N 257 REFERENCES INDEX 261 275 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION Oceanography is considered a young science with roots going back only to the first half of the nineteenth century Sometimes as late a year as 1872, when the first scientific cruise of a modern nature, the famous “Challenger” Expedition, began its work in the oceans, is regarded as the opening year of oceanographic research However, in this connection it must always be kept in mind that there is an important and interesting field within the boundaries of modern oceanography which has a considerably more respectable pedigree This significant field consists of the studies on sea level and its variations Research on the tides, especially on their theoretical aspects must, of course, be mentioned first Nevertheless, there are other phenomena connected with sea-level changes which have been commonly known and studied for centuries It may suffice to refer to two examples: the disastrous floods described, if not always in a scientific way, by many ancient peoples; and the land uplift characteristic of large areas in the northern hemisphere The latter phenomenon has been known and studied, at least in the Fennoscandian countries, since the beginning of the eighteenth century It gave, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the first impulse to the erection of sea-level measuring poles and thus laid the first firm foundation for purely scientific studies of sea-level changes, such as they appear in nature Sea-level research may at a first cursory glance be considered a rather unitary and well-limited field of scientific studies The conclusion could easily be drawn that the contemporary tendency for specialization has created within the wide framework of oceanography a scientific branch which may allow the investigator to follow his own independent way Nothing could be more erroneous than such an interpretation It will be made clear, in the particular chapters of this book, that students of sea level and its variations are forced to consider in their work a considerable number of different elements, factors and phenomena which form a substantial part of many very different sciences It may be sufficient to mention in this connection a few of these elements and phenomena Hydrography of oceanography, in the more restricted sense of these terms, contribute such elements as temperature and salinity, and consequently also the density of sea water, currents and long waves; meteorology, atmospheric pressure, different wind effects, evaporation and precipitation; hydrology, water discharged from rivers; geology, land uplift and land subsidence; astronomy, gravitation and tide-generating forces; seismology, tsunami waves; and, finally, glaciology, the eustatic changes It may be of considerable interest to summarize as an introduction the different points of view presented by individual oceanographers on the classification of the causes for 272 REFERENCES Uusitalo, S., 1972.Numerical investigation of the influence of wind on water levels and currents in the Gulf of Bothnia A preliminary experiment Merentutkimuslaitoken Julkaisu-Havsforskningsinstitutets Skrift, 235: 25-68 Vadati, K., 1967 Tsunami Znt Dictionary Geophysics, 2: 1598- 1603 Van Dantzig, D and Lauwerier, H.A., 1960a General considerations concerning the hydrodynamical problem of the motion of North Sea, The North Sea Problem I.Proc K Ned Akad Wet., A , 63: 170-180 Van Dantzig, D and Lauwerier, H.A., 1960b.Free oscillation of a rotating rectangular sea, The North Sea Problem IV Proc K Ned Akad Wet.,A , 63: 339-354 Van Dorn, W.G., 1961 Some characteristics of the surface gravity waves in the sea produced by nuclear explosions J Geophys R e x , 66:3845-3862 Van Hylckama, T.E.A., 1956.The water balance of the earth In:IZIblications in Climatology Drexel Inst Techn Lab Climatol.,Centerton, N.J., 57-117 Veronis, G and Stommel, H., 1956 The action of variable wind stresses on a stratified ocean J Mar Res., 15: 43-75 Voipio, A., 1964.Salinity variations as the indicator of the rate of water transport along the east coast of the Bothnian Sea Geophysica, 9:49-63 Voit, S.S., 1956 What are the Tides? Izdatelstwo Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moscow, 102 pp (in Russian) Von Sterneck, R., 1914 6ber Seiches an der Kiiste der Adria Sitz Ber Akad Wiss Wien, 123: 2199-2232 Von Sterneck, R., 1920.Die Gezeiten der Ozeane Sitz Ber Akad Wiss Wien, 129: 131-150 Von Sterneck, R., 1927.Selbststindige Gezeiten und Mitschwingungen im Roten Meer Ann Hydrogr Marit Meteorol., 55: 129-144 Waldichuk, K.M., 1964 Daily and seasonal sea level oscillations on the Pacific coast of Canada In: Studies on Oceanography, dedicated to Roc Hidaka, pp 181-201 Weenink, M.P.H., 1958 A theory and method of calculation of wind effects on sea levels in a partly-enclosed sea, with special application to the southern coast of the North Sea Medel Verh K Ned Meteorol Znst., 73: 1 pp Weenink, M.P.H and Groen, P., 1958.A semi-theoretical, semi-empirical approach to the problem of finding Wind effects on water levels in a shallow, partly-enclosed sea I and 11 Proc K Ned Akad Wet., B , 61: 198-213 Weknder, P., 1957 Wind action on a shallow sea: Some generalization of Ekman’s theory TelZus, 9: 45-52 Welander, P., 1961 Numerical prediction of storm surgesh: H.E Landsberg and J van Mieghem (Editors), Advance in Geophysics Academic Press, New York, N.Y., and London, pp 315-37.9 Wemelsfelder, P.J., 1953 The disaster in The Netherlands caused by the storm flood of February 1953.Roc Con5 Coast Eng., 4th, Berkeley, cblifi, pp 258-271 Wexler, H., 1961:IEe budget for Antarctica and changes of sea level J Glaciol., 3: 867-872 Witting, R., 1911.Tidvattnet i Ostersjon och Finska viken Fennia, 29: 84 pp Witting, R., 1918 Hafsytan, geoidytan och landhojningen utmed Baltiska hafvet och vid Nordsjon Fennia, 39: 347 pp Witting, R., 1922 Le soul6vement rkcent de la Fennoscandie Quelques mots B propos de I’article de M Rune dans ces annales Geogr Ann., 4:458-487 Witting, R., 1943.Landhojningen utmed Baltiska havet under k e n 1898-1927 Fennia, 68: 40 pp Wunsch, C., Hansen, D.V and Zetler, B.D., 1969 Fluctuations of the Florida Current inferred from sea level records DeepSea Res., 16 (Suppl.): 447-470 Wiist, G., 1920.Die Verdunstung auf dem Meere Veroft Znst Meeresk., Berlin, 6: 1-95 Wiist, G.,1954 GezetzmPsige Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Ozean und Atmosphere, in der zonalen Verteilung von Oberflachensalzgehalt, Verdunstung und Niederschlag Arch Meteorol Geophys Bioklim (Defant Festschr.) A , 7: 305-328 Wyrtki, K., 1954 Der grosse Salzeinbruch in die Ostsee in November und December 1951 Kieler Meeresforsch., 10: 19-25 Yamaguti, S., 1962 On the changes in the heights of mean sea level at San Francisco J Oceanogr SOC.Japan, 20: 159-167 REFERENCES 273 Yamaguti, S., 1965 On the changes in the heights of mean sea levels before and after the great Niigata earthquake on June 16, 1964 J Geod SOC.Japan, 10: 187-191;Bull Earthq Res Inst., 45: 167-172 Zetler, B.D., 1971 Radiational ocean tides along the coasts of the United States J Phys Oceanogr., 1: 34-38 Zetler, B.D and Cummings, R.A., 1967 A harmonic method for prediction shallow-water tides J Mar Res., 25: 103-114 Zetler, B.D and Maul, G.A., 1971 Precision requirements for a spacecraft tide program J Ceophys Res 76: 6601-6605 Zubov, N.N., 1959 The influence of bark relief on sea level and currents In: International Oceanographic Congress, 1959 Am Assoc Adv Sci heprints: 192-196 This Page Intentionally Left Blank AUTHOR INDEX Ahlnas, K., 254, 261 Aliverti, G., 102, 261 Angeby, O., 80,261 Avers, H.G., 160, 161, 261 Barnes, F.A., 270 Baussan, J., 52, 53,54, 261 Benton, G.S.,104, 105, 261 Bergsten, F., 165, 261 Bernoulli, D., Bjerknes, V., 86, 91 Blomqvist, E., 165, 261 Boerman, W.E., 270 Borre, K., 171, 261 Bowdeli, K.F., 73, 156, 261 Braaten, N.F., 160, 162, 262 Bradbury, D.L., 269 Brogmus, W., 104,107,108,252,262 Budyko, M.I., 104,141, 262 Caloi, P., 187, 262 Carruthers, J.N., 80, 262 Cartwright, D.E., 23, 25, 262 Celsius, A., 165, 262 Chandler, S., 51 Chrystal, G., 186, 262 Cochrane, J.D., 148, 262 Colding, A., 71, 109, 262 Corkan, R.H., 242,262 Crease, J., 74, 262 Crisi, A.R., 271 Cumrhings, R.A., 35,273 , Doodson, A.T., 6, 11, 28, 37, 73, 76, 158, 211, 215, 263,270 Duvanin, A.I., 22,23, 172, 214,215, 216, 217,263 Edwards, K.C., 270 Egedal, J., 171,172,263 Ekman, V.W., 71,263 Ertel, H., 186, 263 Estoque, M.A., 104,105,261 Euler, L., Ewing, M., 269 Exner, F., 98, 263 Eyri&s,M., 25, 263 Fairbridge, R.W., 182, 263 Fedorov, K.N., 44,263 Ferrel, W., 210 Filloux, J.H., 25, 263 Fischer, E.G., 210 Fischer, G., 74 263 Fleigel, M., 269 Fleming, R.H., 271 Forel, F.A., 185, 186, 263 Frasetto, R., 177, 263 Fuglister, F.C., 45, 263 Galerkin, L.I., 2, 68, 127, 128, 263 Gerges, G.W., 155, 268 Gill, A.E., 125,126, 263 Godin, G., 3, 263 Grace, S.F., 30, 263 Granqvist, G., 129,263 Groen, P., 73, 74,80, 264,272 Damstd, B.R., 74, 265 Grove, A.T., 270 Darwin, G.H., 6,40,51, 262 Groves, G.W., 74,264 Deacon, G.E.R., 146,262 Griinewald, G., 80,264 Defant, A., 3,6, 16, 29, 37, 95, 144, 145, 146, 151, Guilcher, A., 80,264 186,188,189,262 Gumbe.1, I.E.J., 220 De Maio, A., 261 Gutenberg, B., 165, 179, 181, 182,264 Dietrich, G., 2, 3, 22,94, 129, 144, 146, 172, 179, 262,263 Hankimo, J., 104, 264 Dines, J.S., 215, 263 Hansen, B., 172, 271 Disney, L.P., 174, 176, 217,218, 263 Hansen, D.V., 272 276 Hansen, W.,25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 34, 74, 75, 264 Harris, R.A., 6, 195,210, 264 Hatori, T., 199, 264 Haubrich, R., 52, 54, 264 Hazen, A., 220 Heaps, N.S., 69, 70, 264 Heck, N.H., 198, 264 Hela, I., 2, 97, 160, 165, 166, 169, 213, 248, 264, 271 Hellstrom, B., 71, 264 Heyer, E., 80, 264 Hicks, S.D., 174, 175,176, 203,210,264 Hidaka, K., 186, 187,188, 189, 264 Iida, K., 198, 199, 265 Irish, J., 25, 265 Iselin, C.O’D., 45, 160, 265 Jacobs, W.C., 103, 104, 265 Jacobsen, J.P., 129, 265 Jakubovsky, O., 171,173,265 Jamiesson, T., 165 Jeffreys, H., 37, 265 Jessen, A,, 52, 54, 172, 265 Johnson, M.V., 271 Kaairiliinen, E., 168,265 Karklin, V.P., 42, 54, 265, 268 Keuning, H.J., 80,265 King, A.M., 270 King, C.A.N., 179, 265 Krauss, W., 194, 195, 265 Krenke, A.N., 271 Kuenen, Ph.H., 179,182, 265 Lacombe, H 146,154,265 LaFond, E.C., 109, 265 Laplace, P.S., , Laska, M., 74, 194,265 Lauretta, O., 261 Laurila, E., 71,94,269 Lauwerier, H.A., 74,265, 272 Lawfort, A.L., 80, 262 Lennon,G.W., 215,218,219,220,221,222,265, 270 Levallois, J.J., 154, 265 Libby, F.W., 252, 266 Lisitzin, E., , , , , , , , , , 6 , , 81, 85, 88, 89, 94,96,97,98, 100, 101, 111, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122,123, 125, 126, 127, 129,132, 134, 137, 138,140, 146,147, 148, 149, 150, 153, 156, 157, 159, 161,165, 166, 168,169, 170, 173, 180, 182, 189, 192, 193, AUTHOR INDEX 194,212,213,224,226,227, 228, 229, 235, 239,246,247,252,254,257,266,267 Lundbak, A., 80,267 MacGregor, D.R., 270 MacLaurin, C., MacMillan, D.H., 3,267 Magaard, L., 194, 195,265 Maillard, J., 154, 265 Malkus, JS,, 141,267 Marmer, H.A., Masuzawa, J., 45, 267 Matthaus, W., 3,267 Matuzawa, T., 199, 200, 267 Maul, G.A., 37, 273 Maximov, I.V., 38, 40, 41,42,46,47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 5 , 56, 57, 267, 268 Mazzarelli, 259 McCombs, C.E., 160, 162, 262 Merian, J.R., 185 Merz, A., 154, 268 Miller, A.R., 69, 268 Miyazaki, M., 75,268 Model, F., 165, 166, 168, 169, 268 Moller, L., 154, 268 Montag, H., 173, 268 Montgomery, R.B., 147, 148, 160, 268 Morcos, S.A., 31, 155, 268 Moretti, M., 261 Munk, W.H., 6, 25,52,54, 56, 71, 138, 262,264, 265,268, 269 Nafe, J.E., 269 Nefediev, V.P., 263 Neumann,G., 71, 155, 186, 188, 189, 194, 195, 268 Newton, I., , 7, 268 Nicolini, T., 52, 268 Niiler, P.P., 125, 126, 263 Nomitsu, T., 2, 71, 73, 109, 119, 268, 269 Nowroozi, A.A., 25, 269 Okamoto, M., 2, 109,119, 269 Ougton, M., 270 PalmBn, E., 4, 71,94, 105, 106, 107, 108, 126, 131,269 Pattullo, J., 59, 60,68, 87, 88, 89, 93, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126,267,269 Peixoto, J.P., 105, 271 Petersen, K., 269 Petterssen, S., 104, 269 Picotti, M., 261 AUTHOR INDEX 277 Pierce, C., 175,269 Sturges, W., 160, 162, 271 Poincard, H., Suess, E., 258 Pobedonoszev, S.V., 172,174,269 Svansson, A., 74,253, 271 Pollak, M.J., 148, 269 Sverdrup, H.U., 71, 93, 94, 162, 271 Polli, S.,42, 110, 177, 187, 269 Proudman, J., 6, 28, 30, 39,49, 73, 74, 76, 77, 186, Thomsen, H., 172,253,271 215,242,269,270 Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), 3, , , 21 Pupkov, V.N., 140,270 Thorade, H., Thorarinsson, S., 179, 182, 271 Rauschelbach, H., 3,211 Trotti, L., 261 Reid, J.L., 146,147, 148, 161, 270 Tsumura, K., 176, 271 Renqvist, H., 3,4, 165, 261 Revelle, R.A., 56,268, 269 Uda, M., 244, 271 Robinson, A.H.W., 80,270 Uusitalo, S., 74, 27 Roden, G., 175,270 Romanovsky, V., 100,101,270 Vadati, K., 271 Rosanov, L.L., 174, 269 Van Dantzig, D., 74, 272 Rosova, L.V., 253,271 Van Dorn, W.G., 202,272 Rossiter, J.R., 6,24, 28,40,41, 70, 76, 77, 78, 80, Van Hylckama, T.E.A., 140,142,272 152, 158, 165,166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, Veronis, G., 125, 272 174,205,206,207,210,211,215,270 Voipio, A., 254, 272 Rouch, J., 67, 155, 158, 270 Voit, S.S., 14, 272 Rybak, B.H., 74,270 Vorobjev, V.N., 268 Von Sterneck, R., 6, 25, 26, 29, 30, 187,272 Sager, G., 3, 270 Sarukhanyan, E L , 268 Waldichuk, K.M., 127, 272 Schuremann, P., 46, 270 Wallingford, J., 210 Schweydar, W., 51,52,270 Weenink, M.P.H., 73, 74, 272 Shagin, V.A., 263 Welander, P., 75, 272 Shimizu, T., 52,54,271 Wemelsfelder, P.J., 80, 272 Shofnos, W., 174,264 Wexler, H., 182, 272 Shumsky, P.A., 140, 27 Witting, R., 3,4, 128, 129, 130, 137, 165, 166, Sieger, R., 165, 271 168,169,188,253,272 Simojoki, H., 104, 107, 108, 271 Woolley, L., 258 Smirnov, N.P., 42, 56, 268 Wunsch, C., 160,272 Snodgrass, F., 25, 265, 271 Wust, G., 102, 103, 272 Soderman, D., 106,107, 108,269 Wyrtki, K., 248, 272 Soloviev, S.L., 244, 271 Soskin, I.M., 253,271 Yamaguti, S., 176,202,203,272,273 Starr, V.P., 105, 271 Steers, J.A., 80, 271 Zetler, B.D., 6.23, 24, 25, 35, 37, 262,268,272, Stenij, S.E., 4, 213, 271 273 Zotikov, LA., 271 Stommel, H., 125, 146, 150,271,272 Zubenok, L.I., 141 Stoneley, R., 271 Zubov, N.N., 95, 273 Stovas, V.M., 57, 271 Strong, E., 269 This Page Intentionally Left Blank SUBJECT INDEX Aaland Islands, 132 Abashiri, 176 Aberdeen, 242,243 Aburatubo, 176,203 Adriatic Sea, 28, 176, 187 - seiches, 187 Aegean Sea, 28,154,155, 258 Africa, 100, 113, 119, 146 Alaska, 35,124,175, 203, 218 Aleutians, 62,66,122 America, 113, 115, 124, 162, 179, 197 American coasts, mean sea level, 158-163, Fig 34 - -, slope of water surface, 160, 162 - -, vertical movements of earth’s crust, 174-176 “American Mediterranean”, 158, 159, 160 Amphidromes (amphidromic areas), 21, 25, 28, 29, 62,64,65,.Table XI1 Amsterdam, 163 Anchorage, 35, 21 -, shallow water tides, 35 Antarctic region, 49,62,66, 67,138, 146, 150, 179 Antilles (Greater and Lesser), 159, 160 Arabian Sea, 65,66 Arctic Ocean, 14,44,48,49,66,68, 127, 138, 141, 252 Argentina, 110, 113 Arkona, 173 Atlantic City, 206 Atlantic Ocean, 25,40,42, 47,52, 53, 54,62, 65, 66,67, 68, 70,95, 103, 110, 111, 113,115, 117, 118, 125, 141, 143,144, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151,152, 154, 160, 161, 162, 174, 206, 243,259 Atlantic Ocean, co-range lines, 25, Fig - -, co-tidal lines, 25, Fig , - -, harmonic constants, Table I11 - -, mean sea level, 144, 146, Table XXXII, Fig 29 - -,seasonal variation, 59-69, 110, 111-113, 115, 125, Table XXI Atmospheric pressure, 59-69 - -, elimination of total seasonal variation over oceans, 59,60, Table XI - -, regional distribution, 60-62, Fig 15 - -, response of sea level, 59,67-68 - -, seasonal cycle, 62-67, Fig 16 - -,water flow caused by, 117-118 Atomic wastes, 255 Auckiand, 121 Australia, 22,65, 117,122,125 Austria, Avonmouth, 220,221 Azores, 62,64 Bab-el-Mandeb, 29,151, 155,156 Bahamas, 160 Baja California, 125 Balboa, 22, 175 Baltic Sea, 2,4, 16, 28, 29,40,54, 71,74,81, 88, 90,97,98, 104, 106, 107,108,128, 129, 137, 156,157, 158,165,171,172,180,181,188, 189,190,192,194,195,196,212,224,235, 246,247,248,252,253,254,255 - -, effect of ice cover on sea level, 80-86, Tables XIV, XV, Fig 17 - -, evaporation, 106-108, Table XX - -,land uplift, 165-174, Tables XXXV, XXXVI, Fig 35 - -, mean sea level, 156-158, Fig 33 - -, pollution/water renewal, 246-255 - -, precipitation, 106-108, Table XIX - -, sea level statistics, 222-239, Tables XLVII-LXII, Fig 43-45 - -, seiches, 188-196, Tables XL, XLI, Fig 38, 39 - -, slope of the water surface, 128-137, Tables XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, XXX, Fig 28 - -,tides, 16,28, 29, 212-214, Fig 41 - -,water balance, 97,252-255 Baltijsk, 173 Baltimore, 175 Bangkok, 22 Barents Sea, 174 Bartlett Cove, 175 Bay of Bengal, 70,88,119 Bay of Campeche, 158 280 Bay of Fundy, 14,115 - -,tides, 14, Fig Bay of Kronstadt, 158,212 Bay of Muggia, 187 BayofTiksy 48 Belfast, 221 Belgium, 78,242 Belts, 29 Bermuda, 87, 88,160 Bibliography on mean sea level, 110, 261 - on meteorologically generated sea level changes, 261 - on tides, 6, 261 Bight of Kiel, 189, 194 Bikini (Marshall Islands), 202 Birkenhead, 211 Bizerta, 100 Black Sea, 154,155,158,174 - -, mean sea level, 154-155, 158, Fig 31 Bogskiir, 107 Bombay, 181 Borneo, 65 Bornholm deep, 248 Bosphorus, 154,155 - slope of the water surface, 154, 155 Boston, 175 Bothnian Bay, 81,84,86,254 Bothnian Sea, 254 Boundary value method, 31,34 Brest, 110,154,174,180,181,206,239,240,241 -, occurrence of maximum sea level, 110-1 11 -, sea level statistics, 239-241, Tables LXIII, LXIV Bristol Channel, tides, 14,221, 246 British Columbia, 22,125 British Isles, 70,174,259,260 Buenos Aires, 53 Lhbedello, 113 Cadiz, 154 Cagliari, 89 California, 62,64,162 Canada, 122,127 Cape Canin Nos, 174 Cape Hatteras, 62,64 Cape Town, 113 Capo Salvadore, 187 Cardiff, 16,221 Caribbean Sea, 158,160,161 Cascais, 113 Caspian Sea, 141 Cat Cay, 160 Caucasia, 155 Chandler effect, 51-56, Table X,Fig 13 - -, regional distribution, Fig 14 SUBJECT INDEX Charleston, 175 Chile, 197,198,244 China Sea, 125 Circum-Pacific region, 198 Coast protection, 214-242 Columbia River, 162 Contribution of tidal constituents to mean sea level, 205,206 Copenhagen, 106,171,172 Coriolis force (Coriolis parameter), see Deflecting force of earth’s rotation Corsica 100 Cdte d’Azur, 100 Crimean Peninsufa, 155, 158 Cristobal, 175 Currents, 90-102 -, tidal currents, 36, 37 -,velocity, 92,93,95,99-101 Danish Strait (6resund), 28, 29,96,156, 254 Dardanelles, 154, 155 -, slope of the water surface, 154, 155 Daugavgriva, 173 Decibar (dbar), 86, 93 Deflecting force of earth’s rotation, 5, 16, 25,92, 94,95,96,97, 126 Deforming force of astronomic bodies, 49-51 Degerby, 132,133, 193, 184,224, 235, 237,246, 247,248,249,252 Denmark, 2, 80, 97, 137, 156, 158, 171, 174, 248, 253 Distribution of air masses, 59, 60 Drag coefficient, 71 Dublin, 221 Durban, 243 Dynamic decimetre and metre, 91, 93 - depth, 91 - topography, 93,95, 144, 147, Fig 29 Earth tides, 30 Earthquakes, see Tsunamis -, effect on tides, 203 -, influence on zero level, 202-203 Eastport, 115 England,, 242 English Channel, 74, 77, 259,260 Errors in operating sea level gauges, 166, 205 Esbjerg, 2,53, 80,172,207 Essex, 77 Estonia, 188 Eufrates, 258 Europe, 41, 113, 152, 158, 174, 179, 187, 259 Eustatic factor, 177-183 281 SUBJECT INDEX - -, cryological computations of, 177, 179 - -, sea-level computations of, 179-183, Tables XXXVII-XXXIX Evaporation, 102-1 08 -in the Baltic, 106-108, Table XX ' - in the oceans, 103-104, Tables XVII,XVIII Falconera, 187 Fanning, 124 Fehmarnbelt, 188, 189 Fennoscandia, 165 Fernandina, 162, 175 Finland,4,97, 165,168, 171,173,188, 189, 193, 195,222,224,233,235,246, 248,249r Fleetwood, 221 Flemish Bight, 78 Florida, 160,162, 210,218 Formosa, 88 Fort Adelaide, 117 France, 110, 154,174,180 Frazer River, 22, 127 Freetown, 113 Frictional effect on tides, 6, 37 Frisches Haff, 188 Furuogrund, 171 Gulf of Genoa, 100 Gulf of St Malo, 14, 15, 16 - -, tides, 14-16, Photos, 1,2 Gulf of Mexico, 22, 70, 75, 119, 158, 160, 174, 218, 243 Gulf of Suez, 29,155,156 Gulf of Trieste, 187 - - seiches, 187 Gulf Stream, 44, 119, 159,160 Haffs, seiches, 188 Halifax, 115 Hamburg, 211 Hamina, 137,158,189,193,194,195,224,235, 237,246,247,248 Hanko (Hango), 90,170,173,193,195,214 Haparanda, 130 Harlingen, 80 Harmonic analysis of tides, 9, 10, 13 Harmonic constants for Atlantic Ocean, Table 111 - - for Indian Ocean, Table I11 - - for Pacific Ocean, Table I11 Harwich, 242 Hawaiian Islands, 25,115,124,197,244 He1 (Peninsula), 189 Helsinki, 16,170, 193, 212,214,224,226,229, 233,237,249 Galveston, 175, 218 Heysham, 221 Gedser, 98 137, 171 Historical survey of changes in sea level, 257-260 Genoa, 16 Hokkaido, 88 Germany, 6, 80, 165, 187, 189, 211 Holland, 78 Gibraltar, 100 Glacier Bay, 175 Hondo, 22,202 Gothenburg, 158 Honotulu, 115, 244, 245 Gotland deep, 248 Hook of Holland, 242 Grado, 187 Hornbaek, 98 Gravitational force, 7,90,91, 92, Fig Humber, 80 Great Britain, 6, 70, 77, 78, 165,210,218, 219, 220, Hydrodynamic equations, 24,28, 34-35, 72-76 242 Great Yarmouth, 80 Iberia, 62 Greece, 258 Ice, friction at ice cover, 37 Greenland, 66 - cover and wind stress, 80-86, Tables XIV, XV Greifswqd, 106 IJmuiden, 80 Guadalcanal, 120 Immingham, 80,242 Gulf of Aden, 29,151,155 India, 260 Gulf of Alaska, 123 Indian Ocean, 29,42,47,52,54,62,65,66,67, Gulf of Asaba, 29 111,117,146,147,148,150,151,155 Gulf of Bengal, 65,66 - harmonic constants, Table I11 Gulf of Bothnia, 71, 81, 128,129, 130, 131, 132, - -, seasonal variation, 117, Table XXIII 133, 134, 137, 156,157, 158, 168, 171, 181, Indonesia, 72,119,127 195,224,237,247,253,254 Indus (River), 260 Gulf of Finland, 128, 137, 156, 157, 158, 188, Interaction between tides and storm surges, 74,76, 189, 190, 192, 194, 195, 212, 213, 214,224, 77, 215-222, Tables XLIII-XLV, Fig 42 237,247,254 IoNan Sea,258,259 - 282 SUBJECT INDEX Ireland Island, 113 Irish Sea, 221 Isle of Elbe, 100 Isostaticsealevel, 119, 121,122, 123, 124, 126 lsthmus of Panama, 161 Italy, 88,101, 102, 174,258 Iteration method 25 Japan, 2,4,70,75,88,109, 197,198,244 Java, 197 Johnston Island, 124 Jokioinen, 106 Juneau, 175 Jungfrusund, 181 121,122,174,176, Kahningrad, 106 Kamchatka, 244 Karlskrona, 16, 171 Kaskinen, 133,137,170 Kattegat, 28, 29 Kemi, 84, 86, 132, 133, 137,158, 168, 224,235, 237,246,241,248,249 Ketchikan, 175 Key West, 160,175,218 Kiel, 189 Koivisto, 195, 213,214 Kola Peninsula, 174 Kolobrzeg, 189,194 Krakatoa, 197 Kungsholmsfort, 171, 173, 174, 193 Kurisches Haff, 188 Kuroshio, 44 Kvark, 130 Kwajalein, 122, 124 Kwanto earthquake, 203 Labrador current, 119 Lagos, 174 La Jolla, 109 Lake of Geneva, 28,185 Landsort, 173,194 Land subsidence and land uplift, see Vertical movements of earth’s crust Latvia, 173,188 Law of graviation, 5, Leith, 78 Leningrad, 158, 172, 212 Libau, 16 Ligurian Sea,98, 100,102 - -,currents, 98-102, Fig 19, 20 Liinahamari, 111 Lincolnshire, 77, 80 Line Islands, 124 Lisbon, 197, 201 Lithuania, 173 Liverpool, 218-222 -, sea level statistics, 21 8-222, Tables XLIV, XLV, XLVI Llanelly, 221 London, 80, 210,211 Long term sea-level changes, see Vertical movements of-earth’s crust Lowestoft, 80,242, 243 Lfibeck, 194,195 Lyokki, 181 Macao, 117 Maine, 160,162,163 Maisaka, 176 Malaga, 154 Manado, 117 Wntyluoto, 224,235,247,249 Mariehamn, 130 Marienleuchte, 173 Marjaniemi, 130 Market, 89 Marseilles, 154,174, 181, 259 Marshall Islands, 202 Massachusetts, 218 Matarami, 120 Mean sea level, 143-163,205 - - - around coasts of North America, 158-163, Fig 34 - - - in the Baltic, 156-158, Fig 33 - - - in the Black Sea, 154-155, 158, Fig 31 - - - in the Mediterranean, 150-154, Table XXXIV, Fig 31 _ _ _ in the oceans, 144-150, Table XXXII, Fig 29,30 - _ _ in the Red Sea, 155-156, Fig 32 Mean tide level, 210 Mediterranean Sea, 14,16, 28,29,68,88,150-155, 177,187,252,259 _ _ ,mean sea level, 154-154, Table XXXIV, Fig 31 - _ ,tides, 16, 29 Mesopotamia, 258 Messina, 203 Mexico, 123, 124, 125 Miami, 160 Moen, 124 Monaco, 68,88,111 Moscow, 21 Multivariate analysis, 207 ~ SUBJECT INDEX Nankaido, 203 Neah Bay, 162 Newlyn, 80, 21 Newport, 221 New York (city), 175 - - (state), 218 New Zealand, 62,65,66 Nezugaseki, 202, 203 Niigata earthquake, 202, 203 Nodal lines and points, 25, 185, 186, 187, 189 194 Norfolk, 162 Normandy, 260 North Sea, 31, 34, 70, 74, 75, 77, 78, 129, 157, 187,242,243,253,254 - -,storm surges, 70, 74, 75.77-80, Table XI11 - -, storm surge forecast, 242,243 - -, tides and tidal currents, 31-34, Fig 10A-1OD Norway, 66,78, 80, 174 Numerical methods, storm surges, 72-77 - -,tides, 24, 25 Odessa, 158 Cange Bay, 115 Oresund, see Danish Strait Osaka, 176 Oulu, 171 Oyashio, 88,119 Pacific Ocean, 14, 16, 22,40,42,47,52,53, 54, 62, 64,65,66,67,68,70,96, 103, 111, 115, 117,119,121,122,124,125,127,128,141, 146,147,148,150,161,162,175,176,197, 201,210,218,244 - -, harmonic constants, 111 - _ ,seasonal variation, 111, 115, 117,118, 119-125, Table XXII, Fig 22-25 Palermo, 16 Palmyra, 124 Panama, 175 Panama Canal, 22,161,162 Perim, 29 Periodical sea-level changes, 4-57 Periodogram, 40,48 Persian Gulf, 258 Pietarsaari, 133, 137, 168, 254 Plymouth, 21 Poland, 173, 189, 194 Pole tide, see Chandler effect Portland, 160, 162, 163, 175 Porto Maurizio, 68 Port Said, 16, 155 283 Portsmouth, 21 Port Stewens, 162 Port Taufiq, 155 Portugal, 174 Potential specific volume, 148, Table XXXIII Potential surfaces, 91 Precipitation, 102-108 - in the Baltic, 106-108, Table XIX - in the oceans, 103-104, Table XVIII Pre-Christian floods, 25 -25 Preston, 221 Providence 21 Raahe, 168,235,237,247,249,254 Radiational tides, 23, 24 Ratan, 16 Red Sea, 29,30,31,151,154,155,156,158,259 - -, mean sea level, 155-156, Fig 32 - -, co-range lines, 29, Fig - -, co-tidal lines, 29, Fig - -, tides, 29-30 Reference level, 129, 144,146, 147 Regression analysis of sea-level data, 206-207 Renewal of sea water, 246,248,252,254 Rhode Island, 21 Riga, 106,172,173 River discharge, 102,103, 127 Rotation of earth, changes in speed, 56,57 San Diego, 25,162,175 San Francisco, 53, 115, 162, 175, 176 Santos, 113 Sardinia, 100 Scilla, 259 Scotland, 78 Sea-level statistics, 214-242 - - - for Brest, 239-242, Tables LXIII, LXIV - - - for the Baltic, 222-239, Tables XLVIILXII, Fig 43-45 - - - for Liverpool, 21 8-222, Tables XLIVXLVI Sea of Azov, 174 Sea of Japan, 2,29,68,87,109,127 - _ ,seasonal variation, 109, 127 Sea of Marmara, 154, 155 Seasonal variation in sea level, l o w - - - -,Atlantic Ocean, 110,111-115,117,118, 125, Table XXI - - - -, Indian Ocean, 117, Table XXIII - - - -, Pacific Ocean, 111, 115,117,118, 119-125, Table XXII, Fig 22-25 - - - -, Sea of Japan, 109,127 _ _ - -, Strait of Georgia, 127 284 Seattle, 175 Secular variation, see Vertical movements of earth’s must Sevastopol, 158 Seymour Narrows, 37 - -, tidal currents, 37 Seiches, 185- 196 - in the Adriitic Sea, 187 - in the Baltic and its gulfs, 188-196, Tables XL, XLI, Fig 38, 39 - in the Gulf of Trieste, 187 - in the haffs, 188 -, theoretical formulae, 185-1 86 -, transversal oscillation, 195, Table XLI Seismic sea wave detector, 245 Sheerness, 21 Siberia, 59, 65,66,140, 142 Sicily, 101, 258 Silloth, 221 Sitka, 175 Skagerak, 28,29 Skagway, 218 Slope ofwater surface, 71, 72, 128-137 _ _ _ along American coasts, 160, 162 _ _ _ , contribution of atmospheric pressure, 130, 131, Table XXV, Fig 27 - _ _ ,contribution of water density, 129, 130, Table XXIV, Fig 27 _ _ - , contribution of wind, 131-132, Fig 27 _ _ _ in the Baltic and its gulfs, 128-1 37, Tables XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, XXX, Fig 28 _ _ _ in the Bosphorus and.Dardanelles, 154,155 _ _ _ in the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 155, 156 - - - in the Strait of Gibraltar, 151, 152 - - -, seasonal variation, 128-137, 155 - - -, selection of reference level, 129 Smogen, 158 Snow cover, seasonal variation, 140, 141 Sopot, 194 Sosnovets (island), 215, 216 Southend, 78,80, 215, 243 Soviet Union, 198, 244 Spacecraft tide program, 37 Specific volume of sea water, 87,93,148, Table XXXIII St Albans, 210 St George, 115 St John, 115 St Malo, 14,15, Photos , Steric sea level, 87, 88, 119 Stockholm, 106, 194 Storm surge forecast, 242-243 - - _ , empirical methods, 242,243 SUBJECT INDEX - - -, theoretical methods, 243 Storm surges, see Wind effect Stornoway, 242 Strait of Babel-Mandeb, slope of water surface, 155, 156 Strait of Dover, 78 Strait of Georgia, 127 Strait of Gibraltar, 29, 151, 154 - -, slope of water surface, 151-152 Strait of Messina, 37, 258, 259 - -, tidal currents, 37, 258, 259 Strait of Sicily, 100 Strande, 189, 194 Suez, 155 Suez Canal, 154,155 Sumatra, 197 Sunda Strait, 197 Swansea, 221 Sweden, 165,171,173,188,190,193 Swinemtinde, see also Swinoujscie, 173, 180, 181 Swinoujscie, 173, 189, 193 Talara, 120 Tallinn, 21 2, 214 Technical aspects of sea-level research, 214-242 Teriberka, 111 Texas, 21 Thames, 77,78, 80, 215 The Netherlands, 77, 80, 174, 242 Thera, 258 Tidal currents, 36, 37 - -, definition, 36 - -, ellipses, 36, Fig 10D - -, energy, 37 - -, friction, 37 - -, harmonic analysis, 36 - -, interaction with ice cover, 37 _ - ,relationship with tides, 36 - -, velocity, 36, 37 Tidal potential, 11,47 Tidal theories, dynamic theory, , - -,equilibrium theory, , , , 10,12, 38, 39,41, 42,45,46,48,49, 51, 54 _ - ,harmonic theory, 6, 10 Tide-generating force, 6, 8, 9, 28, 36, Fig 1, Tide prediction, 6, 209-214 Tides, 5-51 -, annual, 11,41, Table I1 -, character, 21, 22, Fig Tides, circumpolar, 39 -, co-oscillation, 28, 29, 30 -, co-range lines, 25,28,29, 31, Fig , , 10A, 10B -, “corrected equilibrium tide”, 10 SUBJECT INDEX -, co-tidal lines, 25,28,29, 31,Fig 6,7, 8, 11,14 -, deep-sea tides, 25,255 -, diurnal tides, 10,12,21,22,24,Table 11,111, Fig -, diurnal inequality, 21,209 -, fortnightly, see also Tides, semi monthly, 11 -, harmonic analysis, 9,10,13 -, harmonic constants, Table I11 -, high water interval, 209 -, independent tides, 29,30 -, lagging tide, 13,209 -, long-period tides, 10,37-51, 119,Table I1 -, low water interval, 209 -,lunar tides, 11, 12 -, mean high water interval, 209 -, mean high water neaps, 209 -, mean high water springs, 209 -, mean low water interval, 209 -, mean low water neaps, 209 -, mean low water springs, 209 -, mixed tides, 21,27,Fig -, monthly, 11, 38,45,46,47,Tables 11, I11 -, neap tide, 5,13,209 -, nine (ter-monthly) and seven day-tides, 39,48 -, nodal tide, 13,38,40,49,Table V -, pole tide, see Chandler effect -, phase inequality, 209 -, prediction, 209-214 -, priming tide, 13,209 -, rotational waves, 25 -, semi-annual, 11,38,41-45, Tables 11, V1, Fig 1 -, semi-diurnal, 10,11, 13, 16,21,22,24,Tables 11, 111, Fig 5,6,7,lOA-1OD -, semi-monthly, 38,39,45,46,47,Tables 11, VIII, IX, Fig 12 -, shallow water tides, 6,34, 35,76,Table IV -, solar tides, 10, 11,12,41 -, spring tide, 5, 13,209 Tokyo, 245 Transition area around Denmark, slope of the water wakr surface, 156 - _ - , vertical movements of earth’s crust, 171 172,Table XXXVI Travemiinde, 173 Trieste, 16,154,174, 187 Tsunamis, 197-202,244-245 -, damages, 198,199,Table XLII -, energy, 200 -,height, 197 -, magnitude, 198, 199,Table XLII -, occurrence, 197, 198 -, refraction diagram, 202 -, velocity, 200 -,warning system, 244-245 Tuba, 176 Turku, 171,224 Tyne, 242,243 Tyrrhenian Sea, 98-101,258,259 - -, currents, 98-101, Fig 19,20 United States of America, 4,6,23,70, 122, 158-163,165,174,175,198,210,217,218, 243, 244 Ustka, 173 Uto, 97,98,254 Vaasa, 84,86,171,233 Valparaiso, 115, 120 Vancouver, 120 Vancouver Islands, 37, 127 Venice, 176,177 -, land subsidence, 176, 177,Photo Vertical movements of earth’s crust, 165-177 - - - _ ,around American coasts, 174-176 - - _ _ , around Japan, 176 - - - -, around European coasts, 174 - - _ -, elimination of disturbing effects, 166-168 - - _ _ in the Baltic Sea area, 165,168-174, Table XXXV, Fig 35 - - - - in the transition area around Denmark, 171 -1 72,Table XXXVI - - - - in Venice, 176-177, Photo Vibreton, 255 Vietnam, 22 Virginia, 162 Wake Island, 62,64,65,123,124 Warnemlinde, 98, 173 Washington (state), 162 Water balance, general, - - in the atmosphere, 104-106, Fig 21 - - in the Baltic and its gulfs, 97,252-253 - - in the oceans, 137-142, Table XXXI Water density, 86-90 - - dependence on temperature, salinity and pressure, 86-87 Water, seasonal variation, 87-90, Table XVI - pollution, 97,246-256 - - in the Baltic, 97,246-255 White Sea, 75, 174 Willets Point, 218 Wind effect, 69-86 - -,hurricane surges, 70 - negative piling-up or set-up, 69 - 286 - -, positive piling-up or set-up, 69 - -, storm surges, 69-86 - -, typhoon surges, 70 - -, “Windstau”, 69 - -,wind stress, , , 72, 125,126 Wismar, 173 SUBJECT INDEX Wladislawowo, 189, 192, 193 Woods Hole, 218 Yakutat, 175 Ystad, , 190, 193 Yucatan basin, 158 [...]... difference in sea level between high and low water at St Malo The photographs were taken on September 6 , 1963, by the Service Hydrographique de la Marine The former of these photographs refers to the time 08h43 and a sea- level height of 12.50 m , the latter to the time 15h46 and the sea level of 0.85 m The sea- level Photograph 2 Low water at St Malo at 153146, September 6 , 1963 The sea- level height... field which some readers may consider to be closely connected with sea- level research, but which has been almost completely left out of consideration in the book: that whlch refers to the instrumentation necessary for sea- level recordings Of course, it cannot be denied that, in the earlier days of the rapidly developing researches into sea levels, devices for measuring the variations concerned were frequently... INTRODUCTION sea- level fluctuations The principal purpose of this short survey is to emphasize the possibility of different approaches to the problem of the origin of sea- level variations (Lisitzin, 1972b) One of the earliest summaries of the particular factors influencing sea- level dates from 1927 was presented by Nomitsu and Okamoto in a paper dealing with the causes of the seasonal fluctuations in sea level. .. the research work done by other scientists who are specialists in the field of sea- level studies, and would like to express in this connection her warmest thanks to these distinguished oceanographers Finally, it must be pointed out that the Baltic Sea is a highly interesting research region as regards sea- level variations For instance, since the tidal phenomenon is rather insignificant in this sea area,... interest to point out that astronomical contribution to sea- level variation was not taken into consideration in the above classification Seventeen years after the first classification was presented, a paper on the changes in sea level in the Baltic Sea was published by Hela (1944) Hela also gave two principal groups characterizing the causes of sea- level variations and denoted them as the internal and... variations was made by Galerkin (1960) The author proposed, in his research on the seasonal cycle in sea level in the Sea of Japan, three principal sections of contributing factors The first of these sections deals with the variations of the physical properties of sea water, which according to Galerkin are practically identical with the changes in water density The second section covers the fluctuations... the sealevel may be studied without the disturbances due to astronomically caused variations In addition, the Baltic Sea may, at least in some respects, be considered as a natural laboratory or a model basin of large proportions All these facts have been recognized by Finnish scientists and also by the Finnish government for a long span of years There has been a special department for sea- level research... Committee on Mean Sea Level, which during a long span of years has performed much valuable work During the 1920’s and 1930’s the names of the Finnish oceanographers concerned with different aspects of sea- level research, eg., Henrik Renqvist, E Palmin and S.E Stenij, belonged to the most outstanding of the day even in international circles Unfortunately, times and aspirations are subject to changes Today... position of sea- level studies in Finland is not as favourable as it was during the years before the spring of 1972 The author of this book has had her most active period before this critical time and has therefore no excuse It is up to the reader to express his or her opinion of the efforts made and the results achieved as described in the following pages CHAPTER 2 PERIODICAL SEA- LEVEL CHANGES ASTRONOMICAL... recording devices, has transferred the task of construction of sea- level recorders from scientifically trained oceanographers to technical specialists The particular details connected with the design and construction of these devices are therefore hardly of any great interest to sea- level students In addition, the proliferation of sea- level recorders developed during the last few years is so pronounced