Toxic Truth Toxic Truth A Scientist, a Doctor, and the Battle over Lead Lydia Denworth Beacon Press Boston Beacon Press 25 Beacon Street Boston, Massachusetts 02108-2892 www.beacon.org Beacon Press books are published under the auspices of the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations © 2008 by Lydia Denworth All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 11 10 09 08 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the uncoated paper ANSI/NISO specifications for permanence as revised in 1992 Text design by Yvonne Tsang at Wilsted & Taylor Publishing Services Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Denworth, Lydia Toxic truth : a scientist, a doctor, and the battle over lead / Lydia Denworth p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-8070-0032-8 (hardcover : alk paper) Patterson, Clair C Needleman, Herbert L Lead—Toxicology— United States—History Lead poisoning in children—United States— History Lead based paint—Toxicology—United States—History Lead abatement—Law and legislation—United States—History I Title RA1231.L4D46 2008 615.9'25688—dc22 2008021017 Excerpt from “Unfinished Business” from COLLECTED POEMS by Primo Levi, translated by Ruth Feldman and Brian Swann English translation copyright © 1988 by Ruth Feldman and Brian Swann Reprinted by permission of Faber and Faber, Inc., an affiliate of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC For my father, Ray Denworth, who left the world better than he found it, and for my mother, Joanne Denworth, who still works every day to improve our environment They set inspiring examples Contents Introduction ix Prelude xix Every Conceivable Source Chapter One Chapter T wo Chapter Three Chapter Four Chapter Five Chapter Six The Faces of the Children 23 That Nut at Caltech 47 Proof of Principle 77 A Majority of One 107 Reluctant to Relent 133 Chapter Seven What Have We Done? 161 Chapter Eight A Professional Death Sentence 179 Acknowledgments 207 Timeline 210 Sources 215 Index 229 Introduction This is a book about a process of scientific discovery and about the dramatic clashes that resulted when industry disagreed with science about the significance of those discoveries Lead was at the heart of those clashes, and it is at the heart of this book But this is also a book about people, and it began with them, specifically with Herbert Needleman An unsung hero—that’s how Dr Needleman was first described to me I was given only the bare bones of the story: He was the one who showed that lead, even at low levels, was bad for children; the lead industry attacked him; he fought the industry for years For a journalist like me, the idea that someone has a worthy tale that hasn’t been properly told is compelling enough But I was also a new mother, and like most new mothers, slightly obsessed and puritanical I had recently moved into a Victorian brownstone in Brooklyn that was one of the roughly twenty-four million homes in the United States that still contained lead paint The dangers of lead were real to me every time my baby reached for the windowsill So I was also outraged It seemed a simple enough equation to me If something is bad for kids, we shouldn’t use it Somewhat naively, I wanted to know: What took so long? Why did Needleman have to fight so hard? ix Index internal memo of, 67; Kettering Laboratory and, 59; lead in food and, 170, 171; medical director of, 58; press conference for, 53; propaganda of, 116; TEL production and, 92; worker lead levels and, 135, 203 ethyl leaded gasoline, 52–55 Etna, Mount, 169 Ewing, Ben, 128, 131 Expert Committee See under Environmental Protection Agency FDA, xiii; food contamination and contamination measurement by, 129–30, 170–72; Patterson and, 170 federal Public Health Service See Public Health Service Felder, Celeste, xix–xx, 25 Felder, William, xx Felten, Eric, 183 Feminine Mystique, The (Friedan), 39 Fermi, Enrico, Feynman, Richard, 17 Finch, Robert, 116 finger prick test See under blood test for lead Fisherow, Benjamin, 182 fish lead concentration study, 122–23 Fitzgerald, Bill, 119, 123–124, 169, 176 Flegal, Russ: as geochemist, 161; on global lead issue, 167; ocean studies and, 168; as Patterson protégé, 172– 73, 174; in Patterson’s laboratory, 161–62; as researcher, 115, 123 Florence, Texas meteorite, 11 Food and Drug Administration See FDA food cans, lead in, 92, 171, 199 Forest City, Iowa meteorite, 11 Fort Meade, Maryland, 23, 34 4-F military status, Fowler, Don, 56 Franklin, Benjamin, 29 Friedan, Betty, 39 funding See research grants Fuson, Herbert, 52 235 Gale, Nord, 128 gasoline additive See tetraethyl lead; antiknock additives; lead additives for gasoline gasoline exhaust See leaded gasoline gasoline refiners, 153, 154 General Motors (GM), 37, 49–50, 52 Geneson, David, 192 geochemical evolution of the earth, 15 geochronology, 15, 47 See also age of the earth German research, lead’s essentiality, 145, 148 Gibson, John Lockhart, 29–30, 31, 83, 205 Gilfillan, Colum, 163 Glidden paint, xvi global warming, xviii, 69, 173 Goldberg, Ed, 69, 120 Goldsmith, John, 117 Governo, David, 205 granite samples See Essonville granite; Precambrian granite; zircons Grant, Lester, 103, 146, 150, 156 grant proposals, 17 grants See research grants Greeks’ uses of lead, xi, 29, 163 Greene, Tom, 202 Greenhouse, Joel, 185 Greenland: Boutron in, 173; Camp Century in, 70–71; environment of, 69; Patterson research in, x, 68, 70– 71, 106, 125, 163; samples collected from, 73; virgin research site in, 72 Grinnell College: honorary award from, 175; meteorites sample at, 11; Patterson family members at, 7–8, 119 Groth, Ned, 127, 129, 131 Gunnoe, Charles (“Tink”), 105, 140 Haagen-Smit, Arie: Kehoe and, 74; Patterson’s work and, 66, 73, 117; Tyler Prize for, 176 Hallion, Patricia, 99 Hammond, Paul, 103, 117, 151 236 Harben Lectures, 60, 66, 83 Hardy, Harriet: autobiography of, 74; as editor, 64; EPA report and, 117; lead pollution symposium and, 73–74; at MIT, 63; Patterson and, 68, 118 Harper’s, 165, 166 Harris, Allison, 173–74 Harvard Medical School, 61, 63, 96, 138, 182 Harvard School of Public Health, 105, 137 Hawaii, 169 Hays, Samuel P., xiii, xiv, 134, Heinz, John, 197 Heinz, Teresa, 197 Heinz Award for the Environment, 197 Henderson, Yandell, 52, 54 HEW See Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Hill and Knowlton public relations firm, 152 Hilts, Philip, 195–96 Hinkley, Todd: biological systems and, 62; calcium and barium study and, 62; at Hawaiian volcano, 169; lab of, 171; on Patterson, 114, 176; Thompson canyon study and, 109, 111 Hirao, Yoshi, 109 Hochwalt, Carroll, 53 Hofstra University, 140, 141, 144 Holmes, Arthur, 6, 10, 11 home renovation, 157, 186 See also lead in dust Houk, Vernon, 160 household dust See lead in dust House of Butterflies, 37–38 House of Representatives, 126–27 house painters See painters housing: affordability and, 27–28; dentine lead levels and, 87; hopes for repair of, 45; old, urban type of, 33, 44, 84, 87, 132, 205; percent containing lead and, 200; slums and tenements as, 83, 84 See also home renovation; landlord Howard, Frank, 54 Index HUD (Department of Housing and Urban Development): in blame game, 129; lead paint abatement efforts of, 127; lead task force of, 200 human lead levels: in ancient people, 64, 108, 119, 132; increase in, 75; lead metabolism and, 174; natural levels and, 64, 111; “typical” levels and, 64, 65 human life, value of, 106 Humphreys, Lloyd, 152 Hunton and Williams law firm, 192 hyperactivity, 90–91, 93, 157, 205 See also attention deficits Iceland, 81 Imanishi-Kari, Thereza, 184 industrial lead pollution: background levels and, 118; in “biopurification” theory, 110; deposits of, 108; real health threat of, 74; in seaspray, 169–70; symposium on, 73; in urban areas, 132 See also air pollution; pollution Industrial Revolution, 72, 163 industry-funded research See research grants ingestion of lead, xx, 42, 59, 84, 158 See also childhood lead poisoning Inghram, Mark, 20, 21 inhalation of lead See lead in dust inner-city children See under childhood lead poisoning institutionalized injustice, 84 International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE), 119, 124 international environmental award, 176 International Lead Zinc Research Organization, 60, 135, 143, 152 Ionescu-Tulcea, Alexandra, 164 IQ level: blood lead level and, 157, 202–3; daily functioning and, 156– 57; decrements, lead poisoning and, 156; four point loss and, 154, 156; full scale IQ and, 195; IQ test for, 80, 98, 193; lead exposure and, 89, 195, Index 202–3; lead poisoning and, 44; lost geniuses and, 111; paper publications and, 186, 189; parental IQ and, 141, 142; point loss, wage rate and, 154; remedial education and, 158 iron pathways in body, 26, 195 isotopic compositions of lead, 10–11 isotopic measurements See lead level measurements Jackson, Maurci, 200 Jacobs, Emmett, 128 James, William, 205 Johns Hopkins, 86, 90 Joint Global Change Research Institute, 167 Jones Day law firm, 177, 180–81, 189 Jonte, J Haworth, 57 Journal of the American Medical Association, 144 Journal of Learning Disabilities, 145 juvenile delinquency, 197–98 Kamb, Barclay, 112, 175 Kehoe, Robert A.: and arrival at Ethyl, 58; “balance studies” of, 59; conflict of interest and, 188; on the defense, 74; disadvantaged children and, 155; editorial response of, 67; Harben Lectures of, 60, 83; as Kettering Laboratory director, 59, 128,139; lead research monopoly of, 60; as nation’s lead expert, 59; power and prestige of, 64; “threshold of damage concept” of, 65; Washington testimony of, 74, 75; work impugnment of, 66 Kellogg, Idaho, 89–90 Kelly, Neil, 204 Kenderton School See under Philadelphia Kennedy, Edward, 85 Kettering, Charles: “deadly threat” memo and, 58; on Time magazine cover, 50; encouraging development of antiknock additive, 50 Kettering Laboratory: on the defense, 237 74; director of, 59; of Kehoe, Robert A., 59, 128, 139; researchers in, 128; Superfund trial and, 180; work’s significance and, 66 Kieffer, Hugh, 72 King, Coretta Scott, 40 Kings County Hospital, Brooklyn, 25 Koop, C Everett, 24, 197, 199 Kresge, William, 52 Krigman, Marty, 103 Krimsky, Sheldon, 139 Kupper, Lawrence, 148 laboratory work with lead: cleaning processes and, 14; clean labs for, 18–20, 171; running of “blanks” and, 13–14; See also clean lab techniques landlord: information and guidance for, 200; lawsuits and, 188, 204; lead industry and, xvi; old paint problem and, 160, 200–201; Ruffin family and, 158; Scurry family and, 83; testifying for, 189 See also housing landmark lead study See Low Level Lead Study Landrigan, Philip: as book author, 197; at CDC, 88–89; in committee meeting, 128; El Paso work of, 88–89, 93; in Idaho study, 89–90; IQ scores and, 156; on lead exposure, 159; in lead smelter investigation, 88–89; low level lead exposure and, 103; Silbergeld and, 91; “tactitian” role of, 146 Lanphear, Bruce, 201, 202, 203 Larsen, Esper, 12, 14 lawsuits: landlords’ protection from, 201; against lead paint manufacturers, xvi, 88, 204; lead paint removal and, 157–58; science and, 160; Superfund trial and, 179–81; threats of, 43 lead: ancient uses of, 2, 29, 163; as “commonest industrial poison,” 55; as environmental hazard, 179; geological characteristics of, 1–2; 238 as health hazard, 94, 187; isotopic compositions of, 6, 10–11; isotopic signature of, 169; natural sources of, 65, 108; omnipresence of, 13, 15, 174; political discussion of, 91; practical uses and, 2, 19, 144; prospective studies on, 202; total elimination of, 162; as trace element, See also tetraethyl lead lead-204, 10 lead-206 and -207, 10, 12, 172 lead-208, 10 lead absorption in body: bodily systems, effects on, 26 lead additives for gasoline, xiii, 37, 173 See also antiknock additives lead alkyls, 126 lead-based paint See lead paint Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act, 85 lead body burden: “measles” picture and, 132, 174; medical attention and, 81; natural level of, 65, 66 lead concentration research, 22 lead contamination: of albacore tuna, 122–23; of canned food, 123, 130, 170–72; deepwater sampler and, 120; of groundwater, 180; of oceans, 122; from ship, 119; of soil, xi, 89, 173–74, 180, 181; on “world scale,” 56, 118, 126 lead dust See lead in dust leaded gasoline: ban on, 155–56, 173; bodily effects and, 199; costbenefit analysis and, 153–55, 167, 184; decreasing need for, 155; environmental accumulation and, 56; Ethyl brand, 52–55; first gallon sold and, 52; hazards of, 129; health aspects of, 63; lessons learned and, 167; ocean lead concentrations and, 49; phase-down of, 93, 95, 155, 176; regulations, blood lead levels and, 146; study on, 55; temperature and, 153; in use, years and, 72 lead effects, international pooled study of, 202–3 Index lead encephalopathy, 26, 28, 59 lead exposure: Alzheimer’s and, 198, 205; cognitive impairments and, 89, 157; government understanding of, 116; incremental increases in, 126; juvenile delinquency and, 197–98; as lifelong, 44; no safe level and, 203; violent crime and, 198 See also dentine lead levels; low-level lead exposure lead-free environment See clean lab conditions lead-free windows, 200 lead in dust: engine exhaust and, 52; in household dust, 3, 25–26, 30, 92, 159–60; as most common lead exposure pathway, 160; near lead company, 87–88; renovation work and, 157–60, 186, 200; See also Midvale lead tailings case Lead Industries Association (LIA): founding of, 83; industry responsibility and, 60; representatives of, 42–43, 56, 74, 103, 104, 135; research arm of, 143 lead industry: activism and, 86, 134–35; air pollution and, 65; attacking of science/scientists and, 135; attempts to slow action and, 189; blame game and, 129; and blame of victim, 83; campaign of, 56; conflict of interest and, 188; controlling of science and, 55, 135; cost-benefit analysis and, 154; in Dark Ages, 163; dissolution suggestion and, 132; enemy number one of, 115; favorite line of, 131; lack of response from, 35; largest U.S producers in, 89; leaded gasoline and, 94; lead’s defense by, 102; liability and, 158; Needleman and, ix–x, xiv, 42–43, 82, 106, 134, 152, 187, 189, 192–93; paint industry and, 82–83; Patterson and, x, 56, 65, 73, 75, 115–118, 132, 170; “public nuisance” claims and, xvi; research support of, 189; spokesman Index for, 59, 187 See also industrial lead pollution lead in food, 123, 170–71, 172, 199 lead in soil See under lead contamination lead intake, safe level of, 171 lead isotopes: geologic questions and, 47, 61; glacial ice age and, 69; “measles” picture and, 132; measurement of, 11; oil prospecting and, 57; as radiogenic, 10 lead-lead age of Earth, 11 lead level measurements: accuracy of, 125–26; as isotopic, 110, 168, 172, 173; in parts per billion, 118, 171; in parts per million, 13, 65, 75, 80, 105, 122–23, 126, 149 See also mass spectrometers lead manufacturing: “Dutch” process in, 82 lead mining: ban suggestion and, 135; human environments and, 132, 134; in Idaho, 89; Romans and, 163 lead paint: ban on, 83, 162; celebrated qualities of, 82; childhood lead poisoning and, 92, 200–201; “Children’s Paint Booklet,” and 82; dangerous conditions with, 30, 129; home application of, 82; limit on lead in, 83; manufacturers of, xvi, 158; old, tackling issue of, 159–60, 199–200; percent lead by weight and, 159; pigment in, xvi, 83, 158, 204; removal of, 157–58, 200 See also paint chips lead poisoning: academic ability and, 157, 159; acute damage focus and, 43–44; calcium and, 62; clinical symptoms of, 26, 28, 29, 31–32, 59, 83, 158, 203; cognitive impairments and, 80; common malady comparison to, 33; cumulative nature of, 54; defense firm and, 205; developmental problems and, 42; early study on, 199; early warning signs and, 65; easily recognizable symptoms and, 111, 126; economic consequences 239 of, 106; epidemic of, 29; European studies on, 156; first NYC clinic for, 115; from food cans, 171; government pamphlets on, 85; humanity and, 163, 165; hyperactivity and, 90–91; known symptoms of, 90; levels of, 43; long-term effects of, 43; mandatory reporting of, 156; as “manmade disease,” 144; mental effects of, 44, 134; as mimicking other conditions, 86; mistaken for meningitis and, 31; natural rejection and, 62; permanent effects of, 159; real causes of, 28; of researchers, 53; school failure and, 42; screening for, 102; seasonal variation in, 31; stories of victims of, xix–xx, 28, 29, 31, 83–84, 157–58, 186, 200–201; subclinical damage by, 88; threshold levels for, 84–85, 170, 180, 187, 203, 205; “undue lead absorption” cases of, 85; “unequivocal” cases of, 85 See also childhood lead poisoning; lead toxicity; neurotoxic effects of lead lead poisoning in adults, 28; as compared to children, 93; industrial hazards and, 63; poorer performance and, 203; possible symptoms of, 44 See also human lead levels lead poisoning in children See childhood lead poisoning; lead poisoning lead poisoning treatment See chelation lead pollution See industrial lead pollution lead regulations, 153 lead removal, plants for, 174 lead screening See blood test for lead lead smelters areas studies, 88–89 lead solder, 123, 171, 172, 176 lead tailings, 179–81 lead tests See blood test for lead lead toxicity: in current environment, 127; at low doses, 91, 193 See also lead poisoning lead tracers, 64 240 lead workers: occupational hazards of, 29 learning disabilities, 42 legal action See lawsuits Levi, Primo, 177 Leviton, Alan: at Harvard Medical School, 96, 97; low lead levels and, 143; Low Level Lead Study and, 98, 99, 101, 105, 106, 194; Needleman and, 140, 142, 190–91 Libby, Willard, 3–4, Lin-Fu, Jane: Bridbord and, 93; on lead poisoning diagnosis, 86; as Needleman ally, 147; as pamphlet author, 85; review article of, 85–86 Lippman, Morton, 151, 191 litigation See lawsuits long-term low-level lead exposure, xii “looney gas building,” 37–38 Lord, Elizabeth, 42, 43 Los Angeles, California: gasoline exhaust from, 110, 168, 173; lead in soil of, 173; Needleman in, 133 Los Angeles Times, 90 low-level exposure to lead: biochemical processes and, 195; as compared to high levels, 43; as criminal, 144; critical lead role claim and, 145; critic of studies on, 202; early study on, 137; effects of, xvii 105, 142–43, 201; food cans and, 171; IQ decrements and, 203; neurobehavioral effects of, 86, 141, 193; over long term, xii; questioning of dangers of, 187 See also lead exposure Low Level Lead Study: in 1979 paper, 105, 159, 189; communities represented in, 98; as cross-sectional-study, 97–98; far-reaching implications of, 106; funding for, 98; Hollerith card data of, 105; IQ tests and, 98, 100; laboratory analysis of, 99–100, 103, 105–106; number of children in, 100; publicity campaign for, 99; results by school Districts and, 87; results publication and, Index 88; teacher reports and, 100–101, 105; teeth collected and, 99; tooth fairy issues and, 99 See also Boston Study, the low-level lead toxicity: EPA conference on, 91 Lyondell, xvi, 204 Mahaffey, Kathryn: on EPA panel, 151; as FDA toxicologist, 29–30, 171–72, 145; lead debate and, 146, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and, 145; on Needleman’s work, 151; Toronto lead symposium and, 141 Maher, Cornelius (“Neil”), 99, 100, 102, 105 Manhattan Project, x, 4, 8–9 March of Dimes, 143 Markowitz, Gerald, xvi, 44 Marshall Islands, 168 Mason, James, 160, 200 Massachusetts General Hospital, 66 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 60–63 mass spectrometers: development of, 4, 6; in lead measurement, 10, 11, 174; uses for, Mattel, xv, xvi McCleary, Lorna See Patterson, Laurie (Lorna) McKinney, Charles, 16 McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, 71 McSweeney, William, 52 “measles” picture, 132, 174 Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 50 meningitis, 31 mental illness, 44 mercury, xi, xviii, 61, 62, 109, 124, 168 meteorites in research: age of the earth and, 20–22; by discovery location, 11, 20; lead measurements in, 15, 62; naming of, 11; paper presented on, 22; reason for use of, 6; zircons and, 13 Index Mexico, 59, 163 microgram measurements: milligrams and, Midgley, Thomas: antiknock additive invention of, 50–52; cautioning of, 54; lead poisoning of, 53; medical experts and, 58 Midvale lead tailings case: 1979 study and, 181; government counsel in, 182; industry lawyers and, 193; legal battle and, 179–81 Midvale slag site, 180 MIT, 138 Mitchellville, Iowa, Moduc, Kansas meteorite, 11 Morrisania Hospital, 83 Muhlenberg College, 33 Mullenix, Phyllis, 140 Murray, Bruce, 117 Mushak, Paul: EPA and, xiv, 103, 148; on Claire Ernhart, 144; on lead level effect, 149; on lead poisoning studies, 137, 145, 156, 186 Muskie, Edmund: Patterson letters to, 68, 126; Peace Prize campaign and, 176; on pollution subcommittee, 68, 74, 75, 92 NAACP, 84 NASA, 114 National Academy of Sciences (NAS): “Alternative Perspective” chapter and, 131–32, 162, 174; award to Patterson and, 175, 176; book on, 117; committee and report for, 127–32; honor of membership in, 113; lead report of, 162; lead research program and, 116; National Research Council of, 127; Patterson election to, 174–75 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) See Centers for Disease Control National Institute of Occupational Health and Safety, 91 National Institutes of Health (NIH): Needleman’s grants from, 98, 140, 241 198; as new institute, 139; Office of Scientific Integrity and, 183, 184, 189, 196 National Lead Company: as largest lead paint producer, 82; legal action against, xvi, 88, 204; marketing campaign of, 82–83; school in shadow of, 87 See also NL Industries National Science Foundation: accurate measurements and, 126; funding by, 70, 139 natural lead levels: background levels and, 130; beliefs about, 168; erroneous assumptions and, 128, 134; extreme increases from, 94; lack of safe level and, 203; as much lower than existing levels, 130; persistent question and, 108; typical levels and, 64, 65, 75, 131, 132 natural lead sources, 65 See also volcanic lead emissions Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), 94–95, 103, 104 Nature, 80 Needleman, Herbert “Herb”: advocacy group and, 200; at Amsterdam symposium, 80–81, 86, 94; antiwar sentiments of, 41; Army service of, 23, 34; awards of, 104, 198–99; black activists and, 96; as book author, 197; at Boston Children’s Hospital, 95–101; Boston Study (prospective study) and, 137, 157, 186, 202; at Caltech, 133–34, 135–36; childhood of, 33; children of, 34, 36, 39, 81–82, 140, 147; at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, 23–24, 31–32, 34–36, 84; CHOP arrival at, 23–24; as CHOP chief resident, 31, 35; on clean lab tour, 133; community work of, 43; confounding variables complaint and, 142, 148, 184, 193; COR work and, 40–42; criteria document and, 152; and data to act on, 129; early papers of, 144–45; education of, 33–34; as educator, 35; as environmentalist, 134–36; EPA 242 endorsement of study by, 151, 152, 191; and EPA Expert Committee visit, 148_49; on EPA’s non-significant findings comment, 150; Ernhart opposition to, 143–44, 146, 147, 202, 204; expanded dentine lead study of, 86–88; expanded tooth study of, 86–88; as expert witness, 158, 179, 180–81; far-reaching study implications and, 106; first lead study and, 84; and fraud accusation, 183, 186; at Harvard, 96, 137, 138, 140, 141, 156, 190; as hero, ix, 204; heroes of, 199; on hypotheses, 149; ideals/vision of, 36, 45, 160; initial critical reception and, 198; Jones Day deposition of, 189; larger issues focus of, 35, 137; lead industry and, ix–x, xiv, 35–36, 42–43, 82, 106, 134, 152, 187, 189, 192–93,; lead poisoning eradication and, 159, 160; lead study planning and, 78; at litigation conference, 203–4; on lost IQ points, 156–57; love of work and, 199; Low Level Lead Study and, 97–101, 103, 105, 157, 159; Low Level Lead Study follow-up study, 157; marriages of, 34, 39; Midvale tailings case and, 179– 81; misrepresentations and, 196, 197; Muhlenberg College scholarship of, 33–34; neuropsychiatric findings of, 166; NIH grants and, 98, 140; and 1979 paper/study, 105, 134, 141, 142, 143, 159, 181, 184, 189, 194; as Nobel Prize nominee, 199; paper critique and, 142; Patterson and, 129, 133–36, 191; as pediatrician, x; persistence and dedication of, 147; personality of, 79, 81–82, 147, 195, 196; Philadelphia Tooth Fairy Project of, 79–80; physical appearance of, 147; Pittsburgh office of, 198–99; politics and, 40, 136, 190; Powerpoint presentations by, 205; private practice of, 39; prospective study plan of, 136; as psychiatrist, x, 39, 42, 78; refining of Index disease by, 44; research parameters and, 148–49; researcher for, 78–79; research results publication and, 105; residences of, 96, 140; scientific heirs of, 201; scientific support and, 156; Silbergeld and, 91; as still angry, 205; substantial legal bills of, 197; summer job/TEL incident and, 36–37, 38; Superfund trial and, 179–81; at Temple University, 38–45, 77–78, 95; tenure of, 190; three circles illustration of, 205; teeth expert and, 79; tooth study idea of, 44–45; as vendetta subject, 191; work habits of, 35 See also research misconduct hearing Needleman, Joshua, 39, 81–82, 140 Needleman, Roberta, 39, 96, 140, 197, 199 Needleman, Sam, 34, 36, 140, 147 Needleman, Sara, 39, 98, 140 Needleman, Shirley See Weinstein, Shirley Needleman’s study See Low Level Lead Study, Boston Study, the neuropsychiatric problems of children, 86, 91 neurotoxic effects of lead: early study on, 29; permanency and, 128; and ruling out other causes, 86; tooth lead levels and, 81 New England Journal of Medicine: corrected study results in, 196; Lin-Fu’s article in, 85; Low Level Lead Study in, 105, 136; Low Level Lead Study follow-up in, 159; Needleman’s article in, 157; rigor of, 149; school district results in, 88 Newfield, Jack, 84, 85 New Mexico, Sacramento Mountains of, 18 Newsweek: critics of, 187; lead cover story in, 186; science writer of, 191 New York City: case finding in, 84 New York Herald, 56 New York Times: age of earth article Index in, 22; Cole, Jerome, letter to, 135; ethylene poisoning story in, 37, 38; lead poisoning warning article of, 67–68; Needleman study criticism of, 135; research misconduct hearing coverage by, 195–96; Reyes’ research and, 198; science writer for, 117; war opposition ad in, 41 New York Times Magazine, 198 New Zealand, x, 71, 167–70 Nicander, 29 1978 criteria document See criteria document 1979 study See Low Level Lead Study Nixon administration, 95 NL Industries, xvi, 82, 204 See also National Lead Company Nobel Prize: for biologist, 184; for carbon-14 dating, 4; in chemistry, 3; Needleman and, 199; Patterson and, 113, 176 North Atlantic, 122 Northern Hemisphere, 72–73, 163 North Pacific, 122 Nriagu, Jerome, 124, 127, 131, 141 NYU Medical Center, 151, 191 Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 8–10 oceans: consistent profiles of, 122; contamination of, 122; early lead measurements in, 122; lead from gasoline exhaust in, 92; lead levels in, 69, 122, 173; lead tracers in, 64; oceanographer group and, 168; Patterson’s research on, 47–49, 56, 58; recovery of, 173; rivers emptying into, 49; sampling of water from, 48, 121; southern California bight and, 110–23; “Station 42” measurement of, 121; UN-sponsored trace metal study of, 119–22; water layer pattern of, 121 See also seawater; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Oelgert, Ernest, 37, 38, 52, 53 Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 154–55 243 Office of Research Integrity, 184, 196 Office of Scientific Integrity See under National Institutes of Health oil industry See petroleum industry omnipresence of lead, 92 Ontario, Essonville granite from, 1–3 Oppenheimer, Robert, 17 paint chips, 6, 26, 84, 87, 158, 159, 186 paint eating See ingestion of lead painters: and illegal lead paint use, xv; “painter’s colic” and, 28; “painter’s wrist” and, 90; as “white leaders,” 82 See also lead paint paint industry See lead industry Pasadena, California: La Cañada suburb of, 17; Patterson in, 15–20, 63; San Gabriel Mountains near, 15, 17 See also Caltech Pasquariello, Patrick, 35 Patterson, Cameron (‘Cam’), 17; birth of, 12; in Greenland, 70–71 Patterson, Carol, 17 Patterson, Chuck, 12, 17 Patterson, Clair C (‘Pat’): accurate measurements and, 125–26; age of the earth and, 21, 61; allies of, 68; “Alternative Perspective” chapter of, 131–32, 162, 174; Antarctica and, 68–73, 163, 176; anthropology and, 118–19; antiestablishment view of, 113; API research funding loss of, 56–57, 60; at Argonne National Laboratory, 20–22, 113; asteroid named after, 176; atomic bomb development and, 57; awards/honorary degrees of, 175–76; “biopurification” theory of, 62–63, 108, 110–11; book of tribute about, 176; in California Air Resources Board hearings, 117–18; at Caltech, 57, 112–15, 133–34, 135–36, 161–67; childhood of, 7; children of, 12, 17; classical scientists and, 164, 165, 177; clean lab conditions of, 14, 15, 18–20, 55–56, 72, 120, 123–24, 133; as controversial, 94, 111, 132; 244 criteria document and, 152; death of, 177; depression/despair of, 162–63, 165, 167, 176; devotion to science/scientists by, 114–15, 125; dissertation of, 14, 16; dog (“Dibby”) of, 9; earth’s age determination by, 20–21; education of, 1, 4, 8, 17–18; FDA and, 130–31, 131–32, 170; “flash of insight” of, 61–62; Flegal and, 172–73, 174; as geochemist, x; in Greenland, 70–71, 163; Grinnell College and, 7–8, 119, 175; hypochondria of, 21, 161–62; industry opposition by, xiv, 56–57; initial critical reception and, 198; interlaboratory calibration and, 119; Kehoe rebuttal and, 68; leaded gasoline and, 55–56; lead industry and, x, 56, 65, 73, 75, 115–118, 132, 170; lead omnipresence and, 92; lead report chapter and, 162; as “majority of one,” 131; marriage of, 8; mass spectrometer work of, 9; “measles” picture and, 132, 174; military enlistment efforts of, 8; at MIT, 60–63; National Academy of Sciences, election to, 174–75, 176; National Academy of Sciences report and, 127–32; Needleman and, 129, 133–36, 191, 205; in New Zealand, 167–70; as “nut at Caltech,” 57, 113, 136; at Oak Ridge, 8–9; oceanographic world and, 121–22; ocean research by, 47–49, 56, 58, 62, 64, 119–22, 172, 173; Peace Prize campaign for, 176; personality of, 12, 16, 17, 114; physical appearance of, 4–5; politics and, 63; principles of, 7; professor of geochemistry appointment of, 175; protégés of, 141, 146, 172; “rabblerousing” accusation and, 66; reading while bicycling habit of, 11–12; research grants and, 56–57, 60, 67; research hazards and, 169; residences of, 9, 60–61, 177; retirement of, 175; rock sample requirements of, 2; Saul Bellow and, 165–66; scien- Index tific truth and, 6–7; seasickness of, 48, 121, 168; in Southern California Bight, 119–23; special genius of, 124; standing up, making point and, 125; symposium in honor of, 175; on tenure, 112–13; tenure of, 175, 176; Tyler Prize award for, 176; ultimate goal of, 162; at University of Chicago, 3–6, 10–15; utilitarian thinking theory of, 163–64; victories of, 170; Washington testimony of, 74–76, 126–27; “wild rhetorical questions” of, 64; work habits of, 12, 13–14, 18; Yosemite park study of, 107–12 See Haagen-Smit,Ari Patterson, Laurie (Lorna): on atomic bomb, 10; children of, 12, 17, 60; in Iowa for summer, 115; lab picnic preparation by, 12; lead-soldered can of, 172; marriage of, 8; meeting of Pat and, 7–8; at Oak Ridge, 8–9; on Pat, 4, 165, 169; and Pat’s memorial, 177; poem for memorial and, 177; residences of, 9, 60–61, 177; symposium secret and, 175; on volcano incident, 169 Patterson, Paul, Sr., 7, Patterson, Susan, 12, 17, 107 “Patterson’s Revenge,” 174 Pauling, Linus, 17, 176 Pediatrics, 137, 142–143, 145, 201 Peresie, Henry, 105 performance IQ See IQ level Perino, Joseph, 141, 142, 144–45, 149 periodic table of elements: calcium and barium in, 61–62, 64; completion of, 4; lead’s chemical symbol and, 2; Patterson’s early interest in, 7; rearranged version of, 51; trace elements and, Peru, 163, 172 Peruvians, ancient, 119, 132 pesticides, xviii, 168 petroleum industry: basic research and, 139; in California, 117; ocean sediment study and, 48–49; Pat- Index terson and, 56–57, 113; working with the, 138 See also Ethyl Gasoline Corporation; Standard Oil; Texaco Pfitzer, Emil, 127, 130 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Community Mental Health Center of, 96; East Kensington neighborhood of, 86–88; Kenderton School of, 44, 160; “lead belt” of, 79–80; lead screening study in, 88; Northeast Philadelphia, 77–78; North Philadelphia in, 39, 80, 160; poor neighborhoods of, 41; Public School System in, 86–88; racial tensions in, 95–96; Southeast Philadelphia in, 24; South Philadelphia in, 33; St Ann’s school in, 87–88; West Philadelphia in, 33, 80; Wynnewood suburb of, 96 Philadelphia General Hospital, 34 Philadelphia Tooth Fairy Project, 79–80, 95, 99 Phillips, Bob, 34, 41, 147 Piomelli, Sergio: award for, 104; blood test developed by, 101–102; draft criteria document and, 102–104; German lead research and, 145; lead level and, 201; Patterson on work of, 134 Pitcher, Hugh: on lead cost-benefit analysis, 154, 167, 184; on Needleman’s work, 151, 194–95; in policy office team, 153–54 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Needleman’s office in, 198–99; EPA Expert Committee meeting in, 148–49; Superfund trial and, 179–81 Pizor, Roberta See Needleman, Roberta plants, lead removal and, 174 pollution: as far from source, 170; as here to stay, 138 See also air pollution; lead contamination; oceans pooled study, lead effects and, 202–3 poor neighborhoods: blaming victims in, 83; issues arising from, 42, 44; 245 lead poisoning and, 28, 146–47; of Philadelphia, 41; of Southeast Philadelphia, 24 Popper, Lewis, 185 Precambrian granite, 2, 14 preschool screening See blood test for lead prevention of lead exposure: act sponsored/passed for, 85; CDC program for, 159, 187, 200; Lanphear on, 201; surgeon general call for, 201 See also Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act primordial lead, 10, 11 Prince Mahidol Award, 199 prospective studies, 202 See Boston Study, the public health hazard: dire consequences and, 111; environmental lead and, 67; history and, 138; idea of lead poisoning as, 42–43; leaded gasoline as, 155; priority level and, 65, 201 Public Health Service: ethyl gasoline investigation and, 53, 54; lead pollution symposium of, 73; 1960 meeting with, 59; Tri-City Study and, 73, 115–16 “public nuisance” legal strategy, xvi–xvii Queensland, Australia, 28, 29 radioactive decay of uranium, 5, 10–11 radiogenic lead, 11 Raising Healthy Children in a Toxic World (Needleman and Landrigan), 197 reading ability/difficulties, 156, 157, 159 Reagan, Ronald, 153 Reagan Republicans, 184 Reed, Robert, 98, 106 Reilly, Charles, 31–32, 35–36 Remembering Heaven’s Face (Balaban), 42 Index 246 Republican administration: of George H. W Bush, 157, 160, 183, 187; of Ronald Reagan, 153 research grants: academician for industry and, 143; Brown and, 17; industry and, 139–40; Needleman and, 138–39; Patterson and, 56–57, 60, 67; for Philadelphia Tooth Fairy Project, 79 research methodologies: confounding variables and, 97, 142, 148, 149–50, 184, 193; controls and, 141, 151; exclusions and, 194; multiple regression analysis and, 151; “phantom variables” and, 189 research misconduct hearing: accusation and, 184; conflict of interest and, 188; continuing lead concerns and, 186–87; Ernhart in, 184, 187– 88, 189, 191, 193–94, 195; error suggestions and, 185, 196; Inquiry Panel of, 185, 190; larger investigation and, 190; Needleman on, 185–86, 197; Needleman opening statement in, 192–93; Needleman’s allies and, 190–91; not guilty verdict in, 196, 197; Pittsburgh Hearing Board and, 192, 196; public hearing portion of, 190–96; reanalysis and, 188, 195; Scarr in, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 195; testimony in, 193–94 Research Triangle Park, 103, 150 Reyes, Jessica Wolpaw, 198 Rhode Island paint manufacturers’ case, xvi, 204 Ritalin, experiments with, 90–91 Robert, Joseph, 52 Rochester, NY, 84 Romans’ uses for lead, 2, 163 Rosen, John, 115, 157, 174 Rosner, David, xvi, 44 Royal Institute of Public Health and Hygiene, 60 Ruckelshaus, William, 155 Ruffin, Deneta, 158 Rutenberg, Harold (“Hal”), 40, 77 Ryan, Don, 200, 201 Ryan, William Fitts, 85 Sachs, Henrietta, 86 Salt Lake City, Utah, 179 See also Midvale lead tailings case Sanibel Island, Florida, 197 Santa Cruz, California, 161 Savin, Sam, 72 Scarr, Sandra: on EPA panel, 181; as expert witness, 188; factual errors of, 182, 183; methodological expertise of, 148; Needleman’s research and, 149; Needleman study criticism by, 181–83; in research misconduct hearing, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 195 Schaule, Bernhard, 120–121, 123, 124, 168 Scheetz, Mary, 184, 192 Schoenbrod, David: draft criteria document and, 102–103, 104; EPA charge by, 95; lawsuit successes and, 101; Piomelli and, 104, 201; as staff attorney, 94; at Washington conference, 128, 129 Schroeder, Henry, 117 Schultz, Jane, 185, 190 Schwartz, Joel: cost-benefit analysis and, 154, 155, 184; deregulation and, 153; as EPA analyst, 145–46, 151, 152; EPA criteria document and, 174; lead paint study of, 200; in research misconduct hearing, 195 Science: Needleman call from, 183; Silbergeld and, 92; tobacco industry article in, 136; tuna study in, 123 Science in the Private Interest (Krimsky), 139 scientific war, 103 screenings See blood tests for lead Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, 69, 73, 120 Scurry, Brenda, 83–84 Scurry, Janet, 83–84 Sea Ranch, California, 177 Index SEAREX (Sea/Air Exchange), 168 seaspray, lead in, 169–70 seawater: early research on, 121; extrapolated profiles of, 49; Patterson research on, 56, 69, 120, 124, 132; sampling methods and, 48; Schaule research on, 120, 124 See also oceans sensitive analytical methods revolution, 122 Settle, Dorothy: accurate measurements and, 122; as analytical chemist, 114; elimination of lead and, 162; Flegal and, 161; in New Zealand, 167–69; worst experiences and, 169 Sewell, Ed, 86, 87 Shapiro, Irving: early papers of, 144– 45; on Ernhart, 141; expanded tooth study and, 86–88; as Needleman ally, 191; Philadelphia Tooth Fairy Project of, 79–80 Sharon Steel, 180, 181 Sharp, Robert “Bob,” 18, 63, 108, 113 Sherwin-Williams, xvi, 204 Short History of Nearly Everything, A (Bryson), 22 Silbergeld, Ellen: hyperactivity work and, 93; lead exposure report of, 103; MacArthur Fellowship of, xiv; on Needleman, 147; on panel, 141; paper of, 91–92; postdoctoral work of, 90; research criticism of, 183, 189; on task force, 200; in workshop, 146 Silent Spring (Carson), 58 Sills, Beverly, 197 Silver, Leon (“Lee”): moon rocks examination by, 114; as Pat’s geology tutor, 17–18; Patterson and, 16, 113, 175; at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 47–48 smelters/smelting lead: airborne lead and, 92; area studies for, 88–89; human environments and, 132, 134; Midvale case and, 179–80; volcanic lead emissions and, 169 247 “Smeltertown,” El Paso, 89 Smith, Marjorie, 189 snow: lead in, 69, 70; sample collecting of, 71–72 See also Antarctica soil, lead in, 173–74 Somerville, Massachusetts: dentine lead level study in, 98, 99, 134, 136, 159; Lincoln Park School in, 99 See also Low Level Lead Study Southern California Bight, 119–23 Southern Hemisphere, 71, 73 South Pacific, 168, 176 Spock, Dr Benjamin, 40 Standard Oil: Bayway plant of, 37, 52; “looney gas building” of, 37; plantrelated deaths and, 52; president of, 138; press coverage and, 53; in TEL sales joint venture, 52 Stanford, 56 statistical sampling, 97 St Botolph Club, 138 St Christopher’s Hospital for Children, 80 Stokes, Joseph, 34–35 Stopps, Gordon, 117 subclinical damage, 88 See also lowlevel lead exposure Superfund law, 180 Superfund sites, 180 Superfund trial, 179 surgeon general See U.S surgeon general Sydney, Australia, 202 Tackling family, 186 Tatsumoto, Mitsunobu: laboratory of, 171; ocean lead levels and, 49, 119, 121; Patterson prize award and, 176 teeth, studies on, 44–45; expanded study on, 86–88; and lead content, 45; lead exposure indication and, 88 See also dentine lead levels; Low Level Lead Study Teflon, 14, 19, 20, 70 Temple University: Needleman at, 38–45, 77–78, 95 248 Te Paki, New Zealand, 167–70 Tepper, Lloyd, 127–28 Ter Haar, Gary, 60, 67, 129, 135 Terre des Hommes, 40 “terrible twenty” regulations, 153 tetraethyl lead (TEL): blame game and, 129; development of, 37; as gasoline additive, 37; introduction of, 94; invention of, 51; as known toxin, 52, 62; making and marketing of, 92; removal from gasoline and, 55; return to market of, 55; winged insect hallucinations and, 38 Texaco, 57 Thomas, Henry, 31 Thomas, Lee, 155 Thompson Canyon study, 107–12, 124 Thoreau, Henry David, 131 thorium, 10, 11, 12 “threshold of damage concept,” 65 Thule, Greenland, 70 Tilton, Elizabeth, 12 Tilton, George: dissertation of, 14; lab of, 171; as Patterson recruit, 11; personality of, 12 Time, 50 titanium dioxide, 83 Today Show, 41 tooth lead levels See dentine lead levels Toronto, Ontario, 141 “toxicity of habitation,” 30 toxic trace elements, xi toys: lead paint on, 82; recall of, xv; study on, xvi trace elements: Bodman bottle for, 47; chemist/oceanographer group for, 168; ocean chemistry and, 122; in periodic table, 1; trace metal chemistry and, 47, 126 Tri-City Study, 73, 115 tuberculosis meningitis, 31 tuna lead concentration study, 122–23, 170–71 Turner, A Jefferis, 29–30, 83 Tyler Prize, 176 Index typical lead levels See under natural lead levels “Unfinished Business” (poem), 177 United States Refining and Mining, 179, 180 University of California: in Riverside, 185; in San Francisco, 139; in Santa Barbara, 171; in Santa Cruz, 173 University of Canterbury, 71 University of Chicago: Institute for Nuclear Studies of, 4; Kent Chemical Laboratory of, 3, 15; “Metallurgical Laboratories” of, 8; Patterson’s arrival at, 6; seminal scientific research at, University of Cincinnati: arrest rate study at, 198; children’s environmental health at, 201; Kettering Laboratory of, 59 University of Connecticut, 124 University of Delaware, 175 University of Illinois, 128 University of Iowa, University of Paris, 175 University of Pennsylvania: Medical School of, 26; Needleman at, 34; tooth expert at, 79 University of Pittsburgh: Medical Center of, 198; misconduct hearings at, 184–97; Needleman’s move to, 140; School of Public Health at, 191 University of Rhode Island, 168 University of Virginia: Center of Biomedical Ethics of, 184; child development psychologist of, 148 unleaded gasoline, 93, 153 uranium: decay into lead of, 5, 10–11; in granite’s zircon crystals, 3, 12; handling of, 13; separation, Manhattan project and, 9; uranium-235 purity and, 9; uranium fuel, 17 uranium-lead age of Earth, 11 uranium-lead clocks, urban environments: IQs and, 156; leaded gasoline and, 173 Index urban housing See housing Urey, Harold, U.S Army Research Support Group, 71 U.S Bureau of Mines, 53, 54 U.S Chamber of Commerce, 153 U.S Department of Energy, 20–22, 113 U.S Geological Survey, 12, 16, 109, 171 U.S Nuclear Power Demonstration Project, 70 U.S surgeon general: ethyl gasoline hearing of, 54, 55; mass screenings and, 85 Utah, 188 See also Midvale lead tailings case UV Industries Inc Liquidating Trust, 180 Vietnam War: draft avoidance and, 78, 88; injured children from, 40–42, 45; time period of, x Village Voice, 83, 84 volcanic lead emissions, 65, 168, 169 von Lindern, Ian, 89–90, 92 Waldman, Steve, 187 Wall Street Journal, 183 War on Poverty, 84 Warren, Christian, 31, 84 Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution in, 15; EPA and, 92–95; lead pollution symposium and, 73–74; lead pollution testimonies in, 74–76; U.S Geological Survey in, 12 249 Washington Post, 154, 155 Washington University, 141 Wasserbug, Gerry, 171 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 98 Weinstein, Shirley, 34, 36, 39, 140 welded food can technology, 172 “white lead,” 29 “white leaders,” 82 wind patterns, lead and, 169–70, 173 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: clean labs and, 123–24; Patterson’s research through, 47–49 World War II: Manhattan Project during, 4, 8; mass spectrometer development during, Wormser, Felix, 42–43 Wright Edelman, Marian, 197 Yosemite National Park: harsh conditions in, 109; lead accumulation and, 110; sample contamination risk and, 109–10; Thompson Canyon study in, 107–12 Zemaitkiemis, Lithuania meteorite, 11 zinc, 2, 61, 89, 120, 180 See also International Lead Zinc Research Organization zircons: age determination of, 14; geochronology and, 15; lab samples of, 12–13; scientific predictions and, 13; uranium and, [...]... I began to look into the history of lead Almost immediately, another name popped up: Clair Patterson On the face of it, they didn’t have much in common Patterson was a geochemist; Needleman was a pediatrician and psychiatrist Patterson was on the West Coast, Needleman on the East Patterson traveled from Greenland to New Zealand, from Samoa to Antarctica making minute measurements of trace metals in... had to be from the Precambrian age—among the oldest rocks on Earth It could not have been altered or recrystallized, but ought to be moderately radioactive It had to contain some lead and at least average amounts of the accessory minerals zircon, apatite, sphene, and magnetite The granite had been ground up, and Patterson had separated its minerals He was particularly interested in the zircon crystals,... over radioactive fallout and pesticide use, we learned that lead painted onto a wall doesn’t necessarily stay on that wall, that lead used to seal a soup can may end up in the soup, and that lead in gasoline does not dissipate harmlessly into the air Once put out into the world, lead travels Where lead traveled, Clair Patterson and his colleagues followed They studied its “sources” and “pathways.”... this book will make clear, we have come a long way, but it is easy to go backwards if we are not vigilant Over the last decade, the battle between the lead industry and its critics has focused on accountability State attorneys general, environmental and children’s health advocates, and public health historians have argued in court that the companies, particularly the makers of lead paint pigment, knew... encompassed the Manhattan Project, the age of the earth, the Vietnam War, urban race relations, polar research, the early environmental movement, academic intrigue, and political and legal battles Each was attacked by the lead industry, and each risked his career and reputation to pursue what he thought was right Neither suffered fools gladly (or even non-fools who happened to disagree with them) and that sometimes... needed another place to work; a place where he could control the people, the air, and the equipment But where? Such a place didn’t exist Pasadena, California, 1952 After two days of traveling west, the view out Clair Patterson’s train window had changed dramatically He had left Chicago in the grip of a harsh winter As he arrived in Pasadena, the San Gabriel Mountains rose dry and green behind the city and... amount of lead produced, and the rate of decay to create a neat formula for establishing the amount of time that has passed Toxic Truth In 1946, using a somewhat rudimentary version of the technique on lead ores, a British geologist named Arthur Holmes had estimated that the earth was 3.3 billion years old That same year, Clair Patterson arrived at the University of Chicago, where, because of Libby’s... All lead-204 is primordial lead, lead that was present at the formation of the earth Lead-206 and -207 are products of radioactive decay of uranium-238 and -235, respectively (they’re also known as daughters to uranium’s parent) Lead-208 is a decay product of thorium—the rarest of the four At Earth’s formation, each of the three radiogenic leads was present to some degree, and then their relative amounts... chemistry lab: Aguila Blanca, Argentina, for example, or Florence, Texas, or Zemaitkiemis, Lithuania Harrison Brown secured fragments for Patterson from, among others, Forest City, Iowa, Modoc, Kansas, and Canyon Diablo, Arizona (a piece of which was held in a collection at Grinnell) Brown had recruited, in addition to Patterson, another graduate student: George Tilton, an Illinois native who had some... in Washington, D.C There he met a retired Harvard geologist named Esper Larsen, who was working on age determination of rocks “Larsen knew that zircons had quite a bit of uranium,” says Tilton “He worked out an approximate age thing, where he was estimating uranium from how radioactive a uranium sample would be Harrison came through and saw that He didn’t have to be a genius to see that Patterson and