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Screening of mycosporine like compounds in the dermatocarpon genus phytochemical study of the lichen dermatocarpon luridum (with ) j r laundon

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ANNÉE 2014 THÈSE / UNIVERSITÉ DE RENNES sous le sceau de l’Université Européenne de Bretagne pour le grade de DOCTEUR DE L’UNIVERSITÉ DE RENNES Mention : Chimie Ecole doctorale Sciences De La Matière Thi Thu Tram NGUYEN Préparée dans l’unité de recherche UMR CNRS 6226 Equipe PNSCM (Produits Naturels Synthèses Chimie Médicinale) (Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Rennes 1) Screening of mycosporine-like compounds in the Dermatocarpon genus Phytochemical study of the lichen Dermatocarpon luridum (With.) J.R Laundon Thèse soutenue Rennes le 19 décembre 2014 devant le jury composé de : Marie-Dominique GALIBERT Professeur l’Université de Rennes / Examinateur Holger THÜS Conservateur au Natural History Museum Londres / Rapporteur Erwan AR GALL Mtre de conférences l’Université de Bretagne Occidentale / Rapporteur Kim Phi Phung NGUYEN Professeur l’Université des sciences naturelles d’Hô-Chi-Minh-Ville Vietnam / Examinateur Marylène CHOLLET-KRUGLER Mtre de conférences l’Université de Rennes1 / Co-directeur de thèse Joël BOUSTIE Professeur l’Université de Rennes / Directeur de thèse Remerciements En premier lieu, je tiens remercier Monsieur le Dr Holger Thüs et Monsieur le Dr Erwan Ar Gall d’avoir accepté d’être les rapporteurs de mon manuscrit, ainsi que Madame la Professeure Marie-Dominique Galibert d’avoir accepté de participer ce jury de thèse J’exprime toute ma gratitude au Dr Marylène Chollet-Krugler pour avoir guidé mes pas dès les premiers jours et tout au long de ces trois années Je la remercie particulièrement pour sa disponibilité et sa grande gentillesse, son écoute et sa patience Sa parfaite mtrise scientifique et ses idées qui m’ont si souvent sortie de l’embarras et parfois des impasses Je remercie très sincèrement le Professeur Joël Boustie, mon directeur de thèse, de m’avoir accueillie dans son laboratoire et de m’avoir permis d’accéder l’univers passionnant de la chimie des lichens Je lui suis reconnaissante de m’avoir laissée une grande liberté afin que je puisse développer mes propres idées au cours de cette thèse Je le remercie vivement de sa disponibilité et de sa rigueur scientifique qui m'ont permis de travailler dans les meilleures conditions Je remercie chaleureusement Madame la Professeure Kim Phi Phung Nguyen, qui a été ma directrice de master recherche au Vietnam C’est auprès d’elle que j’ai acquis mes premières connaissances en chimie des produits naturels et en chimie moléculaire C’est également grâce son aide que j’ai pu rencontrer le Professeur Joël Boustie Je tiens également exprimer ma gratitude l’ensemble de l’équipe qui m’a soutenue ces trois années, pour leurs conseils avisés, leurs remarques pertinentes, leur écoute, leur aide et leur gentillesse Ils ont fait de ce travail le fruit d’une véritable réflexion collective Je voudrais adresser plus particuliốrement tous mes remerciements Franỗoise pour mavoir guidée dans la réalisation des tests biologiques afin de valoriser les molécules que j'avais isolées Merci Aurélie de m’avoir expliqué le fonctionnement des appareillages les premiers jours et de m’avoir procuré les produits chimiques dont j’avais besoin Isabelle et Solenn, merci pour votre aide dans la réalisation des tests biologiques Merci Sophie et Béatrice pour vos relectures Merci Audrey de m’avoir donné l’accès aux herbiers (H des Abbayes et L J-C Massé) Anne-Cécile, Claudia, David, Maryse, Marie-Laurence, Patricia, Philippe, Pierre, i Michèle, Gilles, Nicolas, Jacques, Myriam, Mickaël, Jeff, Jean-Charles un grand merci tous d’avoir été pour moi J’adresse mes remerciements sincères Monsieur Jean-Yves Monnat, Biologiste l’Université de Bretagne Occidentale (Brest, France) pour m’avoir aidée collecter et identifier les lichens Je remercie ộgalement les autres membres de lAssociation Franỗaise de Lichộnologie pour m’avoir fourni des échantillons de Dermatocarpon Je remercie Isabelle Gallais et le Pr Odile Sergent (UMR Inserm 1085, IRSET, Université de Rennes 1) pour la réalisation des tests antioxydants portant sur la peroxydation lipidique Je tiens également exprimer ma reconnaissance tout le personnel du CRMPO pour les analyses de masse effectuées sur les produits que j'avais isolées Merci tous les étudiants et post-doctorants pour les discussions et les agréables moments: Pierre, Delphine, Nathalie, Friardi, Maïwenn, Sarah Komaty et Vianney Je remercie tous mes amis vietnamiens, surtout Binh, Duy, Linh, Tu, Hung, Huyen et Ha, qui ont partagé ma vie au quotidien pendant mon séjour en France Un grand merci Tam pour ton aide sur les analyses statistiques J’exprime toute ma gratitude envers le Gouvernement vietnamien pour l'attribution de la bourse qui m’a permis de mener cette thèse Je remercie également le laboratoire du professeur Joël Boustie pour le complément de financement qui a permis la réalisation de ce travail en France Je remercie du fond du cœur ma famille pour leurs encouragements et leur soutien au quotidien Merci mes parents qui ont tant fait pour moi Merci mon frère né et ma sœur pour notre complicité J’ai une pensée toute particulière pour mon petit garỗon Khanh, qui ma fait sourire dans les moments difficiles; ma belle-sœur Thuy qui m’a aidée dans les dộmarches administratives surtout quand cộtait en franỗais; mon mari Thien pour ses encouragements, son dévouement auprès de notre fils pendant mon absence et son amour inconditionnel Enfin merci tous ceux qui liront cette thèse pour l’intérêt qu’ils porteront mon travail… ii Table of Contents Remerciements i Table of Contents iii List of abbreviations vii List of Tables ix List of Figures xi Résumé en franỗais xv Introduction CHAPTER 1: LICHENS AND PHOTOPROTECTION Presentation of lichens 1.1 Definition 1.2 Thallus morphology and anatomy 1.3 Symbiosis 1.4 Chemical compounds Photoprotective responses of lichens 11 2.1 Harmful effects of UV radiation 11 2.2 Photoprotective mechanisms 12 2.2.1 Screening mechanism 13 2.2.2 Quenching mechanism 13 2.2.3 Repair mechanism 15 2.3 Chemical features of UV absorbing compounds 15 Mycosporines and MAAs – natural photoprotectants 18 3.1 History 18 3.2 Characteristics 19 3.3 Biosynthesis 22 3.4 Role of mycosporine-like compounds in nature 23 3.5 Mycosporine-like compounds in lichens 24 CHAPTER 2: SCREENING AND QUANTIFICATION OF MYCOSPORINE-LIKE COMPOUNDS IN THE DERMATOCARPON GENUS 29 Purpose of this study 31 Screening of mycosporine-like compounds 33 1.1 Materials and methods 33 1.1.1 Lichen material 33 1.1.2 Extraction and purification of mycosporine-like compounds 40 1.1.3 HPTLC-UV spectrophotodensitometry and HPLC-DAD-MS analysis 42 1.1.4 Esterification conditions of mycosporine glutamicol 43 1.2 Results and discussion 44 1.2.1 Extraction and purification of mycosporine-like compounds 44 1.2.2 HPTLC-UV spectrophotodensitometry 45 1.2.3 HPLC-DAD-MS analysis 46 iii 1.2.4 Esterification conditions of mycosporine glutamicol 48 Quantification of mycosporines 53 2.1 Materials and methods 53 2.1.1 Lichen materials 53 2.1.2 Extraction of mycosporines 54 2.1.3 Quantification of mycosporines 55 2.2 Results and discussion 56 Experimental 60 3.1 Identification of mycosporines and MAAs 60 3.1.1 Extraction and purification of mycosporines and MAAs 60 3.1.2 Analysis 60 3.2 Quantification of mycosporines 61 3.2.1 Extraction of mycosporines 61 3.2.2 Mycosporines standards 61 3.2.3 Internal standard 61 3.2.4 Validation of analytical procedure 62 3.2.5 HILIC-HPLC-DAD analysis 62 CHAPTER 3: PHYTOCHEMICAL STUDY ON DERMATOCARPON LURIDUM (WITH.) J.R LAUNDON 63 Purpose of this study 65 Description of Dermatocarpon luridum (With.) J.R Laundon 66 1.1 Ecology 66 1.2 Botany and description 67 1.3 Chemical studies 68 Materials and methods 70 2.1 Lichen material 70 2.2 Extraction 70 2.3 Purification 71 2.3.1 Mycosporines 71 2.3.2 Other isolated compounds 73 2.4 Determination of physico-chemical properties of mycosporines 73 2.4.1 The molar extinction coefficient 73 2.4.2 pKa values 73 Results and discussion 75 3.1 Mycosporines 76 3.1.1 Extraction and purification 76 3.1.2 Structure elucidation 79 3.1.3 Determination of physico-chemical properties 83 3.2 Other isolated compounds 87 3.2.1 Isolation 87 3.2.2 Structure elucidation 89 Experimental 96 iv 4.1 Extraction 96 4.2 Purification and identification of mycosporines 96 4.2.1 Purification on cation exchange resin 96 4.2.2 Purification by CPC 96 4.2.3 A new purification protocol 97 4.2.4 Sources, physico-chemical and spectroscopic data 99 4.3 Other isolated compounds 107 4.3.1 Purification and identification 107 4.3.2 Structure elucidation 109 4.4 Determination of the (ε) and pKa values of the isolated mycosporines 122 4.4.1 The molar absorption coefficient 122 4.4.2 pKa values 122 CHAPTER 4: BIOLOGICAL TESTS AND PHOTOPROTECTIVE EVALUATION125 Purpose of this study 127 Cytotoxic activity 129 Photoprotective activity 130 2.1 UV-filters 131 2.2 Cytotoxic and phototoxic activities 134 2.3 Antioxidant activity 135 2.3.1 DPPH and NBT assays 136 2.3.2 Lipid peroxidation assay 137 2.4 Photostability under UVA and UVB 140 Experimental 142 3.1 Cytotoxic activity 142 3.2 UV filters 142 3.2.1 Emulsion preparation 142 3.2.2 Sample preparation 143 3.2.3 Measurements and calculations 143 3.3 Antioxidant activity 145 3.3.1 DPPH assay 145 3.3.2 NBT assay 145 3.3.3 Lipid peroxidation assay 146 3.4 Cytotoxic and phototoxic activities 148 3.5 Photostability under UVA and UVB 149 Discussion–Conclusion 151 References 157 General experimental procedures 169 Appendix 173 v vi List of abbreviations 1D 2D Ac ACN AcOH aq AUC brs BuOH calcd CC CHCl3 CH2Cl2 COSY CPC d dd D2O DEPT DL1 DL2 DM1 DM2 DMSO DNA dw Eq EtOAc EtOH F.C h HILIC HMBC HPLC HPLC-DAD-MS HPTLC-UV HRMS-ESI HSQC IR IS m MAAs one dimensional two dimensional Acetone Acetonitrile Acetic acid aqueous Area Under the Curve broad singlet n-Butanol calculated Silica gel Column Chromatography Chloroform Dichloromethane Correlation Spectroscopy Centrifugal Partition Chromatography doublet doublet of doublets Deuterium Oxide Distortionless Enhancement by Polarisation Transfer crude aq extract of D luridum semi-purified aq extract of D luridum crude aq extract of D miniatum semi-purified aq extract of D miniatum Dimethyl sulfoxide Deoxyribonucleic acid dry weight Equation Ethyl Acetate Ethanol Flash Chromatography hours Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography Heteronuclear Multiple Bond Correlation Spectroscopy High Performance Liquid Chromatography High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to a Diode Array Detector and a Mass Spectrometer High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography coupled to a spectrophotodensitometer High Resolution Mass Spectrum Electrospray Ionization Heteronuclear Single Quantum Correlation spectroscopy Infrared Spectrophotometry Internal Standard multiplet Mycosporine-like Amino Acids vii MDA Me MeOH m.p MS NMR PE ppm Prep HPLC Prep TLC q ROS rpm rt s t TLC Tol UV Malondialdehyde Methyl Methanol minutes melting point Mass Spectrum Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Petroleum Ether parts per million (chemical shift value) Preparative High Performance Liquid Chromatography Preparative Thin-Layer Chromatography quartet Reactive Oxygen Species round per minute room temperature singlet triplet Thin Layer Chromatography Toluene ultraviolet viii 66 Thalle petit (formé de lobes 7-13 mm de large), mince (0.2-0.4 mm), de lisse inégal ou mȇme ridé, brun sombre la face inférieure Spores (11.5)15-20(23) × (4.5)5.5- 7(8.5) μm.—N de l’Europe Milieux peu humides ou exposés D deminuens Vain Thalle grand (formé de lobes de 13-24 mm de large), un peu plus épais (0.25-0.5 mm), ordinairement réticulé la face inférieure, brun sombre Spores (13)16-20(25.5) × (4.5)6-8(9) μm.— Centre et Nord de l’Europe Étage montagnard— 10 D bachmannii Anders Spores la plupart < 15 μm de long 44 Médule du thalle I+ (rougeâtre) [Utilisez une solution concentrée d’Iode ou mieux, le réactif de Melzer] Thalle petit (lobes 7-15 mm de large), gris ou brun la partie supérieure, de brun clair brun sombre la partie inférieure, au moins en partie veiné Spores (8.5)1013.5(16) × (4.5)5-7(8.5) μm — N de l’Europe Milieu calcaire ou non, neutre ou subneutre, peu humide ou suintements— 11 D polyphyllizum (Nyl.) Blomb, et Forssell Médulle du thalle I- 55 Spores largement ellipsoïdes ou subglobuleuses, dans l’asque généralement sur un rang, (7)8-10.5(11.5) × (4.5)6-6.5(7) μm Thalle mince (0.15-0.4 mm), petit (ordinairement de 5-20 mm de diamètre), brun ou brun sombre la face inférieure, lisse ou verruqueux en surface.— Europe Étages montagnard et subalpin, Calcicole 12 D leptophyllum (Ach.) K.G.W Lang Spores ellipsoïdes, rarement subglobuleuses, dans l’asque sur deux rangs, (7)10-14.5(18) ×(4)5-6.5(7) μm L/l : (1.4)1.8-2.6(3) Thalle diversement épais, plus grand (ordinairement de 10-40(60) mm de diamètre), de brun clair brun noirâtre la face inférieure, lisse ou pas.-Calcicole ou non.— 666 Face inférieure du thalle avec papilles denses, d’environ 0.2 mm de haut Thalle 0.51.3 mm d’épaisseur Thalle unilobé, avec une face inférieure brun clair, rarement noirâtre De l’étage montagnard l’étage alpin, sur roches calcaires ou basiques non calcaires Syn D caesium Räs 13 D miniatum (L.) W Mann var cirsodes (Ach.) Vain 66 Thalle lisse ou presque lisse la face inférieure, surface rarement granuleuse ou avec quelques papilles, 0.3-0.5 mm d’épaisseur Thalle un lobe (morpho, miniatum) ou quelques 175 lobes (morpho, intricatum), avec une face supérieure de brun clair brun noir De l’étage mésoméditerranéen l’étage alpin Sur roches calcaires ou non calcaires, en milieu sec, plus rarement légèrement humide— 13 D miniatum (L.) W Mann var miniatum Thalle réticulé la face inférieure, 0.4-0.7 mm d’épaisseur, de couleur claire, gris ou brun la face supérieure, Europe De l’étage montagnard l’étage alpin En milieu humide, calcaire ou non— 14 D arnoldianum Degel Traduction Martine Davoust 176 Appendix 2: The major mycosporine-like compounds and their physico-chemical properties Mycosporine-like compounds R1 R2 R3 R4 λmax (nm) ε (M-1cm-1) [M+H]+ Palythine NH H COOH H 320 36200 245 Palythine-serine Palythine-threonine Shinorine NH NH N-CH(COOH)CH2OH CH2OH CH(OH)CH3 H COOH COOH COOH H H H 320 320 332 10500 no 44668 275 289 333 Asterina-330 N-CH2CH2OH H COOH H 330 4800 289 Palythinol N-CH(CH3)CH2OH H COOH H 330 43500 303 Porphyra-334 N-CH(COOH)CH(OH)CH3 H COOH H 332 42300 346 Usujirene N-CH=CHCH3 (cis) H COOH H 356 50000 285 Palythene N-CH=CHCH3 (trans) H COOH H 360 50000 285 177 ESI/MS fragmentation pattern values 137, 150, 155, 162, 184, 186, 199, 209, 230, 245 260 134, 151, 169, 245 137, 168, 185, 186, 197, 211, 230, 241, 255, 333 137, 150, 168, 186, 197, 199, 213, 230, 243, 273, 289 137, 150, 168, 186, 197, 199, 231, 243, 288, 303 137, 151, 168, 185, 186, 197, 200, 243, 303, 347 137, 149, 166, 179, 193, 195, 197, 202, 223, 241, 285 137, 149, 166, 179, 193, 195, 197, 205, 223, 241, 285 Ref [166] [166] [166] [166] [166] [166] [166] [166] [166] Palythenic acid N-C(COOH)=CHCH3 H COOH H 337 29200 329 Mycosporine-2-glycine N-CH2COOH H COOH H 331 no 303 Mycosporine- methylamineserine Euhalothece-362 N-CH3 CH2OH COOH H 325 16600 289 N-CH=C(OH)CH2OH CH3 COOH H 362 no 331 478-Da 1050-Da N-CH(COOH)CH(OH)CH3 H H COOH Pen Pen-Glu 33173 58800 479 1051 508-Da MAA N-CH(COOH)CH(OH)CH3 H COOH Glu 335 312, 340 334 no 509 612-Da MAA NH CH(CH3)O-Glu COOH Glu 322 no 613 Mycosporine-serinol O CH2OH CH2OH H 310 27270 262 Mycosporine-glutaminolglucoside Mycosporine-glutamicolglucoside Mycosporine-glutamine Mycosporine-glutamic acid Mycosporine glutaminol O (CH2)2CONH2 CH2O-G H 310 no 465 O (CH2)2COOH CH2O-G H 310 no 466 O O O (CH2)2CONH2 (CH2)2COOH (CH2)2CONH2 COOH COOH CH2OH H H H 310 310 310 no 20893 12542 317 317 303 Mycosporine glutamicol O (CH2)2COOH CH2OH H 310 17248 304 Glu: glucose, Pen: pentose 178 138, 150, 175, 193, 197, 225, 241, 251, 268, 296, 314, 329 151, 164, 185, 244, 288 274 182, 237, 283, [166] 200, [207] [208] 213, 228, 242, 272, 316 347, 420, 435 649, 721, 883, 1015 [41] 285, 303, 347, 403, 407, 419, 451, 465 151, 169, 170, 181, 187, 191, 209, 212, 227, 245, 289, 349, 389, 392, 407, 569 182, 184, 194, 216, 244 235, 267, 285, 429, 447 236, 268, 286, 430, 448 280 255, 273, 299 235, 267, 285 385, 421, [48] 177, 199, 230, 375, 451, [48] 212, [30] 303, [46] 304, [45], [46] [92] [92] [46], [90] [3], [46], [91] 178, 210, 236, 258, 268, 286 [47] [47] Appendix 3: List of Dermatocarpon species in this study with their voucher barcode, collector, collection date, habitat and corresponding mycosporines contents (mean values ± SD, mg/g of dw extract) N° Voucher barcode Collector Date of collection Country Habitat notes Lichens (revised identification) D luridum BM001085236 A.Willi Austria, Tirol D luridum D luridum BM001085256 BM001085255 V Räsänen Fagerström Exsiccate series started in 1920 18/06/1936 16/06/1947 D luridum BM001085235 F.W.Zopf 08/1897 D luridum BM001085237 H.Ullrich 04/08/1963 Germany, Niedersachsen, Harz Mts Germany, Niedersachsen, Harz Mts D luridum BM001085252 Ahles 04/1861 Germany, Odenwald ad saxa inundata rivuli Tumpnerbach ad saxa rivalia ad saxa humida prope cataractam auf Granitbloecken im Bett der Bode an periodisch inundierten Silikatbloecken in der Radau on rock of a mountain creek D luridum BM000731396 H Thüs 2006 Germany, Odenwald D luridum BM001085254 Oakes 1849 D luridum BM001085257 Macoun 01/06/1901 10 D luridum BM001085253 G.Merrill 29/10/1910 N-America, USA, New Hamphire N-America, Canada, Ontario N-America, USA, Kansas 11 D luridum BM001085245 P.W.James 30/06/1959 12 D luridum BM001085243 J.A.Crabbe 22/04/1905 13 D luridum BM001085241 P.J.Hunt 12/07/1961 14 D luridum BM000974961 W.Johnson Received at BM in 1894 UK, North England, Cumberland 15 D luridum BM001085246 F.J Walker 28/07/1979 16 D luridum BM000974963 H.B Holl Received at BM in 1887 UK, North England, Cumberland UK, SW England, Devon Finland, Karelia Finland, Karelia UK, Scotland, West Sutherland UK, Scotland, Outer Hebrides UK, Scotland, Outer Hebrides 179 on rocks in bed of a stream on inundated rocks rocks at edge of [illegible] in bog by inlet on stones in small stream Elevation 450 m NN Mycosporine glutaminol nd Mycosporine glutamicol 18.06 ± 3.03 nd nd 17.77 ± 1.73 12.92 ± 1.20 nd 13.60 ± 1.43 nd 22.64 ± 0.98 nd 15.73 ± 3.39 2.82 ± 0.19 (under LOQ) nd 21.00 ± 0.61 nd 17.15 ± 2.82 nd 11.30 ± 1.94 nd nd nd nd nd 15.07 ± 1.20 nd 13.22 ± 2.77 nd 6.75 ± 0.82 (under LOQ) 19.51 ± 2.68 nd 16.47 ± 2.78 17 D luridum BM001085239 H.B Holl UK, SW England, Devon Ex Herb H.B.Holl Received at BM in 1886 Received at BM in 1886 18 D luridum BM000974964 19 D luridum BM001085250 C.Gueidan 25/08/2010 UK, SW England, Devon 20 D luridum BM00108562 H.B.Holl UK, SW England, Devon 21 D luridum BM001085261 H.B.Holl 22 D, luridum BM001085248 T.D.V.Swinscow Received at BM in 1886 Received at BM in 1886 04/10/1963 23 D luridum BM001085263 G.Davies 05/1864 24 D luridum BM000974962 H.B Holl 25 D luridum BM000920143 26 D luridum 27 nd 10.07 ± 0.53 nd 10.52 ± 1.34 15.54 ± 0.98 16.83 ± 0.44 nd 16.57 ± 4.44 nd 27.78 ± 1.91 nd 12.77 ± 0.12 UK, SW England, Devon nd 27.04 ± 2.26 UK, Wales nd 13.09 ± 1.22 V Howden Received at BM in 1888 06/09/2006 UK, Wales in river 3.65 ± 1.32 9.36 ± 1.79 BM000974960 H.H.Knight 20/07/1908 on submerged rocks nd 16.89 ± 1.38 D luridum BM001085244 P.W.James 04/04/1958 UK, Wales, Carmarthenshire UK, Wales, Pembrokeshire nd 8.53 ± 0.91 (under LOQ) 28 D luridum BM001085242 P.W.James 04/04/1958 UK, Wales, Pembrokeshire nd 9.24 ± 1.06 29 D luridum BM001085249 P.W.James 16/04/1965 nd 10.96 ± 3.00 30 D luridum (D cf miniatum agg) D luridum (D cf miniatum agg) D luridum (Dermatocarpon sp.) BM001085233 M Steiner 25/07/1959 UK, Wales, Carmarthenshire Austria, Tirol semi-flooded stones in a fast flowing stream semi-flooded stones in a fast flowing stream on semi-aq rocks nd 10.36 ± 2.56 BM001085238 M Steiner 25/07/1959 Austria, Tirol nd BM001104171 H Thüs & R Tuerk 10/2006 Austria, Salzburg 6.55 ± 1.10 (under LOQ) 11.34 ± 2.74 D luridum (D miniatum agg.) D luridum (D miniatum agg.) BM001085234 H.A Imshaug 28/05/1960 BM000974959 A.Wilson 06/1910 N-America, Canada, Ontario UK, North England, Cumbria 31 32 33 34 on wet rocks UK, SW England, Devon on slates in water along the river rocks in the bed of the river UK, SW England, Devon UK, SW England, Devon 180 among slate boulders in river on emerged mica rocks on emerged mica rocks amphibious in stream rocks on shore of Derwent Water 2450 m NN 2450 m NN 1800-2000 m NN 2.03 ± 0.21 (under LOQ) nd 11.29 ± 3.72 nd 9.15 ± 1.39 UK, Scotland, Inner Hebrides UK, Scotland, Inner Hebrides on rocks beside Caol Lochan 2006 Austria, Salzburg amphibious in stream A & A Schroeppel 01/08/1963 Austria, Salzburg BM001085260 A.J.Huuskonen 19/07/1961 Finland, Laponia BM001085259 A.J.Huuskonen 28/07/1949 Finland, Laponia BM001085251 Arnold 04/09/1876 Austria, Salzburg 42 D arnoldianum (D miniatum var miniatum) D arnoldianum (D rivulorum) D luridum on emerged gneiss rocks of a mountain stream in rivulo prope deversorium alpinum Societatis Fennicae supra saxa ad saxa rivulosa prope viam "Haltian turistipolku" cop on submerged rocks BM 001085368 22/01/1905 UK, SW England, Devon 43 D luridum BM 001085376 23/03/1905 44 D luridum BM 001085371 07/1841 45 D luridum BM 001085375 1920 Ireland, County Mayo, Achill Island Germany, Odenwald, Heidelberg Austria, Tirol 46 D arnoldianum BM 001085370 1886 Switzerland, St Moritz nd 47 48 D rivulorum D luridum BM 001085358 BM 001085361 1886 05/08/1897 nd nd 49 D luridum BM 001085373 1886 50 D luridum JB/001/07/2007 J.L.& B Martin 10/07/2007 Switzerland, St Moritz Faroer Islands, Island of Skuvoy UK, SW England, river Erme above Ivybridge Norway, Bergen 51 D luridum JB/001/08/2005 J.L.& B Martin 24/08/2005 52 D luridum JB/001/04/2006 J.L.& B Martin 18/04/2006 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 D luridum (D miniatum agg.) D luridum (D miniatum agg.) BM001085240 A.R.Vickery 29/06/1968 BM000734558 H.Thüs & P.Cannon 05/2011 D arnoldianum (D arnoldianum sensu Thüs & Schultz 2008) D arnoldianum (D arnoldianum sensu Thüs & Schultz 2009) D arnoldianum (D miniatum var miniatum) BM001104172 H Thüs & R Tuerk BM001085258 France, Gard, Sénéchas (30450) France, Ain, Brénod (01110) 181 nd nd 13.50 ± 1.73 6.44 ± 1.46 (under LOQ) 1800-2000 m NN 2.01 ± 1.06 (under LOQ) 13.44 ± 1.56 2250-2300 m NN nd 7.80 ± 0.66 (under LOQ) 900 m NN nd 8.13 ± 1.04 (under LOQ) nd 11.69 ± 2.51 nd 35.02 ± 1.05 nd nd nd 14.08 ± 0.58 nd 14.22 ± 0.16 nd nd 8.50 ± 0.10 (under LOQ) 8.64 ± 1.08 (under LOQ) 16.00 ± 4.04 4.56 ± 0.84 (under LOQ) 10.65 ± 2.26 30 m 4.64 ± 0.48 32.85 ± 5.41 280 m nd 20.07 ± 1.01 1230 m nd 33.50 ± 0.27 among slate boulders in river ad saxa inundata rivuli Tumpnerbach on rocks in the bed of the river on suntan rocks at the edge of a street on rocks close to river on stones in the meadow of a coomb 53 D luridum JB/001/08/2006 J.L.& B Martin 29/08/2006 France, Haut-Rhin, Sewen (68290) France, Ain 54 D luridum JB/001/03/2011 J.L.& B Martin 29/03/2011 55 D luridum JB/001/09/2011 J.L.& B Martin 22/09/2011 56 D luridum JB/001/07/2005 J La Gabrielle 10/07/2005 57 D luridum JB/001/00/2006 N Lottin 2006 58 D luridum JB/001/08/2013 D.&O Gonnet 02/08/2013 59 D luridum JB/001/07/2012 M Bertrand 10/07/2012 60 D luridum HL L10/11-5 M Millot 2010 61 D rivulorum L.J.-C Massé 07/09/1973 62 L.J.-C Massé 01/09/1963 63 D fluviatile (D luridum) D luridum L.J.-C Massé 16/08/1966 64 D miniatum L.J.-C Massé 25/05/1974 65 D miniatum var imbricatum H des Abbayes 04/05/1935 66 D miniatum var miniatum H des Abbayes 15/08/1924 France, Vendée, Le Tablier (85310) 67 D miniatum H des Abbayes 18/06/1958 N-America, USA, Michigan 68 D miniatum var imbricatum H des Abbayes 09/1932 69 D miniatum var miniatum RENMAS_73_03 RENMAS_73_01 RENMAS_73_02 RENMAS_73_04 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 06 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 01 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 10 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 05 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 02 H des Abbayes 05/1927 France, Pyrénées Orientales, Banyuls (66650) France, H.Garonne, Bagnères d Luchon (31110) France, Rhône-Alpes, Montromant (69610) France, Haut-Rhin, Sewen (68290) France, Corrèze, Chavanac (19290) France, Savoie, Lanslebourg-Mont-Cenis (73480) France, Pyrénées Orientales, Porta (66760) France, Corrèze Austria, Glocknergruppe, Krefelder Hütte 5710) France, Côtes d'Armor, Lanrivain (22480) Ireland, County Cork France, Mayenne, Saulges (53340) France, Ille et Vilaine, Fougères (35300) 182 on rocks in border of the lake on rocks in border of a forest path on vertical rocks in border of path on flooded rocks 615 m nd 27.10 ± 0.52 1310 m 11.88 ± 1.28 34.89 ± 1.50 607 m 15.62 ± 1.38 16.67 ± 2.55 3.82 ± 0.76 22.08 ± 1.07 7.85 ± 0.02 25.22 ± 1.19 saxicole, calcifuge 2250 m 15.35 ± 0.35 8.86 ± 1.17 (under LOQ) on flooded rocks 1800 m 14.68 ± 0.25 11.74 ± 0.61 11.28 ± 3.65 nd 4.72 ± 2.64 (under LOQ) 15.06 ± 3.70 on rocks of chaos nd 14.93 ± 1.58 on aerohalines cracks of the slaty rocks on calcareous rocks near Erve ? nd 8.44 ± 1.20 (under LOQ) 15.73 ± 2.46 nd 8.70 ± 0.45 (under LOQ) on humid rocks at the edge of Yon, but not bathed by the water along shore on outside of Davidson Island nd 7.54 ± 1.05 (under LOQ) nd 8.46 ± 1.21 (under LOQ) on schist rocks where water flow during rain nd 7.78 ± 0.91 (under LOQ) nd 10.55 ± 1.27 on rocks close to river 2700 m nd 70 D miniatum var imbricatum 71 D miniatum var miniatum 72 D miniatum var imbricatum 73 D intestiniforme 74 D miniatum var imbricatum 75 D abbayesi (D luridum) 76 Placidium sp1 77 Placidium sp2 78 Catapyrenium cinereum 79 Placidium rufescens 80 D meiophyllizum 81 D meiophyllizum 82 D aquaticum (D luridum) RENAbb_B002_C13_ 04 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 08 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 07 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 09 RENAbb_B002_C13_ 03 RENABB_B002_C07_ 01 RENABB_B002_C10_ 05 RENABB_B002_C10_ 04 RENABB_B002_C09_ 01 RENABB_B002_C014 _02 RENABB_B002_C12_ 02 RENABB_B002_C12_ 01 RENABB_B002_C08_ 01 H des Abbayes 04/03/1932 France, Puy de Dôme, Royat (63130) on rocks near Tiretaine nd 22.42 ± 3.37 H des Abbayes 04/05/1935 France, Manche, Mortains (50140) nd 5.09 ± 0.15 (under LOQ) H des Abbayes 26/07/1935 France, Puy de Dôme, Compains (63610) on vertical walls of shady Armorican sandstone on shady rocks nd 5.99 ± 0.98 (under LOQ) H des Abbayes 06/02/1937 France, Cantal nd 7.61 ± 0.68 (under LOQ) H des Abbayes 10/1930 ? nd 16.56 ± 0.89 H des Abbayes 09/1932 7.63 ± 1.11 (under LOQ) 20/08/1961 on rocks in gutter where water flow during rain on east facing hillside in open pines nd H des Abbayes France, Pyrénées Orientales, Banyuls (66650) N-America, USA, Colorado, Custer County 1417 m nd 10.95 ± 1.05 H des Abbayes 08/07/1961 N-America, USA, Colorado, Custer County 1386 m nd 8.10 ± 2.75 H des Abbayes 30/06/1961 N-America, USA, Kentucky, Meade County in thick young ponderosa pines with open areas in shady valley 1158 m nd 6.12 ± 1.70 (under LOQ) H des Abbayes 29/03/1935 France, Maine et Loire, Liré (49530) nd nd H des Abbayes 05/08/1950 Suède, Närke, Svennevad nd 12.95 ± 2.49 H des Abbayes 21/07/1954 France, Côtes d'Armor, Laniscat (22570) on flat stones flooded by high winter water nd 11.35 ± 0.83 H des Abbayes 14/07/1927 France, Côtes d'Armor, Plaintel (22940) on submerged rocks nd 9.07 ± 0.86 183 1300 m on mossy soils and rocks 83 D aquaticum (D luridum) 84 D aquaticum (D luridum) 85 D aquaticum (D luridum) 86 D aquaticum (D luridum) 87 D aquaticum (D luridum) 88 D aquaticum (D luridum) 89 D fluviatile (D luridum) 90 Placidium lachneum? 91 92 93 94 D leptophyllodes D luridum D meiophyllizum D miniatum RENABB_B002_C08_ 02 RENABB_B002_C08_ 03 RENABB_B002_C08_ 04 RENABB_B002_C08_ 05 RENABB_B002_C08_ 06 RENABB_B002_C08_ 07 RENABB_B002_C08_ 08 RENABB_B002_C11_ 01 JB/002/09/2013 JB/001/09/2013 JB/003/09/2013 JB/004/09/2013 H des Abbayes 08/1931 France, Côtes d'Armor, Lanrivain (22480) on submerged rocks nd 8.80 ± 0.62 (under LOQ) H des Abbayes 09/1932 France, Vendée, Vouvant (85200) on submerged rocks (Verreries) nd 21.46 ± 1.39 H des Abbayes 30/03/1933 France, Finistère, Hanvec (29460) on rocks nd 14.48 ± 3.66 H des Abbayes 17/04/1933 France, Côtes d'Armor, Laniscat (22570) on submerged rocks nd 26.40 ± 5.58 H des Abbayes 17/06/1933 France, Loire Atlantique, Massérac (44290) on semi-flooded rock nd 14.27 ± 1.98 H des Abbayes 07/1933 France, Pyrénées Orient, Argelès sur Mer (66700) on rocks flooded by a torrent nd 9.95 ± 4.21 H des Abbayes 24/08/1960 oak woods and sandstone outcrops nd 7.14 ± 0.82 (under LOQ) H des Abbayes 25/06/1961 N-America, USA, Kansas, Greenwood County N-America, USA, Colorado, Custer County nd 8.79 ± 0.12 (under LOQ) J-Y Monnat J-Y Monnat J-Y Monnat J-Y Monnat 09/2013 09/2013 09/2013 09/2013 France, Brittany France, Brittany France, Brittany France, Brittany on submerged rocks on submerged rocks on submerged rocks on rocks close to the sea 9.52 ± 0.80 13.31 ± 1.32 20.71 ± 1.00 23.58 ± 1.38 9.50 ± 1.64 9.28 ± 1.21 9.64 ± 1.74 22.46 ± 0.93 184 in open pines on south facing hill 1036 m Appendix 4: Antioxidant activity of oxo-mycosporines and imino-mycosporines Compound Method (mechanism) Concentration  Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) 30 µM Pyrogallol autooxidation (scavenging of ROS) at pH 8.2 50 – 1000 µM Radical inititor Standards Results Ref AAPH Ascorbic and uric acids moderate [58] O2- Superoxide dismutase na [171] α-Tocopherol 4–28% inhibition Oxo-mycosporine   β-carotene bleaching (HAT) ABTS assay (ET) - pH - pH 7.5 - pH 8.5 2.5 – 10 µM Singlet oxygen scavenging in MeOH/CHCl3 medium 15 – 60 µM  Mycosporine glycine 10 – 200 µM  ABTS.+ Ascorbic acid 12–36% inhibition (IC50 = 20 µM) 38–76% inhibition (IC50 = µM) 46–82% inhibition (IC50 = µM) Enzymatic assay - Superoxide dismutase - Catalase  DPPH (ET) α-Tocopherol kt = 5.6 × 107 M–1s–1 vs α-tocopherol kt = 15.4 × 107 M–1s–1 O2- H2O2 DPPH Bovine erythrocyte α-Tocopherol strong strong na O2- Trolox IC50 = 350 µM vs trolox IC50 = 15 µM weak 1O Quercetin and ascorbic acid α-Tocopherol Ascorbic acid Ascorbic and uric acids 1O [210]  Mycosporine serinol Mycosporine glutaminol glycoside 4-Deoxygadusol  NBT (scavenging of ROS)  Kit Bioxytech AOP-490 (ET) Singlet oxygen scavenging in aq medium Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) [209] 2, 10 – 30 µM AAPH 185 kt = 5.9 × 107 M–1s–1 vs α-tocopherol kt = 6.4 × 108 M–1s–1, ascorbic acid kt = 1.6 × 108 M–1s–1 strong [178] [179] [211] Compound/Mixture Method (mechanism) Concentration Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) 50µM, 100 µM 200 µM 0-200 µM Radical inititor Standards Results Ref AAPH Ascorbic and uric acids weak strong [212] 1O Trolox moderate Imino-mycosporines  Porphyra-334 Dehydrated compound of porphyra-334 (NAC)  Lipid peroxidation  DPPH (ET) DPPH DPPH (ET) DPPH   Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) 10 – 30 µM AAPH Pyrogallol autooxidation (scavenging of ROS) at pH 8.2 100 – 1000 µM O2-  Shinorine  β-carotene bleaching (HAT) ABTS assay (ET) - pH - pH 7.5 - pH 8.5  Ferric thiocyanate (ET)  10 – 200 µM 2.5 – 10 µM ABTS.+ weak [84] Trolox IC50 = 10 µg/mL vs standard IC50 = 5.8 µg/mL [84] Ascorbic and uric acids weak [211] Superoxide dismutase 13–46% inhibition [171] α-Tocopherol 4–69% inhibition Ascorbic acids mg α-Tocopherol na na at 2.5 µM, – 6% inhibition at 5, 10 µM 2– 9% inhibition strong mg O2- α-Tocopherol Trolox strong IC50 = 185 µM vs trolox IC50 = 182 µM [213] Usujilene  Thiobarbituric acid (ET) ABTS assay (ET)  DPPH (ET) DPPH Trolox na  ABTS assay (ET) O2- Trolox IC50 = 55 µM vs trolox IC50 = 182 µM  DPPH (ET) DPPH Trolox IC50 = 809 µM vs trolox IC50 = 128 µM Trolox and ascorbic acid weak IC50 = 29 mM vs standards IC50 = 0.16 mM [48] Trolox and ascorbic acid comparable to standards IC50 = 0.25 mM vs standards IC50 = 0.16 mM [48]  478-Da MAA (a pentose-bound porphyra-334) 1050-Da MAA (3-aminocyclohexen1-one and 1.3-diaminocyclohexen and two pentose and hexose sugars) [47] [47] 508-Da MAA (a hexose-bound porphyra-334 derivative) ABTS assay (ET) 612-Da MAA (a two hexose-bound palythine-threonine derivative) ABTS assay (ET) O2- O2- 186 Mycosporine glycine: palythine: palythinol: asterina-330 (27.9:9:4.3:1) Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) 1.6 mM AAPH Ascorbic and uric acids strong inhibition Shinorine: mycosporine glycine (2.4:1) Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) 1.2 mM AAPH Ascorbic and uric acids moderate Asterina-330: palythine (8:1) Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) 0.9 mM AAPH Ascorbic and uric acids moderate Asterina-330: palythine (86:14)  Pyrogallol autooxidation (scavenging of ROS) at pH 8.2  β-carotene bleaching (HAT) 50 – 1000 µM O2- Superoxide dismutase 15–85% inhibition α-Tocopherol 48–81% inhibition ABTS assay (ET) - pH - pH 7.5 - pH 8.5 2.5 – 10 μM  Porphyra-334: shinorine (9.6: 1) Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) Porphyra-334: α-tocopherol (2500: 1) Phosphatidylcholine peroxidation (HAT) Porphyra-334: shinorine (88:12)  Pyrogallol autooxidation (scavenging of ROS) at pH 8.2  β-carotene bleaching (HAT) ABTS assay (ET) - pH - pH 7.5  10 – 200 µM ABTS.+ DPPH (ET) [171] Ascorbic acid na at 2.5 and μM, 2.76% inhibition at 10 µM 5– 16% inhibition (IC50 = 60 µM) 12– 47% inhibition (IC50 = 10 µM) AAPH Ascorbic and uric acids moderate [58] 50.02 µM AAPH Ascorbic and uric acids increase 40% inhibition vs porphyra-334 50 µM (after 10 min) [212] 200 – 1000 µM O2- Superoxide dismutase 16– 46% inhibition [171] α-Tocopherol 11–71% inhibition 0.9 mM 10 – 200 μM 2.5 – 10 mM ABTS.+ Ascorbic acid na na at 2.5 and μM 1.8% inhibition at 10 µM (IC50 = 400 µM) 3–15% inhibition (IC50 = 80 µM) - pH 8.5 M-324 + M-322 [58] mg/mL DPPH 187 Ascorbic acid 27.6%, 45.8% and 72.2% inhibition, resp [172] Palythine + asterina -330+ M-312 DPPH (ET) 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 mg/mL DPPH Ascorbic acid 14.5%, 53.0% and 68.9% inhibition, resp Shinorine + M-307 DPPH (ET) 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 mg/mL DPPH Ascorbic acid 5.6%, 13%, 39% and 64.3% inhibition, resp Mycosporine taurine + M-343 + dehydroxylusujirene In vivo assay 0.4, 4.0, 40 400 µg/mL H2O2 Without MAAs but treated with H2O2 9.3% inhibition at 0.4 µg/mL 21% inhibition at 4.0 µg/mL decrease with higher concentrations na: no activity detected; HAT: hydrogen atom transfer; ET: electron transfer; AAPH: 2'-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride; ABTS: 2, 2’-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline 6-sulfonate); DPPH: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; NBT: nitro-blue tetrazolium; DCFH-DA: 2’, 7’-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate; kt : rate constant 188 [214] VU : VU : Le Directeur de Thèse Le Responsable de l’Ecole Doctorale (Nom et Prénom) VU pour autorisation de soutenance Rennes, le Le Président de l’Université de Rennes Guy CATHELINEAU VU après soutenance pour autorisation de publication : Le président de Jury, (Nom et Prénom)

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