THỜI TIẾT TRÊN ĐẠI DƯƠNG OCEAN WEATHER

Weather on the South Atlantic Weather on Oceans The South Atlantic Winds and storms made the South Atlantic impossible to sail Iin 1400 no one had ever crossed it accidentally, let alone on purpose Here are three of the major weather obstacles Across central Africa and out into the Atlantic (where the clouds show on this August 1992 image) month-long periods of calm are frequent Until 1434 Europeans never sailed past these clouds Sailing southward past these clouds winds blew in the contrary direction, pushing ships backwards, and into the middle of the South Atlantic (Accompanying these prevailing winds were powerful matching currents.) Rather than fight these winds, Portuguese sailors would have to sail westward almost all the way across the South Atlantic to Brazil before turning to the east, to the southern tip of Africa Finally in order to sail back across the Atlantic from the bulge of South America to the tip of southern Africa (as Bartholomew Dias finally did in 1487) was difficult because of strong winds, powerful intersecting currents, and storms with winds up to 180 kilometers per hour http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/weather.html (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:37:10 AM] Weather on the South Atlantic Why Couldn't Sailors Cross the South Atlantic Before 1400? All ocean sailors before 1400 relied upon highly predictable seasonal winds and currents that came to be called "trade winds" because when they blew, the traders sailed into or out of harbors Trade winds and currents were the reason for regular long-distance travel in the Pacific and Indian Oceans Other sailors (the Northern Europeans and Chinese) had a coastal shelf to follow Where Leif Ericson could follow an ocean ledge to North America, no such edge connected the tip of Africa with South America's tail, only vicious storms Crossing the South Atlantic required a different approach to navigation Pacific Ocean Weather| Indian Ocean Weather | North Atlantic Coastal Shelf | South China Sea Coastal Shelf | Ocean Currents | |Home page http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/weather.html (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:37:10 AM] Ocean Currents and Tides: Benguela Current Ocean Currents and Tides: The Icy Benguela The icy Benguela current moves north from the Southern Ocean (around Antartica) and flows northwards along the West Coast of Africa Along with the accompanying winds the Benguela current reaches as far as southern Angola, making it extremely difficult to travel southward along the Atlantic Coast Where the icy Benguela meets the warm, south- and west-flowing Agulhas, there is a rich sea life beneath the surface, but tremendous turbulence above South African folklore considers the meeting of the two currents the cold Benguela and the warm Agulhas (roughly off the Cape of Good Hope) as the place where the two oceans meet Bathymetry and relief map of Atlantic and Western Indian Ocean adapted from NOAA Elsewhere on the Net A Primer on Ocean Currents | Classic Pictures of the Benguela Current Back to Ocean Currents (Agulhas) | South Atlantic Weather | Home page http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/benguela.html [8/29/2002 5:37:35 AM] Latitude: Beacon at Cape of Good Hope Cape of Good Hope Beacon Bartholomew Dias Beacon (Padrão) at Cape of Good Hope (author at base) Home page | Back to Other Beacons | Back to Ocean Currents http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/goodhope.html [8/29/2002 5:37:58 AM] NGDC/WDC MGG, Boulder-Surface of the Earth Poster, Revised March 2000 NOAA > NESDIS > NGDC > NGDC products > MGG > MGG products privacy statement Surface of the Earth Poster, Revised March 2000 World Data Center for Marine Geology & Geophysics, Boulder NGDC DATA ANNOUNCEMENT NUMBER: 00-MGG-05 MGG-5R: A Full Color Poster measuring 31 by 43 inches view 2-minute data on-line on-line ordering & cost information This image was generated from digital data bases of land and sea-floor elevations on a 2-minute latitude/longitude grid (1 minute of latitude = nautical mile, or 1.853 km) Assumed illumination is from the west; shading is computed as a function of the east-west slope of the surface with a nonlinear exaggeration favoring low-relief areas A Mercator projection was used for the world image, which spans 390° of longitude from 270° West around the world eastward to 120° East; latitude coverage is ±80° The resolution of the gridded data varies from true 2-minute for the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean floors and all land masses to minutes for the Arctic Ocean floor Major Sources of Data: The seafloor data between latitudes 72° North and 72° South are from the work of Smith and Sandwell (1977) These data were derived from satellite altimetry observations combined with carefully, quality-assured shipboard echo-sounding measurements, by Dr Walter H.F Smith, of the NOAA Laboratory for Satellite Altimetry and Dr David T Sandwell, of the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at the University of California, San Diego http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/94mgg01.html (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:38:38 AM] NGDC/WDC MGG, Boulder-Surface of the Earth Poster, Revised March 2000 For reference on the generation of these data, consult: W.H.F Smith and D.T Sandwell, "Global Sea Floor Topography from Satellite Altimetry and Ship Depth Soundings," Science Magazine, vol 277, issue 5334, 1997 Further information is available at: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/bathymetry/predicted/explore.HTML Seafloor data poleward of 72° are from the US Naval Oceanographic Office's (NAVOCEANO) Digital Bathymetric Data Base 5-minute (DBDB5) Land topography is from the GLOBE Project, an internationally designed, developed, and independently peer-reviewed global digital elevation model (DEM), at a latitude-longitude grid spacing of 30 arc-seconds (30") The GLOBE Task Team was established by the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) It is part of Focus I of the International GeosphereBiosphere Programme - Data and Information System Primary contributors to the GLOBE database are: ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ National Imagery and Mapping Agency (formerly Defense Mapping Agency), Fairfax, Virginia, USA Geographical Survey Institute, Tsukuba, Japan Australian Surveying and Land Information Group, Canberra, ACT, Australia Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA University College London, UK DLR-German Remote Sensing Data Center, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany NOAA National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, Colorado, USA USGS EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA For further information on the GLOBE project, consult: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/topo/globe.shtml For more information about bathymetry, topography, and relief data and products available from NGDC, please try URL: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/bathymetry/relief.html We offer posters, slide sets, and digital global relief data on CD-ROM For close-up on-line viewing and download of images related to this poster, please check the on-line 2-minute relief image viewing page on-line ordering & cost information Please direct telephone inquiries and orders to: Robin R Warnken, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA/NGDC E/GC3, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305-3328, phone: 303-497-6338, fax: 303-497-6513, email: Robin.R.Warnken@noaa.gov For technical information on the Revised Surface of the Earth Poster, contact: Dr Peter W Sloss, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA/NGDC E/GC3, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305-3328, phone: 303-497-6119, fax: 303-497-6513, email: Peter.W.Sloss@noaa.gov URL: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/00mgg05.html Bathymetry, topography, and relief page MGG HOME About MGG | Data | Images | Products MGG Index | People | What's New http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/94mgg01.html (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:38:38 AM] A Primer on Ocean Currents Coastal Briefs: Electronic access to coastal scientific information Originally published by Coastal Brief: 1994-05 A Primer on Ocean Currents Measurements and Lingo of Physical Oceanographers By Michael S McCartney, Senior Scientist, Woods Hole oceanographic Institution Volumes of Water Moving in Currents Oceanographers express current flow in "millions of cubic meters per second," a term difficult for most people to comprehend A large current, such as the Gulf Stream south of Nova Scotia, transports more than 150 million cubic meters per second, and typical transports for the smaller deep western boundary currents are 10 to 20 million cubic meters per second Various dense overflows from marginal seas such as the Mediterranean are even smaller, to million cubic meters per second For comparison, http://www.whoi.edu/coastal-briefs/Coastal-Brief-94-05.html (1 of 4) [8/29/2002 5:40:13 AM] A Primer on Ocean Currents the sum of all the rivers flowing into the Atlantic is about 0.6 million cubic meters per second The Amazon contributes about a third of that total, while the Mississippi River, whose rampages plagued the midwest last summer, accounts for only about 0.02 million cubic meters per second, roughly one tenthousandth of the Gulf Stream's transport! Figure (13824 bytes) Figure 1: Note the similarity of these imagined circulation fields for the atmosphere and ocean Atmospheric pressure contours show a low over Canada and a high over southeastern United States Arrows indicate direction of flow deduced from the geostrophic relation (that between horizontal pressure variations and horizontal currents), with higher speeds where the contours are closer together Contour lines in the western North Atlantic illustrate an analogous field, the dynamic height at the sea surface The compressed bundle emerging from the south off the coast of Florida is the Florida Current, which initiates the Gulf Stream system The ocean surface is about a meter higher in mid basin than it is inshore of the Gulf Stream, and this drives the flow, indicated by arrows Contours that peel off to the south indicate a partial clockwise circulation pattern around the high-elevation region, analogous to the clockwise flow around high pressures in the atmosphere Properties of Seawater Salinity: Though seawater's salinity is expressed in grams of dissolved solids per kilogram of seawater, today's methods measure seawater's electrical conductivity and then employ a well-known conversion algorithm to determine salinity While coastal waters can exhibit a wide range of salinity as a result of freshwater runoff, most of the world ocean lies in the narrow salinity range 33.8 to 36.8 Temperature: Oceanographers commonly refer to the "potential" temperature of a parcel of water This recognizes that a parcel of water sinking from a surface source will, if it does not mix or exchange heat with surrounding waters, become slightly warmer as the pressure on it increases with depth For example, if a parcel of surface seawater starts with a temperature of degree C and salinity 35 and descends to 3,000 meters as part of an overflow, it may warm as much as 0.3 degree C An instrument lowered into this overflow would sense this warmer temperature, which is called the "in situ" temperature However, for most calculations and analyses oceanographers use the potential temperature, which corrects for this effect of pressure and thus remains 0.0 degree C The North Atlantic is the warmest and most saline of the world's oceans, having a mean potential temperature of 5.08 degree C and mean salinity of 35.09, compared to the global average of 3.51 degree C and salinity of 34.72 Most of the warmer and more saline waters of the world are concentrated in the upper kilometer of the subtropical and tropical circulation regimes in what is called the main thermocline (a region of rapid decrease in temperature with depth, in the North Atlantic typically the upper kilometer) About 77 percent of world-ocean volume is colder than degree C, with salinities in the relatively narrow range 34.1 to 35.1 At the sea surface, only about 26 percent of the surface area is colder than degree C, and it is within this area that the large volume of cold water acquires its characteristics before sinking and traveling along paths like those discussed in this publication http://www.whoi.edu/coastal-briefs/Coastal-Brief-94-05.html (2 of 4) [8/29/2002 5:40:13 AM] A Primer on Ocean Currents Water Masses The large volume of cold water described above comprises the "deep" and "bottom" waters In the Atlantic there are several sources for these waters in both hemispheres Each hemisphere's sources are blended by circulation and mixing The net effect of northern sources dominates the deep water, while the net effect of southern sources dominates the bottom water In regions where the two water masses coexist, the bottom water lies beneath the deep water, although because of their mixing there is no sharp demarcation between the two water masses away from their sources Oceanographers often recognize these dominant sources through the proper names North Atlantic Deep Water and Antarctic Bottom Water The Mediterranean outflow descends through the thermocline to form a mid-depth saline "tongue" of Mediterranean Water, which mixes downward through the uppermost part of the North Atlantic Deep Water.(Authors Bower and Price discuss the Mediterranean outflow.) Other sources for this uppermost part of the North Atlantic Deep Water are found in the Labrador Sea, where winter cooling produces a large volume of water at potential temperatures between 3.0 degree C and 4.5 degree C Even colder waters are produced in the Nordic Seas (Greenland and Norwegian seas), the major source for the rest of the North Atlantic Deep Water The Nordic Seas' sources are confined by the ridge system that connects Iceland to Greenland and Europe, but spill over the ridge to form dense overflows The last source for the North Atlantic Deep Water is the Antarctic Bottom Water: Some of this water flows from the Brazil Basin in the South Atlantic across the equator into the North Atlantic, where its ultimate fate is to upwell into the lower part of the North Atlantic Deep Water Major currents like the Gulf Stream, and eddies like the North Brazil Current retroflection eddies, may penetrate the deep water and mix or disrupt the deep-current flow Current Velocity Measurements Oceanographers measure current speed in two ways For direct measurements, moored current meters record the speed of water flowing past them at intervals of hours or days, and surface or subsurface drifters reveal the pathways of the parcels of water in which they were launched Indirect estimates use a relation between horizontal pressure variations and horizontal currents (called the geostrophic relation) This is analogous to a meteorologist's use of atmospheric pressure charts to deduce the wind field In both cases the geostrophic velocity (of the wind or the ocean current) is parallel to the pressure contours on the chart and inversely proportional to the contour spacing For the ocean, the pressure is determined from the field of density as deduced from an equation of state that links density to the actual measurements of temperature and salinity However, this calculation in the ocean yields the velocity difference between the depth of the calculation and a "reference level." To convert this velocity difference to the absolute velocity, the reference level velocity must be determined by direct measurement, estimation, or some other means Since the number of direct velocity measurements is generally very small relative to the hydrographic database available for application of the geostrophic relation, more often than not the "other means" are needed These include: ● ● "Budgets," where a reference-level velocity is deduced by the requirement that the the sum of all the flows into and out of a region must be zero (since sea level isn't changing) "Water-mass analysis," where water-mass distribution suggests flow pattern velocities (For example, a given source region may cause a property "tongue" along which the source's characteristic properties propagate and then mix with the surrounding water This may show the http://www.whoi.edu/coastal-briefs/Coastal-Brief-94-05.html (3 of 4) [8/29/2002 5:40:13 AM] A Primer on Ocean Currents ● flow direction and allow estimation of a speed.) "Level of no motion inference," where a zone of zero speed is assumed to lie between two zones of water flowing in opposite directions to WHOI Coastal Briefs Home Page http://www.whoi.edu/coastal-briefs/Coastal-Brief-94-05.html (4 of 4) [8/29/2002 5:40:13 AM] Traditional Navigation Using the Coastal Shelf Traditional Navigation Using the North Atlantic Coastal Shelf When the first Viking caught sight of Vinland (Canada) by accident circa 986, he was unable to land there Following information from this first accidental voyage, Leif Ericson was able to reach Canada fourteen years later Sailing in the summer with the midnight sun and guided by the pole star, Leif followed the continental shelf (see arrows on map) to reach what we now know as the coast of Canada While Ericson did not have a compass, it would have been useless in these northern latitudes where magnetic deviation is very large For centuries, Northern European sailors, like Leif, hugged the coastline, guided by the high continental shelf (the edges of the continents wher e the sea bottom is not deep and shown here in light blue) The shallow waters along the northern rim of the Atlantic allowed Vikings such as Leif to reach North America Further to the south in Europe, sailors cruising the Mediterranean were seldom more than a day away from sight of land, making them just as coastal as their northern brethern http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/coastal.html (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:58:19 AM] Traditional Navigation Using the Coastal Shelf As coastal navigators, Europeans had not ventured into the South Atlantic because the ocean had a narrow continental shelf ( See the difference between the generous continental shelf around Great Britain and Scandinavia (left and above) and the slender western coast around Africa.) Furthermore, because they would have to sail against winds and currents, the continental shelf w as impossible to follow beyond a place called the Bulging Cape (Cabo Bojador) Before 1400 there existed no European tradition of high seas navigation because the South Atlantic was too difficult to sail using any type of traditional knowledge Available Elsewhere on the Net Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Canada all tell the story of the Vikings differently Here's how: Vikings (Denmark's semi-official history) | Norways' Semi-Official History | Canada's Semi-Official Story My recent favorite is the Icelandic version the voyage to Vinland Recent Books on Viking Ships in English| Actual Danish Viking Ships unearthed in Roskilde text in Danish When Ocean Currents and Winds Meet a Coast | Bibliography on European Coastal Navigation Navigating with Continental Shelves in Asia | Traditional Navigation | Beginning of European Open Ocean Travel |Home page http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/coastal.html (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:58:19 AM] The Viking ships The Vikings > Who were the Vikings? > Viking travels > THE VIKING SHIPS The Viking ships The ocean-going landing-crafts The Viking ships, both the Longship and the merchant ship or 'Knórr', could equally well handle ocean voyages across the Atlantic Neither needed a harbour, but could land on beaches or river banks anywhere How they sailed You not only need a good ship to be able to travel far You also have to know how to navigate to find your way to your destination The Vikings set sail in the morning when the wind and tide was right All day they sailed along the coast At nightfall they landed at some beach, put up tents, had a cooked meal and went to sleep Next day they set sail when the and so on, until they reached their destination This was the normal Viking sailing procedure Some times, however, the Vikings sailed for days across open sea and some times, sailing along rivers, they had to take their ships ashore and haul them across land to pass waterfalls or take the ships from one river to another On board the ship each man had a ships' chest where he had his belongings When they had to row the ship, the chest was used to sit on while rowing More information about Viking ships - 08 november 2000 - http://www.viking.no/e/travels/evikingships.htm [8/29/2002 5:58:51 AM] The Vikings The Vikings What is myth What is fact Did the Vikings have horns on their helmets? Why not? What we know about the Vikings? What have they left behind? The Viking Network Web tries to answer these and other questions Viking visits The Vikings were great travelers, both raiding, trading and settling in other lands Everyday life Of course the Vikings didn't spend all their time raiding and trading From the everyday life page you can find information on such things as what the Vikings ate, what games and sports they played, the clothes they wore etc Do the Viking Network Quiz One of the best ways to explore these pages is to the Viking Network Quiz The answers to all the questions can be found from the Viking Network World Wide Web pages, but you'll have to a bit of searching and you'll have to think hard where the answers are likely to be Participate in Viking Network Projects Get involved! Enjoy! http://www.viking.no/e/index.html (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:59:17 AM] The Vikings - 03 august 2001 - http://www.viking.no/e/index.html (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:59:17 AM] Maps The Vikings > Who were the Vikings? > Viking travels > MAPS Map of the Viking world All maps http://www.viking.no/e/maps/index.html (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:59:46 AM] Maps Complete listing Blank Map for plotting the places where Jorvik's trade goods came from England and The Danelaw Jorvik's (York's) possible Trade Routes beyond the British Isles Jorvik's trade routes in the British isles Jorvik's trade routes in the British isles Jorvik/York Regional map Map of Viking America Map of Viking Denmark Map of Viking Eastern Europe Map of Viking England Map of Viking Faeroes Map of Viking France Map of Viking Iceland Map of Viking Ireland Map of Viking Scotland Maps Normandy, Channel Islands and the 'ligne Joret' Plan of the city of York Scandinavian-named settlements around Jorvik Scandinavian-named settlements around Jorvik The Viking kingdom of York The Viking kingdom of York The Vikings in Normandy: Chronological stages in the foundation of Normandy The Vikings in Normandy: Density of Scandinavian place names The Vikings in Normandy:The old Frankish administrative districts in the 9th century Viking Settlements in Normandy - 08 november 2000 - http://www.viking.no/e/maps/index.html (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:59:46 AM] Index of The Viking Network Web Index Overview The Vikings Who were the Vikings? What Students today say about Vikings What some children around the world aged 10-16 remember about the Vikings The Viking Heritage Traces of Viking influence can be found still today Everyday life What was life like in the Viking age? Viking travels The Vikings had the best boats at the time and used them for getting around trading and rading Famous Vikings Some of the Vikings as Leif Eriksson and St Olav are still remembered today Index of Viking Info-sheets Here are some contributions from our member scools The Viking Homelands today Links to more information about the countries where the Vikings came from The Viking Timeline Some important dates and events from 789 to 1066 Viking problems and assignments Learn more by answeing questions or take part in Viking-related activities About The Viking Network Web Credits Awards presented to the Viking Network Web Maps Index Index of indexes Search - 03 august 2001 - http://www.viking.no/e/eindex.htm [8/29/2002 5:59:57 AM] What Students today say about Vikings [ The Vikings | Who were the Vikings? ] What Students today say about Vikings Vikings are people just like us Robert S, (11), California, USA The Vikings went abroad to rob convents while their wives stayed home with the keys Synne (11), Norway Vikings are warriors that fight in ships and look for gold and treasure and burn things and, they are also a football team Josh (12) NSW, Australia The Vikings were some villains who travelled around to steel other peoples' things Anne (11), Denmark I not know much but I know that they sailed across many seas and oceans and fought many battles around the world Nick (11), California, USA He is a man with a helmet There are horns on the helmet He had leather clothes On his chest he had something made of metal so they could not poke him He lived at least a 1000 years ago Ingvild (10), Norway Viking is a thing that people tell you but it can be a story so you can believe it Macha (11) California, USA I think Vikings are men that lived back years ago Before the Western times way, way, back Canesha (11), California, USA Olden day Norwegian knights that were soldiers that protect their city or there is some bad ones that steal things Funda (11), NSW, Australia The Vikings were men and women who lived off the coast of Australia and sailed the seas The viking men were warriors and thy protected their families Vikings also battled around the world http://www.viking.no/e/estudents.htm (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 6:00:18 AM] What Students today say about Vikings Chris (11), California, USA They were hunters who used to be in Iceland Brad (11), California, USA Vikings are pirates that used to go to different countries and stole things from them They used to go around in small ships and used axes, swords and shields They usually burned down the villages that they robbed They used to this when people believed there were different gods Tony (12), NSW, Australia The Vikings were a type of indians just like the Aztec's Katrina (11), California, USA The Vikings were a people that came from Northern Europe, the countries that are now Finland and Norway They were known for their fearsome warriors and skilled sailors They were considered as a barbarian people because they attacked and slaughtered their neighbour countries They characteristic weapon was the double-head axe which was used in their battles Their ships were the most advanced of their time, which they used to sail the Atlantic and reach the American continent and to establish colonies in Iceland Eduardo (15), Joao (16), Portugal - 09 juni 2002 - http://www.viking.no/e/estudents.htm (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 6:00:18 AM] The Viking Heritage [ The Vikings | Who were the Vikings? ] The Viking Heritage Place names Sailing along the coasts the Vikings gave names to inlets, bays and everything they needed for later reference Viking settlers named their new farms after the farms in the area they came from Some of the words and phrases they used were adopted by the native population in the countries the Vikings settled Archaeology Evidence of Viking presence can be found in most parts of Europe Archeological finds outside the Viking homelands are especially rich on the British Isles You can read more about coins and money Some archaeological findings Complete listing "I Dreamed a Dream" Carved on a small piece of wood from the 14th century, found in Denmark, we can still read the first bars of this song A London Runestone Armring from Prince Vladimir's treasure Cow's horn/Goat's horn Musical instrument Falsterpibe Musical instrument L'Anse aux Meadows Written by Robert W Easton http://www.viking.no/e/heritage/index.html (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 6:00:29 AM] The Viking Heritage Lindholm Hoeje - a graveyard and a settlement A Viking Network Info-sheet by Line Kristensen, Jeannette Rahmberg, Malene Damborg, Martin Kristensen, Carsten Haugaard, Pernille Gundersen, 1d, Noerresundby Gymnasium og HF-Kursus, Februar 1996 Lur Musical instrument Minting Coins in Jorvik Navigation Instruments Nørresundby Pan flute Musical instrument Recorder Musical instrument Runes The Vikings and Money in England The Vikings and money A Viking Network Info-sheet by Henriette Suna Niemann Jensen, Tina Thomsen, Niklas The excavations of Sebbersund Reymann, Anita Vivi Holt, 1d, Noerresundby Gymnasium og HF-Kursus, Februar 1996 Viking treasure hidden under the Kremlin A Viking Network Info-sheet by Igor Yablokov (14), student at the Norwegianfor 750 years Russian School, Moscow Written by Thor-Egil Paulsen, Rælingen, Norway, March 1995, based on Kolbjørn Vikings in Norway make their own Coins Skaares booklet "Moneta Norwei" (Oslo 1968) What was made in Viking Age Jorvik (York) ? - 08 november 2000 - http://www.viking.no/e/heritage/index.html (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 6:00:29 AM] Everyday life The Vikings > Who were the Vikings? > EVERYDAY LIFE Everyday life Like everybody else, the Viking men and women needed the basic things in life: food, clothes and houses Domestic animals played an important role in everyday life Probably the most important animal was the horse The Vikings' view of their world permeated everyday lives, and The Law decided what they could and couldn't It would be a dull life only dealing with the bare necessities of life The Vikings also played games and enjoyed music, poetry, sports and crafts like woodcarving and metal work - 08 november 2000 - http://www.viking.no/e/life/index.html [8/29/2002 6:00:39 AM] Viking Women The Vikings > Who were the Vikings? > Everyday life > VIKING WOMEN Women The Vikings lived in large family groups Children, parents and grandparents lived together When the eldest son took over the family farm, he became the head of the family and responsible for the well-being of them all He had to provide the food the family needed His wife, the lady of the household, had to see to it that the food lasted during the long, dark winter She made butter and cheese, dried and smoked meat and fish for storage and she was also expected to know about herbs for making medicine and care for the sick and wounded The farm animals were also her responsibility and when her husband went trading, went Viking, or hunting she also ran the farm in his absence In rich families she would have servants and slaves to help her As a visible sign of her authority and power the lady of the household wore the keys to the food chests at her waist When the men travelled abroad raiding, trading, or had gone hunting or fishing, the women were in charge of the work on the farm This lead to that the women played an important part in society Marriage Girls were married at the age of 12 -15 They were then expected to run a household Let's hope they got some help from the older women in the family! The marriage was agreed between families and was regarded as an alliance between the two families for mutual help and protection The girl herself had little to say in the matter The Dowry The bride brought cloth of linen and wool, a spinning wheel, a loom and a bed as part of her dowry Women from richer families could also have jewellery of silver and gold, farm animals and even farms as a part of their dowry Everything she brought into the marriage remained her personal property and did not fully become part of her husband's estate Her children would in turn inherit this property as part of their maternal inheritance Divorce http://www.viking.no/e/life/ewomen.htm (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 6:00:58 AM] Viking Women The woman did not fully become part of her husband's family when she married She continued to be a part of her own family and if her husband mistreated her and the children, or he was too lazy to be a good provider or insulted her family, she could divorce him To it she called some witnesses In front of these witnesses she first at the front door, and then at the couple's bed, declared herself divorced from her husband The Children Babies and toddlers automatically stayed with their mother at a divorce The bigger children were divided between the parents according to the wealth and status of the two families With her right to property, inheritance and divorce the Viking woman had more legal rights than most women elsewhere in Europe at the time Children were also protected by law as members of the family, and their rights to inheritance even after a divorce The poorer people At the smaller farms the systems with men's work and women's work were less strict With no servants and slaves, everybody had to contribute what they could for the survival of the family in the harsh Scandinavian climate The Slaves Slaves had no legal rights except as property of the owner They could be bought and sold and the slaveowner could treat them as he or she pleased If a slave-owner killed one of his own slaves it was not regarded as murder If a free-man killed a slave belonging to someone else he had to pay the price of a slave as a compensation The price would be about the same as for a farm animal When a woman slave had a child it became the property of her owner If she was sold while pregnant, the child would become the property of her new owner - 15 april 2000 - http://www.viking.no/e/life/ewomen.htm (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 6:00:58 AM] [...]... Relative Sea-Level Rise Oil Spills ● A Local Oil Spill Revisited World Oceans ● A Primer on Ocean Currents http://www.whoi.edu/coastal-briefs/table-of-contents.html [8/29/2002 5:41:29 AM] Pacific Ocean Weather Weather on Oceans The Pacific Ocean Winds and currents in the Pacific flow predominantly from East to West Above the equator Pacific Ocean trade winds blow from the northeast Below the equator they... his voyage in 1828 http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/PacificOcean.html (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:42:30 AM] Pacific Ocean Weather Available Elsewhere on the Net Polynesian Navigators Understanding of Weather How Seasons Affect Air Mass The Weather On the Ocean Right Now What About El Niño? And La Niña? Meanwhile The Weather in the South Pacific Is The Ocean Atlas of Hawai'i The Polynesian Voyaging Society... Is The Ocean Atlas of Hawai'i The Polynesian Voyaging Society Building a Double Canoe Micronesian Voyaging Beautiful Ocean Pictures of Pacific Weather Recent History of El Niño Indian Ocean Weather | South Atlantic Ocean Weather | Home page http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/PacificOcean.html (2 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:42:30 AM] Untitled Document El Nino Theme page http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/toga-toa/el-nino/home.html... ship-drift derived surface currents Sadlers tropical Pacific wind stress (1979-1990) Weekly NCEP sea surface temperature World Ocean Atlas 1994 (Annual Means) World Ocean Atlas 1994 (Monthly Means) World Ocean Atlas 1994 (Seasonal Means) World Ocean Atlas 1998 Annual World Ocean Atlas 1998 Monthly http://ferret.wrc.noaa.gov/las/main.pl?cookieCheck=1 (5 of 5) [8/29/2002 5:46:43 AM] http://ferret.wrc.noaa.gov/las/left.pl?op=normal... southern ocean annual climatology Rasmusson and Carpenter El Nino 3 year composite Rasmusson and Carpenter tropical Pacific climatology Reynolds and Smith SST monthly climatology Richardsons ship-drift derived surface currents Sadlers tropical Pacific wind stress (1979-1990) Weekly NCEP sea surface temperature World Ocean Atlas 1994 (Annual Means) World Ocean Atlas 1994 (Monthly Means) World Ocean Atlas... Takeuchi, 1991: TOGA-TAO: A moored array for real-time measurements in the tropical Pacific Ocean Bull Am Meteorol Soc., 72, 339347 (abstract available) McPhaden, M.J., 1993: TOGA-TAO and the 1991-93 El Niño-Southern Oscillation Event Oceanography, 6, 36-44 (entire paper available) Lee, Martin E., and Chelton, Dudley, Oceanic Kelvin/Rossby Wave Influence on North American West Coast Precipitation, NOAA Technical... National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory / Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Project Disclaimer Feedback: taogroup@pmel.noaa.gov http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/nino-home.html [8/29/2002 5:43:47 AM] NOAA/PMEL/TAO - what is La Niña? U.S.Department of Commerce / NOAA / PMEL / TAO / El Niño theme Page What is La Niña? La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean. .. characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific Some recent El Niño and La Niña events Read more on Impact on global climate See La Niña and El Niño animation's The origin of the name, La Niña Where to find more information Selected references and publications Current conditions El Niño and La Niña in the entire Pacific ocean temperatures Pacific ocean recorded last night Current... btripp@whoi.edu; telephone, 508-2892900; fax, 508-457-2172; or mail, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MS#2, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1525 Coastal Briefs are cooperatively sponsored by the Sea Grant Program and the Rinehart Coastal http://www.whoi.edu/coastal-briefs/ (1 of 2) [8/29/2002 5:41:05 AM] WHOI Coastal Briefs Research Center at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the U.S Geological Survey Woods Hole... http://ferret.wrc.noaa.gov/las/left.pl?op=normal meridional moisture flux inter meridional moisture flux std d meridional wind interannual st meridional wind std dev meridional wind stress interan meridional wind stress std dev ocean friction vel cubed ocean friction vel cubed anoma outgoing latent heat flux inte outgoing latent heat flux std outgoing longwave radiation outgoing longwave radiation an outgoing longwave radiation in outgoing