A criticism with personal recollections (1882) Alexander bain

JOHN STUART MILL CRITICISM WITH PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS EY ALEXANDER gAIN, LL.D EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF LOGIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN LONDON: LONGMANS, GREEN, AND 1882 [Ai/ rights reserved,^ CO f\ lU,-2.-]5o ; PREFACE In the present work, I not propose to give the complete biography of John Stuart object in is to examine doing which, I Mill fully his writings have drawn freely chief and character upon recollections of the second half of his My life my personal By means of family documents, I have been able to add a few important particulars to his own account of his early years Aberdeen, /flffwa;'^', 1882 CONTENTS Chapter I EARLY EDUCATION 806-1 821 Commencement of his education, Going to visit Bentham, at Barrow Green, His own account of his earliest reading, Composes a History of Rome at six years and a Conversation with Lady ib half, • Spencer, Letter from Ford Abbey, containing a description of the Abbey, Important letter Sir Jo Samuel Bentham, giving an account of studiesJ^xnm eight to thirteen, Comparison with the statements ib his in the Autobiography, Invitation to visit Sir Samuel, in France, Diary of his Journey to Studies Has a visit, Paris, and thence to Toulouse, and occupations from day to day, and riding master, besides lessons letter in Latin to his two 12 in musiCj sisters, Makes a tour to the Pyrenees, on Lady Bentham's opinion of him, the way to Montpellier, Estimate of his precocity in study and acquirements, and too few breaks His knowledge of Classics necessarily superficial, His Mathematical studies probably had genuine results, Precocity most remarkable in Logic, Return to England, Application excessive, Began Law ; 20 21 ib 22 ib 23 24 25 26 27 commenced Psychology, ib Norwich Letter from Yarmouth: Lost his watch; ib studied Visits the Austins at II ib fencing master, Writes a ib Bentham ; Resumes home-teaching the other Acquaintances at Cambridge 28 children Visit to Charles Austin there, Professor Townshend's attempts to get him entered at Trinity College, ib ib Chapter IL TWENTY YEARS OF WORK 1820-1840 Chronological sequence from 1820 to 1830, Entered the India House in 1823 Steps of his promotion, 30 31 Contents VIU Westminster Review: Contributions to the attack on the Edinburg^h Review, On the Richard Carlisle prosecutions : —continues 32 - —extract from peroration, 33 Review of Brodie on Hume's misrepresentations in disingenuous his father's artifices, Hume': his History: 34 35 36 Articles contributed in 1825, 1826, 1827, Review of Whateley's Logic, Final article on Scott's Life of Napoleon, 37 Mental ib crisis of 1826 ; over-working of his brain Memoranda of conversations with Roebuck macy with Mill, respecting his early Chronological outHne from 1830 to 1840, Visit to Paris after the three state of parties, Bad 38 40 Letter to his father on the days of July inti- of 1836 Leave of absence and three months' tour in France, Switzerland and Italy, 4r illness Six months of sick leave, spent in Italy, Illness of 1839 London Review started Other Tennyson articles ; first : contribution the Sedgwick article, De ; Tocqueville, 42 44 46 47 Energetic review of the Parliamentary Session of 1835, Union of the London Review with the Westminster : Mill's article on Civilization on the History of Reform, f : Reviews Carlyle's French Revolution, Political article on the Parhament of 1837 First On "Canada and Lord Durham" Alfred de Vigny —— on Armaud : Carrel, article, Bentham^nd upon Parties, Coleridge articles his old associates, general drift, and —wide Review Management of the Review: Mill never losses by it, His sub-editor, John Robertson, comprehension of different 57 58 Strain of his poUtical articles for the seven years illness ib ostensible editor: his pecuniary Last 53 ib their eifect Principle of conducting the opinions, 52 :—their 50 51 philosophy of Literature and Poetry, Second Canada article "Lord Durham's Return," "Re-organization of the Reform Party," Theory of the two State j9_ and death of his brother Henry, Chapter 59 60 ib IIT, LOGIC AND POLITICAL ECONOMY 1841-1848, First acquaintance with Mill Picture of him — 1839, in the India House, as seen in April, 1842, Revision of his Logic, then ready for press, 62 64 65 Contents Openings for criticisn', Publication in March, 1843 Connexion with Comte; chief work its effect : IX • immediate success, first upon introduction into England of Comte'; Mill, Ideas appropriated in the Logic ; particularly in the Social Science, Correspondence with Comte, beginning in 1841 Personalities between : and Comte, Reviews Bailey's Theory of Vision, and defends Berkeley, Depressed health losses by American Repudiation, Article on Michelet, "Attempts to write on the Science of Ethology, but abandons the Turns his thoughts to a work on Political Economy, ject Mill : — pro- Studies Beneke, Writes on " Claims of Labour," in 1844, Ward's book The Ideal, 8cc., Herschel's Address at the British Association of 1845 compliments Mill speaks slightingly of Comte correspondence with Mil], ; ; ; Conversations with Grote ; his high estimate of the Logic, The Helvetius doctrine of human equality held by both Commencement of Political Economy, Mill and Grote, Writes on Fre nch Pol itics for the Edinburgh, Reviews the first two volumes oirGrote's Greece, Writes in the Morning Chronicle on the Irish famine, urging the formation of peasant properties, Liebig's testimony to the Logic, Publication of Political Economy, Doctrines on Property; Malthusianism littlefeyourshownioSocialism, ; — Break-down in health a bad accident, His greatest works now completed, Chapter , IV REMAINING WRITINGS : 1849-1873 First important revision of Logic, Marriage —1851, Views of Home Politics, Vindicates against Article On Brougham Grote's Greece, Death of his brother George, Bad the French Revolution of 1848, on Whewell illness of 1854 : at Madeira, long tour abroad, Appointed Head of his office, Drafts the East India Company's Petition to Parhament, against the contempleted abolition of the Company, Extracts from the Petition, — ? ^ Contents, RetiTement from India House, Wife's death, » Pamphlet on Parliamentry Reform : change of opinion on the Ballot, ^Publication of Liberty, Analysis of its contents : Necessity of keeping in view the counter to every proposition, Application to ethical and religious doctrines, Conflicting doctrines usually share the truth between them, Morality of Christianity incomplete, Lays himself open to reply, Liberty of Conduct unsteady hold of the essentials of human happiness, : Limits to the authority of Society over the individual, , Applications to the relationship of the sexes, Disapprobation not necessarily described as punishment — Sir James Stephen'sxriticJfiioSr Mode of stating objections to prosecution for heresy, Necessity of bringing force to bear on human at all points, life IKingsley on the effect produced on him by the Liberty ^Utilitarianism published, 1861, Gives up important strategic positions : loose expressions as to the constituents of Happiness, iThe superior quality of.pleasures refers to the good of others a happy life, Genesis of moral sentiment admirably Definition of Criticisms : John Grote Lgtt^ on the changes Sir : illustrated, James Stephen, in the India Office, Publication of Representative Government in i860, Plan of the work, Enters on the examination of Hamilton's Philosophy, Buoyant Articles spirits at on the the time, Civil War in America, Studies for the Hamilton, World omission of Sense of Resistance, " Fixity of order," too exclusively considered, Belief in the External : Permanent existence of Mind well handled Attack on Mansel, , Belief in Memory, much mixed up with other questions, Hamilton on the study of Mathematics, Articles on John Austin and on Comte, Free-will too Invited to stand for the representation of Westminster, Conduct in Parliament, Article on Grote's Plato, Revision of Logic, .,,, , Elected Rector of St Andrews, Rectorial Address, Not adapted to the limits of the Scotch University curriculum, Contents, XI Mistaken advocacy of Classics, Hierarchy of the Sciences put forward, Third Edition of Hamilton : replies to objectors, Editing his father's "Analysis," • , Defeat on again standing for Westminster, , , Pamphlet on England and Ireland, Subjection of Women published, Strong illustration of the evils from the abuse of power, Mental equality of the sexes urged with too little qualification, Felt strongly on this subject, Sir James Stephen's criticism, Labours on the Land Question working men, Grote's funeral, : co-operation with the leaders of the His own death, Posthumous Essays on Religion, \y Essay on Nature : handling in some respects inadequate, Utility of Religion, Theism : attending a re-construction of Religion, difficulties Insufficient discussion of the argument from Design, human person exclusively, Incongruity of reducing him from the Divine to the human level, His example and precepts are suitable only to his religious character, Christ as a Weakness in purely Theological discussion comparison with Strauss, In some respects, Mill a religious man, but a negationist at bottom, : Chapter V, CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE Good physical constitution, Mental powers generally, Specialities of his Intellect, Distinguishing feature —command of generalities, How far combining originality and precision as a thinker, Openness of mind, Receptiveness not an absolute quality, but, in Mill's mind, very high, Habit of not accepting half-solutions, * Estimate of his own Mistaken doctrines originality, —natural equaUty of men ; insufficient hold of the physical element of our being, Approved of combining a professional avocation with philosophy, Might have done more original work if he had been exempt from office, Moral side of his character, Sources of his Activity, Sensual feelings below average, Emotional elements —^Tender Feeling ; character of Sociability, Contents XII Malevolent emotion, under great restraint, Love of Scenery Plant-collecting, Anxiety to preserve the natural beauties of our country ; The ' Piccadilly trees, Poetic tastes, Sympathy :— forms of generosity, Fidelity to engagements Treatment of opponents in controversy Love of truth courage of his opinions, f Public spirit ardent promotion of all improvements, ; ; The —work, great object of his hfe -Shortcomings of his sympathetic side, Severity of judgment upon the Radical party, Harsh judgments on England, and English society, Sharpness in expressing difference of opinion, "Beginning of friendship v^'ith Mrs Taylor, Intercourse with her in her husband's life time, Dedication of Political Economy, Encomiums after her death, Sources of his attachment, Her special influence, -Her part and the Subjection of Women, in the Liberty His estimate of her genius, Different views as to her attractions, "His Style Defective ; language faculty not grammar —placing looseness in the Rhetorical Illustration arts, and intrinsically great, of qualifying words employment of ' ; excess of relatives it ', allusion, Strength not the highest quality, Neglect of emphasis Connection of pecuharities with Expository art in general, Exemplification of principles thorough, ^Defects in complex ideas, and plural subjects ExampL Powers of Persuasion very great Addressed both the reason and the feehngs, Defective only in verbal luxmiance, Examples of Wit, Character as a Converser, Different views of his conversational aptitudes, Voice, elocution, and gesture Could give and take with others, Wit and humour in conversation, Carlyle's remark, —reports of his CaroHne Fox's Journals Influence in general, talk, 191 id — — ; DIFFERENT OPINIONS AS TO CONVERSATION, 87 people very differently, and when he was twenty-four he was described by Charles Greville in these terms "November 15th [1830] —Yesterday with Taylor (Henry) to meet Southey member Strutt, economist ; for Derby, a Radical Charles Young Mill India,' and written many Villiers, young the son of Mill is is said : morning I breakfasted the party was Southey : young Mill, a and myself ; political Elliot, who wrote the History of British ' He to be cleverer than his father excellent articles in reviews, pamphlets, &c has but ; though powerful with a pen in his hand, in conversation he has not the art of managing his ideas, and is consequently hesitating and his and has the appearance of being always working slow, mind in propositions or a syllogism.'' Any one knew him that twelve years later would not recog- nize the smallest resemblance in want of the art was neither hesitating nor slow : picture this of managing his ideas ; He had no he quite the opposite and there was nothing : in the order of his statements that suggested syllogisms A writer in the Edinburgh Review (January, 1874), who delineation, which seems to knew him from early years, gives a me not much nearer the mark : " His manners were shy and awkward His powers of con- though remarkable enough in argument, were wholly He had no humour, no talk,' and didactic and controversial He had been indeed no interest in the minor concerns of life versation, ' whom he regarded as superior beings, and he seemed to shrink from all bred in a small coterie of people of extreme opinions, contact with ordinary mortals thing of the life In later life he affected some- of a prophet, surrounded by admiring votaries, him largely that incense in which prophets had neither the wit and readiness which adorn the higher circles of the world, nor the geniality and desire to oblige which impart a charm to the lower." His shyness and awkwardness I entirely failed to perceive His conversation was not limited to argument \ he had humour who ministered to delight He and AND ELOCUTION VOICE l88 and did not lightness, 1849-1872 He restrain their display did not shrink from contact with ordinary mortals, and had a great many were only during the he spent in a busy encompassed with State office, He if it thirty-five years, that occasions of encountering such hours a day, for six *' higher a Sydney Smith London and superiors, equals, had wit and readiness such passed in the : as we not inferiors find often sur- No one pretends that he was one thing that took the 1865, and carried his election for circles'' I believe that the public by surprise in Westminster, was his wit and readiness The material of a man's conversation must be his amassed knowledge and a writer shows that by his books The nearest approach to actual conversation is letter-writing ; we may judge ; of people's talk by their familiar correspondence and letters fail to show conversation as such is ; elements of considerable efficacy in themselves lates to voice, delivery, gesture, — purely physical part is What books and includes All that re- and play of countenance —the imperfectly conceivable through mere The part not physical is the conduct as regards which fluctuates between the two extremes of lecture or monologue, in the Coleridge style, and short question description the listeners and answer, ; in the Socratic style was agreeable, although not specially melodious Mill's voice it was thin and weak His articulation was not very ; clear His elocution was good, without being particularly showy or impressive he had a mastery of emphasis ; his modulation was ; sufficiently removed from monotone, so that there was nothing He had not much gesture, but it was wearying in his manner all in at keeping strong sobriety ; his features and reserve were expressive without his aiming Everything about him had the cast of effects ; he did no more than the end required There was so little of marked peculiarity in never knew anyone that could mimic him enunciation of a sentence his speaking, that I successfully in the Very few people could assume his GIVING AND TAKING IN CONVERSATION voice, to begin with and I ; and his modulation 89 was simply correct colourless elocution can account for his seeming hesitation of manner he did not study grand and imposing talk, He saying the right thing clearly and shortly fluent, Although he always aimed at was perfectly but yet would pause for an instant to get the best word, or the neatest collocation epigrammatic turn He : and he also liked to finish with an was one day expressing his admiration of Charles BuUer, and then, alluding to Roebuck, remarked he was equally good in his way, *' but it was not so good a way His demeanour with reference to the other participants the conversation was sufficiently marked in never lectured He or declaimed, or engrossed the talk vals, to He " hear what the others had to say ; paused at due interand not merely heard, reply With him, talk and embodied that in his ought to be, an exchange of information^ thought, and argument, when it assumed the form of discussion ; and an exchange of sympathies when the feelings were concerned He did not care to converse on any other terms than perfect mutuality He would expound or narrate at length when it was specially wished ; and there were, of course, subjects that it was agreeable to him to dilate upon ; but he wished to be in accord with his hearers, and to feel that they also had due but took in, was, what it openings for expressing concurrence or otherwise.* I have sometimes been surprised at his readiness to answer any question or plunge into any topic that might be propounded I should have often expected him to tions of subject as I have seen people that he cared It is for, him resist led into such rapid ; transi- but, in talk with he did not resent a desultory chace mainly with reference to his conversation, that we are * He had a good-humoured contempt for the monologue talkers When Sydney Smith's well-known saying on Macaulay came out (unusually brilliant, some splendid flashes of silence), Mill capped it with a story of two Frenchmen of this species, pitted against each other One was in full possession, but so intent was the other upon striking in, that a third person watching the contest, exclaimed, " If he spits, he's done " ; WIT AND HUMOUR 190 entitled to speak of had not him as possessing 1849-1872 Wit and Humour sufficient originality of style to yield worthy of being printed ; but, like many He literary effects other people having more than enough to be enterand in talk For the same reason the same Umitations, he had taining that and genial Wit fails in society to display itself in his books, many quotable sayings having so little not make any efforts in this direction ; saying of his at he did not produce love of display, he did I don't remember any comparable to Cornewall Lewis's all — " Life amusements " ; but he made sallies that amused the moment, as well as amateur wit usually does ; his enjoyment of a good joke was intense and his range of subjects was wide and liberal He had the essential conditions of a humourist, as opposed to scornful, scathing mockery of the Swift and Voltaire stamp that is to say, sympathy and warmth of feeling, and the absence of would be numerous tolerable, but for its : own egotistic fears as to his Carlyle's phrase in the " dignity.* Reminiscences " describing Mill's conversation as "sawdustish" shows his worst temper, without his usual felicity As Mill did not lecture, but talk, he always gave Carlyle himself abundant rope, and brought him out, as only a small number of two together but once hour for leaving, I his friends could I never saw the Calling at the India House, at Mill's found Carlyle in the room We walked London Library, Carlyle having the largest talk I remember only the conclusion It was as together to the share of the *I remember walking with him by Trafalgar Square, one advertising board set forth a dwarf figure wearing afternoon, when a helmet, and holding a long javelin, but otherwise completely nude This professed to be "General Tom Thumb as Romulus" (The dwarf had been giving a round of personations) It caught Mill's eye, and put him into convulsions He was fond of taking off his father s Scotch friends that came to the house The best bit of humour of this sort that I remember his telling, was upon Professor Wallace About the time when knighthoods were given to a number of scientific men Brewster, Leslie, and others Wallace happened to be staying with the Mills He was asked {I have no doubt by John Mill himself) why he had not been knighted His answer was "ye see they would ca' me Sir Weelyam Wallace " an — — — — RECORDED CONVERSATIONS we were entering St James's Square, that Carlyle was de- nouncing our religion and all — " Now, you with the remark public your whole grunt, the exclamation like —"Ho," He gave, Mill strucl^ in man " with and added, "it should that " his peculiar some one is Fox" interesting pictures of Mill's conversations he appeared between 1840 and 1846 to tell the This was not recently published "Journals of Caroline some very as accessories that subject fancied Frederick the Great that The its are just the very mind upon exactly what Carlyle 191 gives and ways, His opinions about shown to the Fal- things in general in those years, so far as mouth circle, are very fairly set forth The thing wanting to full justice to his conversation is to present it in dialogue, so as to show how he could give and take with his fellow-talkers A well-reported colloquy between him and Sterling would be much very to the purpose He appears to great advantage in the way that he accommodated himself to the kind Foxes, on the occasion of staying at Falmouth during Henry's last The letter to which corroborates what of concreteness crete, and, He had, A given at length (p 61), is it illness Barclay Fox, which I have referred to above : —" Mill I remark of Sterling's have already said as to has singularly little is quoted, Mill's want sense of the con- though possessing deep feeling, has little poetry " seems to me, the sense and the feeling, but not the power of expression, or of concrete embodiment in language which is the distinctive mark of the poetic genius He was born to read, and not to write, poetry A few lines on Mill's influence, will bring left our sketch to a hitherto untouched; serve to bring It is close past, present, Not and future, that the topic has been but that an express reference will up a few novel illustrations not for the opportunity of contradicting former opinions respecting him, but because the polemic are often more suggestive than mere and criticism of others exposition, that I quote ; INFLUENCE UNDERESTIMATED 192 some of the unfavourable His great ence friend, 1849-1872 estimates of his character Nassau Senior —a man and — spoke complishments and of large acquaintance with people of him burgh : 1844, in a letter to the Editor of the Edin- thus, in — " Factory labour must be ingenious and original, though I good is He sense left to own has been bitten Like Ricardo too, he wants This is insoluble is unimportant difficulty ; keeping * but He Mill will be not quite trust his by Carlyle and Torrens, and I apt to puzzle himself by the excess of his knot which influ- of various ac- lets He a ', real, own ingenuity does not cut a but comparatively stand in the way of practical action." a specimen of a kind of criticism that I have often heard regarding Mill was It really a mode of expressing judgment on particular points Mill was no doubt at times unpractical, but so, in my humble opinion, was Senior I have met him occasionally, and admired him as a converser difference of but never saw any great wisdom in his political views I were to give an example, mending Priests A for years the it would be endowment of the Irish Roman If I recom- Kis persistently Catholic from the public exchequer still more decisively unfavourable Mill's influence truth, if the by his critic in the whole work of his judgment is passed upon Edinburgh Review life be examined, it " In will be found to be eminently destructive, but not to contain one practical constructive idea." This comes to the very point that — It lays out his two sides destructive I wish to start from and constructive and pronounces distinctly upon each His destructive agency has undoubtedly been great ; but it is still unexhausted, and is difficult to estimate with precision — His influence must be taken along with Bentham's and his ; and a more formidable trio, for the work of pulling father's down rotten structures, never came a monstrous perversion of fact to But it would be them nothing but de- together call stroyers In politics, everything must be done by co-operation, and POLITICAL MOVEMENTS 193 individuals can rarely claim an undivided merit single If, however, what Mill says of the part he took in supporting Lord Durham, in the London and Westminster Review^ is proof against he has rendered a great service to the world in His words are: "Lord one important region of affairs Durham's re^port, written by Charles BuUer, partly under the inspiration of Wakefield, began a new era; its recommendations, refutation, — extending to complete internal self-government, were in Canada within two full and have been since extended to nearly all the other colonies of European race, which have any claim to the character of important communioperation in ties And I may or three years, say that in successfully upholding the reputa- Lord Durham and his advisers at the most important moment, I contributed materially to this result." tion of I call the tical elevated lific whole of problem of all — in his doctrines regarding the greatest poli- —the elevating of the class that needs to be an eminent degree sound in themselves and pro- of the best consequences, although single out we may not be any one distinctive or separate result parties in the State were helping to poison working men, he (after his father) sweeping away the refuges of lies able to When both and delude the was steadily occupied in — in teaching them self- dependence, and in warning them against bubbles and expectations of immediate relief He other people, unpalatable truths ; dared to and tell them, as well as but, for his teaching, the thirties might have been far more perilous Whatever may be the view taken of the political claims forward in behalf of women, it will be allowed that Mill done more than any single person for the bread-earners of The cold philosophy of Sir James Stephen would sex have taken the place of his apostolic zeal, in obtaining Chartism of the put has the not the concessions of the last few years for bettering the education of women, and for widening the spheres of their industry Mill, having not only inherited, but also shared, his father's responsibility in urging upon this 13 country a great extension of DANGER OF THE POWER OF NUMBERS 194 1849-1872 the suffrage, considered it a part of his calling to set forth all the possible dangers of placing power in the hands of the majority He gave his first note of warning on this point, in the Bentham article ; Tocqueville, and is has gone on, as and leaps ceive, in fact, the transfer of power stage, we have not been an ideal minority that the governing minorities, be more shall All have looked chiefly to hitherto, -and consequently the greater the extension of the ; Mill suffrage, the fewer are the neglected interests ingly sensitive to the welfare of small minorities, little thrown able to con- our collective interests than an actual majority themselves De Representative the in the dark, these warnings are not less to set up, still faithful to length at usual, through the scramble of parties, by is At our present away in his reviews of came up again treated Although, in point of Government flukes the topic is exceed- who have so chance under the government of a majority; though, of course, equally selves The ill off under a minority great advantage of distinct democracy is have votes, and can thus make their influence cannot have the absolute minorities rule, felt ; minorities but they can club with other and make terms with the preponderating body, be- fore contributing to place That the working class, may band themselves on it in power having the absolute majority of votes, their class interest, and of power to the exclusion of property and capital, moment from them- that all classes The chimerical seize the reins is at the present elder Mill's faith in the influence of the rfiiddle class, which combines wealth and intelHgence with no small numerical yet : force, stands good, so far as the government is still upon subject to great upper-class control we have gone their shoulders, although Nevertheless, we are none the worse for his son's elaborate examination of the evils that may mere numbers what has Mill done by way of construction in social philosophy? His constructiveness in other branches is less ambiguous ; I mention for the last possibly arise from the sway of So much in answer to the question — INFLUENCE BY MULTITUDE OF SMALL IMPR:£SSI0NS time, but without further 95 comment, the Logic of Induc- tion Although in order to a permanent reputation, it is necessary work great in itself and of exclusive authorship, yet this is not the only way that original power manifests to produce a ' itself A multitude of small impressions lated effect of a mighty whole Who liiay have the accumu- shall sum up Mill's collective influence as an instructor in Politics, Ethics, Logic, and Metaphysics ? No calculus can integrate the innumerable pulses of knowledge and of thought that he has made to vibrate in the minds of his generation little The tury united careers of the two Mills covered exactly a cenday chosen between the 23rd April and the 7th A May, 1973, would serve as a double conjoint influence might be finally centenary, summed up when their APPENDIX J E Cairnes on Mill's Political Economy As I have been able to say very I am happy city by in little on Mill as a Political Economist, being able to quote the estimate formed of him in this capa- his friend, Cairnes published in the The was one of a series of notices of Mill's labours after his death task of fairly estimating the value of Mr Mill's achievements in Economy— and, Political done It Examiner in every indeed, the same remark applies to what he has department of philosophy— is rendered particularly The a circumstance which constitutes their principal merit intellectual, no his thoughts, less difficult by character of his than of his moral nature, led him to strive to connect whatever was the branch of knowledge at which he laboured, with the previously existing body of speculation, to fit them framework, and exhibit them as parts of the same scheme ; same into the so that it might be truly said of him that he was at more pains to conceal the originality and independent value of his contributions to the stock of knowledge than most writers are to set forth those qualities in their compositions As a consequence of this, hasty readers of his works, while recognizing the comprehensiveness of his mind, have sometimes denied its originality and in political economy in particular he has been frequently represented as little more than an expositor and populariser of Ricardo It cannot be denied ; show of truth in this representation that there is would be in asserting that a popularizers of about as ; much as there Laplace and Herschell were the expositors and Newton, or that Faraday performed a like office for Sir Humphrey Davy In truth, this is an incident of all progressive science The cultivators in each age may, in a sense, be said to be the interpreters and popularizers of those who have preceded them and it is in this sense, ; and in this sense only, that this part respect he political is can be attributed to Mill In this to be strongly contrasted with the great majority of writers on economy, who, on the strength, perhaps, of a verbal correction, or an unimportant qualification, of a received doctrine, if not on the score of a pure fallacy, would fain persuade us that they have achieved a revolution in economic doctrine, and that the entire science must be rebuilt from — I9S APPENDIX This sort of thing has foundation in conformity with their scheme its done infinite great merits anced it is It is that both by example and by precept he His anxiety to predecessors trates at mischief to the progress of economic science affiliate his a marked feature in is own ; and one of Mill's steadily discounten- speculations to those of his philosophical works, and illus- all his once the modesty and comprehensiveness of his mind that Mill, as an economist, quite true was largely indebted to Eicardo, and he has so fully and frequently acknowledged the debt that there is some danger of rating the obligation too used to put it, As he highly Ricardo supplied the back-bone of the science less certain that the limbs, the joints, the renders political economy a complete have been the work of Mill ; but muscular developments — himself not it is all that and organized body of knowledge In Ricardo's great work the fundamental doctrines of production, distribution, and exchange, have been laid down, but for the most part in mere outline, so much so that superficial students are in general wholly unable to connect his statement of principles with the Hence, we have inniimerable as we find them, of industrial life refutations of Ricardo " almost invariably refutations of the writers' own facts, ** — misconceptions In Mill's exposition the connexion between principles becomes clear and intelligible The conditions and modes of by which human wants and desires the motive powers of industry— come to issue in the actual phenomena of wealth and Political Economy becomes a system of doctrines susceptible of direct applicaAs an example, I may refer to Mill's development tion to human affairs and facts — action are exhibited ; In Ricardo's pages the fundamental of Ricardo's doctrine of foreign trade principles of that department of exchange are indeed laid master's hand the actual ; but, for the majority of readers, they commerce of the world Turn to Mill, have and all down with little a relation to becomes clear Principles of the most abstract kind are translated into concrete language, and brought to explain familiar facts, and this result is achieved, not simply or chiefly by virtue of mere lucidity of exposition, but through the discovery and exhibition of modifying conditions and links in the chain of causes It, was in his Essays on Unsettled Questions in Political Economy that his views upon this subject were first given to the world— a work of which M Cherbuliez of Geneva, speaks as " un travail overlooked by Ricardo, le plus important et le plus original dont la science 6conomique se soit enrichie depuis une vingtaine d'annees On some points, "- however, and these points of supreme importance, the contributions of Mill to economic science are very ments—even though we understand previous writer of its No that term in one can have studied earlier cultivators much more than its political develop- largest sense-rof economy in the any works without being struck with the dreariness of the CAIRNES ON mill's POLITICAL ECONOMY outlook which, in the main, 99 human race "^It seems to been Ricardo's deliberate opinion that a substantial improvement in the condition of the mass of mankind was impossible He considered it as discloses for the it fjave the normal state of things that wages should be at the to support the labourer in physical health to bring up a family large enough market A minimum and strength, and to supply the requisite him to enable wants of the labour temporary improvement, indeed, as the consequence of expanding commerce and growing capital, he saw that there might be but ; he held that the force of the principle of population was always powerful enough so to augment the supply of labour as to bring wages ever again down to the minimum So completely had point this belief idea in Ricardo's mind, that he confidently drew from that in no it become a fixed the consequence — fall on the labourer, since living, as u on the lowest possible stipend adequate to maintain him and his family— he would inevitably, he argued, transfer the burden to his employer, and a tax, nominally on wages, would, in the result, become invariably a tax upon profits On this point Mill's doctrine leads normal could taxation case state ot things, to conclusions directly opposed to Ricardo's, And economists them, we if it how note and to those of this result was obtained Mill neither denied the premises nor disputed the logic of Ricardo's argument and tion he recognized in particular ; most preceding will illustrate his position as a thinker, in relation to ; he accepted both \ fully the force of the principle of popula- but he took account of a further premiss which Ricardo had over- looked, and which, duly weighed, led to a reversal of Ricardo's conclusion The minimum labourer, is ia of wages, even such as something more than it is sum not the very least this j exists in the case of the worst paid it that human in the case of all in the moral character of those is whom it affects — a standard, it it however, not community is, intellectual influences are masses of the people In a word, each class has will not consent to live, or, at fixed, tion with the changing circumstances of society, progressive ; class is, in truth, not a physical, but a capable of being altered with the changes a certain standard of comfort below which multiply above the worst paid The minimum decidedly more moral minimitm, and, as such, least, to nature can subsist upon but liable to modifica- and which in the case of a in point of fact, constantly rising, as moral and brought more and more effectually to bear on the This was the new premiss brought by Mill to the and it sufficed to change the entire elucidation of the wages question, aspect of The human practical chapter on life regarded from the point of view of Political Economy deductions "The made from it were set forth in the celebrated Future of the Industrial Classes" —a chapter which, it no exaggeration to say, places a gulf between Mill and all who preceded him, and opens an entirely new vista to economic speculation is APPENDIX 200 The name has been most pro- doctrine of the science with which Mill's minently associated, within the last few years, which that is economic nature of land, and the consequences to which practical legislation It is very commonly believed relates to the this should lead in on that this point Mill has started aside from the beaten highway of economic thought, and pro- pounded views wholly with those generally entertained by at variance No an which Mill's conspicuous than in that which deals with the land His orthodox economists mistake In truth there originality is less is economist need be told that no portion of the economic this is field in entire assertion of the peculiar nature of landed property, and again his doctrine as to the ** unearned increment " of value arising from land with the growth of society, are simply direct deductions from Ricardo's theory of rent, and cannot be consistently denied by any one who accepts that theory All that Mill has done here has been to point the application of principles, all but universally accepted, to the practical place to consider how far the susceptible of practical realization on which that the scientific basis affairs of life This is not the plan proposed by him for this purpose but ; it may at is be confidently stated is no strange novelty least his proposal rests invented by him, but simply a principle as fundamental and widely recognized as any within the range of the science of which I have just remarked that it forms a part Mill's originality is less conspicuous in relation to the economic theory of land than in other problems of Political me from but the reader must not understand very largely contributed to the elucidation of this topic Economy; he has not this to say that He has indeed commonly supposed, by setting aside principles established by his predecessors, but, as his manner was, while accepting those principles, by introducing a new premiss into the argument The new premiss introduced in this case was the influence of custom as modifying the action of competition The existence of an active competition, on done so, though not, as is the one hand between farmers seeking farms, on the other between farming and other modes of industry as offering inducements to the investment of capital, is a constant assumption in the reasoning by which Ricardo arrived at his theory of rent Granting this assumption, it followed that farmers, would pay neither higher nor lower rents than would leave them in possession of the average profits on their capital current in the country Mill fully acknowledged the force of this reasoning, and accepted the conclusion as true wherever the conditions assumed were realized but he as a rule, ; proceeded to point out that, in point of fact, the conditions are not realized over the greater portion of the world, and, as a consequence, that the rent actually paid by the cultivators to the owners of the soil, by no means, as a general rule, corresponds with that portion of the produce which Ricardo considered as properly " rent ", The real regulator of actual rent over the CAIRNES ON MILLS POLITICAL ECONOMY 201 greater part of the habitable globe was, he showed, not competition, but custom ; and he actual rent paid forth further pointed out that there are countries in by the by Ricardo, nor either cultivators yet —the absolute will is which the governed neither by the causes by custom, but by a of the owners of the set third cause different from soil, controlled only by the physical exigencies of the cultivator, or by the fear of his vengeance The disturbed in his holding entirely new light over if recognition of this state of things threw an the whole problem of land tenure, and plainly furnished grounds for legislative interference in the contracts between landlords and tenants Its application to Ireland was obvious, and Mill himself, as the world knows, did not hesitate to urge the application with all the energy and enthusiasm which he invariably threw into every cause that he espoused In the above remarks I have attempted to indicate briefly some few of the salient features in Mill's contributions to the science of political eco- There noi^iy is still one more which ought not to be omitted from even th6 most meagre summary was the as a science, but he lesson, that, just because no obligatory man first, if it is modes of first to treat political economy not to perceive, at least to enforce the a science, force with reference to us that certain each Mill was not the its human them conclusions carried with As conduct action lead to certain results to judge of the value of the results thus ; a science but it it tells remains for brought about, and to worth while to adopt the means necessary for In the writings of the economists who preceded Mill it their attainment certain course of conduct is very generally assumed, that to prove that a decide whether or not it is tends to the most rapid increase of wealth suffices to entail upon all who accept the argument the obligation of adopting the course which leads to this result Mill absolutely repudiated this inference, and while accepting in practice the theoretic conclusion, held himself perfectly free to adopt whatever course he preferred It was not for political economy or for any science to say beings : what are the ends most worthy of being pursued by human is complete when it shows us the means by the task of science which the ends may be attained how far the end is ; but it is desirable at the cost for each individual which its man to decide attainment involves In This not our masters." a word, the sciences should be our servants, and enforcing which he was a lesson which Mill was the first to enforce, and by be said to have emancipated economists from the thraldom of their may own teaching no slight degree, through the constant recognition been enabled to divest of repulsiveness even the has he of its interest to all most abstract speculations, and to impart a glow of human It is in truth, that that he has touched [...]... have also read Hobbes' Logic am now and Du have gone part of Burgersdicius, as far as I learning political economy my of treatise from what subject, have read several I those of Smith, Brerewood, and Latin books of Logic: I am now an abstract of it I have made a kind father has explained to me on that reading Mr Ricardo's work and writing I have learnt a little natural philosophy, and, having had an... his treatise, read in Conic Sections an Encydopcedia Britannica which and and began Fluxions, on read an article in the Encydopcedia Briiannica\ and In the application of mathematics Simpson's Fluxions I read Astronomy and Robinson's Mechanical Philosophy " ^t 12 ^Last year I read some more of Demosthenes, and the four first Books of Aristotle's Organon, all which I tabulated in the same manner as his... various branches of mathematics article on Fluxions " M\., 13 —This year and Protagoras, and and began an ; Edinburgh Encydopcedia, in the read Plato's dialogues called Gorgias I his Republic, of am still reading Quintilian and am performing without book the I which I made an abstract on Fluxions, and the article problems in Simpson's Select Exercises " Last year I began to learn logic and Trieu, Aristotle... beautiful tapestry " has To this little house there are many remarkable up tapestry, of is staircases The first of them but that three rooms are hung with which one contains a velvet bed, and called the velvet room room it, The is therefore looking-glass belonging to this decorated with nun's lace ;; FORD ABBEY " Up another staircase tapestry, as also a is a large 5 salooiij hung with admirable From small... the sake of 17th to Late in which he applies himself, French Mathematical terms investigation in the Differential Calculus dinner, June of Sir SamueFs daughters has a tragedy of Corneille i8th A short Rose at Performs an walk early After Wrote exercises, and read Voltaire It is a fete day (Sunday), and the peasants danced in the pleasure grounds before the After breakfast, finished exercises, then walked... Toulouse, he makes a pause, and despatches his seven days' diary to his father, accompanied with , ; DIARY AT TOULOUSE l6 1806-182I a short letter in French to R Doane, Bentham's amanuensis, and gossipy ; none of his letters to Mr Doane up matters of thought 25th Rose at half-past two for the journey He walks out on foot, to be overtaken by a charchiefly personal take One k-banc, with part of the family of... messages from his father and Bentham, and contracts new acquaintances, from most notable is whom he receives farther the Count Berthollet, to paper from Bentham Madame very beautiful garden, and desires Berthollet him attentions whom The he takes a showed him her on his return to call he learns afterwards that he was to meet Laplace On the 27t^i, after nine days' stay in Paris, he bids goodbye to Mr ARRIVAL... the Alectryon of Luciaa much French Remarks that having he cannot read Latin and Greek and study Mathematics every day, and means to give one day to Mathematics and one to Latin and Greek 27th Rose early so to do, Begins the practice of going every morning to bathe in the Garonne, a little above the town he is accompanied regularly : by Mr George, and on this occasion To-day reads Legendre's Geometry... long fable boys by heart ; resolved some problems of West (Algebra) did French exercises (translating and so forth)." 9th "Break; and went with Sir S and Lady Bentham in the Montauban ; took a volume of Racine in my pocket, and read two plays " ; remark his reading pace On fasted early carriage to returning comedy of Voltaire loth " Before and read some of Virgil After wrote some of my Dialogue, and... Differential Calculus Read home he reads a breakfast, learnt another fable, breakfast, exercises a tragedy of Corneille.'' my Dialogue If my exercise to i good ith " Learnt another fable for nothing beside, it reasoning powers, as well as to is ; finished good my as an invention, We may be sure that it "Wrote some French exercises ; began to learn an extremely long fable Read a comedy of Moli^re, and after ... (turned He was app^nted House years, The Mill of that time, he received a salary of ;i^ioo, with had ^^30 a- year an annual all rise ; ; Assistant, at ;^6oo a- year ^ at of ;^io the clerks, / and being... door, and likewise two beautiful rooms, a dining-parlour and a breakfast-parlour adorned with fine drawings within one door ; on another side is a large hall, adorned with a gilt ceiling ; afid... (Autobiography^ P- 5^) of his stay in France, which included a familiar know- ledge of the French language, and, an acquaintance with ordinary French If literature we may judge from what he says