Integrated UV systems for water disinfection

INTEGRATED UV SYSTEMS FOR WATER DISINFECTION GOH VOON WEI, MARK (B.Eng.(Hons.), NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2008 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to my supervisor, A/P Hu Jiangyong for her invaluable guidance, patience and understanding throughout the course of this study Under her guidance, I was given the opportunity to learn many new things and am grateful for her tireless mentorship and encouragement I would also like to thank the staff of Water Science and Technology Laboratory, including Mdm Tan Xiaolan, Miss Lee Leng Leng, Miss Huang Meiru, Mdm Tan Hwee Bee, Mr Chandra and Mr Michael Tan for their kind assistance and technical support in ensuring the successful completion of this project Appreciation also goes out to my fellow post-graduate students, especially Miss Guo Huiling, Miss Elaine Quek, Mr Albert Ng and Mr Jayaker Sowpati and research staff Mdm Chu Xiaona for their advice and company in the laboratory Thanks to God, for providing strength and comfort, as well as my family and friends, especially Darryl “Slash” Koh and Adrian “KKB” See, for their continual prayers, support and encouragement during the course of this research, without which this project would not have been possible Last but not least, I would like to thank my girlfriend, Ling, for always being there with me, offering endless support, belief and never failing to cheer me up when I was facing obstacles Thank you for your presence and love i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i SUMMARY vi LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Research motivation 1.3 Objectives and scope of work 1.4 Thesis organisation CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 The need for disinfection 2.2 Water disinfection 2.3 Chemical disinfectants 2.4 Disinfection kinetics 19 2.5 Problems associated with chemical disinfectants 22 2.5.1 Chlorine 22 2.5.1.1 THMs and HAAs 22 Monochloramine 26 2.5.2.1 NDMA 26 2.5.2 2.6 Alternative disinfection – Ultraviolet irradiation 28 2.6.1 Factors affecting disinfection efficiency of UV 30 irradiation 2.6.2 Photoreactivation and dark repair 32 2.7 Comparison of disinfectants 34 2.8 Integrated UV systems 38 2.8.1 The need for integrated UV disinfection systems 38 2.8.2 Current integrated UV disinfection systems 40 2.8.3 Disinfection byproducts 48 ii 2.8.4 Photoreactivation suppression CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 49 50 3.1 Feed water characteristics 50 3.2 Disinfection experiments 52 3.2.1 Chlorination 53 3.2.2 Chloramination 54 3.2.3 Hydrogen peroxide disinfection 55 3.2.4 Ultraviolet irradiation 56 3.2.4.1 UV inactivation 59 3.2.4.2 Photoreactivation study 59 3.2.5 Disinfection kinetics 60 3.2.6 Integrated UV systems 61 3.2.6.1 H2O2/UV 61 3.2.6.2 UV/Chlor(am)ine 61 3.2.6.3 H2O2/UV/Chlor(am)ine 62 3.3 Sample analysis 63 3.3.1 Sampling 63 3.3.2 Bacteria measurement 63 3.3.3 Disinfection byproducts measurement 65 3.3.3.1 Extraction 65 3.3.3.2 Analysis 69 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 72 4.1 E.coli disinfection kinetics by chemical disinfectants 72 4.1.1 Distilled water 72 4.1.1.1 Chlorine 72 4.1.1.2 Monochloramine 74 Feed water 75 4.1.2.1 Chlorine 76 4.1.2.2 Monochloramine 78 4.1.2 iii 4.2 4.3 E.coli disinfection kinetics by UV irradiation 80 4.2.1 Inactivation 80 4.2.2 Photoreactivation 82 E.coli disinfection in integrated UV systems 88 4.3.1 H2O2/UV 88 4.3.1.1 Inactivation and synergy 88 4.3.1.2 Photoreactivation 90 UV/Cl2 92 4.3.2.1 Inactivation and synergy 93 4.3.2.2 Photoreactivation 97 4.3.2.3 DBPs formation 99 UV/NH2Cl 101 4.3.3.1 Inactivation and synergy 101 4.3.3.2 Photoreactivation 104 4.3.3.3 DBPs formation 106 H2O2/UV/Cl2 107 4.3.4.1 Inactivation and synergy 108 4.3.4.2 Photoreactivation 112 4.3.4.3 DBPs formation 113 H2O2/UV/NH2Cl 114 4.3.5.1 Inactivation and synergy 115 4.3.5.2 Photoreactivation 119 4.3.5.3 DBPs formation 120 Comparison of Integrated UV Systems 121 4.4.1 Inactivation and synergy 122 4.4.2 Photoreactivation 122 4.4.3 DBPs formation 123 4.4.4 Optimised integrated UV system 123 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.4 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 125 5.1 125 Conclusions iv 5.2 Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY 128 130 v SUMMARY Chlorine is used as a conventional disinfectant due to its ease of use, low cost and relatively high disinfection capabilities However, the discovery of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) prompted researchers to look for alternative disinfectants Chloramine, a weaker disinfectant, is mostly used as a secondary disinfectant to maintain a disinfectant residue, as it is more stable Although chloramines produce lesser THMs, the discovery of the highly toxic N- Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in chloramine-treated water is undesirable Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is a promising and alternative disinfection technology to chlorine and chloramine It is highly effective against a wide range of microorganisms and its disinfection efficiency is unaffected by pH and temperature, unlike chlorine It also does not produce any DBPs, thus safeguarding consumers against these potential carcinogens However, UV irradiation lacks a disinfectant residue Studies show that UV-inactivated microorganisms such as E.coli can repair itself in the presence of visible light (photoreactivation), severely impairing its treatment efficiency Hence, a disinfectant residue such as chlorine or chloramine is required after UV to prevent photoreactivation Although hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a very weak disinfectant, under UV photolysis, it can yield highly oxidizing hydroxyl radicals which may improve disinfection efficiency The combination of UV with a secondary disinfectant such as chlorine or chloramine can potentially result in enhanced disinfection, the prevention of photoreactivation and minimising DBPs formation Addition of H2O2 for synergistic disinfection may further reduce dependency on secondary disinfectants for additional inactivation, thus lowering vi dosages, contact time and as a result, DBPs formation This study aims to determine the optimised combinations of integrated UV systems that balance between effective disinfection and minimizing DBPs formation When 3.0 mg/L of H2O2 was combined with UV (4 and mJ/cm2), synergy was present When H2O2 and UV dosages were increased, antagonistic results were observed With UV/chlor(am)ine, high dosages (2.0 mg/L) of chlor(am)ine resulted in the overall log reduction exceeding targeted log reduction by at least log, due to the high synergy levels UV/ chlor(am)ine (1.0 mg/L) also resulted in synergistic effects and was sufficient to meet targeted log inactivation requirements Synergy levels of UV/chlor(am)ine exceeded those of H2O2/UV, except at 1.0 mg/L Cl2 and 13 mins contact time with UV (4 mJ/cm2) Addition of H2O2 prior to UV/Cl2 also suggested a positive effect on subsequent chlorination efficiency, although this was not observed with H2O2/UV/NH2Cl processes Addition of a secondary disinfectant (Cl2 or NH2Cl) suppressed photoreactivation up to hours of the study, with NH2Cl providing a more stable disinfectant residue UV/Cl2 produced 30 to 42% lesser THMs and 45 to 57% lesser 5HAAs, compared to a chlorination process that achieved similar E.coli log reduction H2O2/UV/NH2Cl was determined to be the most ideal integrated UV integrated system as it met the targeted to log inactivation with a synergy of 0.54 to 0.58 log while preventing photoreactivation by maintaining a stable disinfectant residue It also formed the least DBPs (3 times lesser THMs and almost 50% lesser 5HAAs) compared to the H2O2/UV/Cl2 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Summary of chlorination of E.coli under various operating conditions 12 Table 2.2: Summary of chloramination of E.coli under various operating conditions 17 Table 2.3: UV Dose to inactivate Log (90%) or Log (99%) of the Microbial Population 31 Table 2.4: Comparison of disinfectants 36 Table 2.5: Summary of current studies on integrated UV systems 45 Table 2.6: DBPs from UV/Cl2 systems 49 Table 3.1: Oven operating conditions of GC/ECD 70 Table 4.1: Chlorine inactivation of E.coli in distilled water 73 Table 4.2: Monochloramine inactivation of E.coli in distilled water 75 Table 4.3: Measured parameters of filtered reservoir water 76 Table 4.4: Chlorine inactivation of E.coli in feed water 78 Table 4.5: Monochloramine inactivation of E.coli in feed water 80 Table 4.6: Synergistic/antagonistic levels of H2O2/UV process 90 Table 4.7: Summary of inactivation and synergy levels of UV/Cl2 process 97 Table 4.8: Inactivation and synergy levels of UV/NH2Cl process 105 Table 4.9: Summary of inactivation and synergy levels of H2O2/UV/Cl2 process 112 Table 4.10: Summary of inactivation and synergy levels of H2O2/UV/NH2Cl process 118 Table 4.11: Comparisons of integrated UV systems 121 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Relative HOCl and OCl- amounts as a function of pH Figure 2.2: Theoretical chlorination breakpoint curve 14 Figure 2.3: Relationship between chloramine species and pH 14 Figure 2.4: Deviations from Chick-Watson’s model 20 Figure 2.5: Formation of dimer after UV irradiation 29 Figure 2.6: Comparison of action spectrum for inactivation of E.coli to the absorption spectrum of nucleic acids (Harm, 1980) 30 Figure 3.1: Calibration curve of humic acid 51 Figure 3.2: UV collimated beam apparatus 58 Figure 3.3: Extraction procedure for THMs and HAAs extraction 68 Figure 3.4: Calibration curves of (a) THMs (b) HAAs 71 Figure 4.1: Dose response of E.coli to Cl2 in distilled water 72 Figure 4.2: Dose response of E.coli to NH2Cl in distilled water 74 Figure 4.3: Dose response of E.coli to Cl2 in feed water 77 Figure 4.4: Dose response of E.coli to NH2Cl in feed water 79 Figure 4.5: E.coli inactivation by UV in (a) distilled water (b) feed water 81 Figure 4.6: Photoreactivation of E.coli following UV inactivation 82 Figure 4.7: Percentage photoreactivation of E.coli, data from (a) Zimmer et al., 2002 (b) Tosa and Hirata, 1999 84 Figure 4.8: Correlation of UV dose with the log & percentage photoreactivation of E.coli after hrs of photoreactivation following UV irradiation 85 Figure 4.9: Correlations of UV dose with the log & percentage photoreactivation of E.coli after hrs of photoreactivation following UV irradiation, data from (a) Zimmer et al., 2002 (b) Tosa and Hirata, 1999 87 ix UV/Cl2 process was shown to produce lesser amounts of DBPs (30 to 42% lesser THMs and 45 to 57% lesser 5HAAs), compared to a chlorination process achieving the same E.coli log reduction as the former Hence, due to a lesser reliance on Cl2 alone for disinfection, an integrated UV system can minimize DBPs formation while ensuring effective disinfection The integrated UV processes (UV/chlor(am)ine and H2O2/UV/chlor(am)ine) have shown to be effective for the control of microorganisms in drinking water treatment through enhanced disinfection and meeting the targeted to log E.coli inactivation, photoreactivation prevention, as well as minimization of DBPs formation In this study, H2O2/UV/NH2Cl was found to be the most ideal combination for sequential disinfection for the reasons that it: i) achieved an overall log reduction of 1.23 to 2.01 log ii) obtained a combined synergy of 0.54 to 0.58 log iii) effectively prevented photoreactivation iv) provided a stable disinfectant residue throughout the four hours of photoreactivation study v) formed the least amount of DBPs (3 times lesser THMs and almost half of 5HAAs compared to H2O2/UV/Cl2 process) 127 5.2 Recommendations From the results of this research, the following recommendations are made for future research: Integrated UV systems can be applied to the disinfection of more resistant microorganisms such as MS2, Bacillus subtilis spores or adenoviruses Given more resistant microorganisms, a wider range of operating conditions (UV dosages, H2O2 concentrations, chlor(am)ine doses) could be explored A flow-through UV system, with a much larger volume of feed water, could offer better insights into the actual capabilities of such systems in a pilot-scale study Besides the extraction and analysis of DBPs, mutagenicity of the DBPs can be explored by concentrating the DBPs from the large volume of feed water for the Ames mutagenicity assay In this study, synthetic feed water simulating filtered reservoir water was used Further research should be carried out with actual reservoir water samples to finetune operating conditions required for actual treatment purposes Photoreactivation suppression with chlor(am)ine was carried out at cellular level It is suggested that the study of photoreactivation be carried out at DNA level 128 using the endonuclease sensitive site (ESS) assay to better understand the mechanism behind the control of photoreactivation It is also suggested that medium pressure (MP) UV lamps 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Comparison of disinfectants 34 2.8 Integrated UV systems 38 2.8.1 The need for integrated UV disinfection systems 38 2.8.2 Current integrated UV disinfection systems 40 2.8.3 Disinfection byproducts 48... need for integrated UV disinfection systems Integrated UV systems have the potential to achieve more effective disinfection because of possible synergistic disinfection In the case of H2O2 /UV, ... against adenovirus 2.8 Integrated UV systems Integrated UV systems are disinfection systems whereby two or more disinfectants are added simultaneously or sequentially, with UV being one of the disinfectants