Tài liệu hạn chế xem trước, để xem đầy đủ mời bạn chọn Tải xuống
1
/ 96 trang
THÔNG TIN TÀI LIỆU
Thông tin cơ bản
Định dạng
Số trang
96
Dung lượng
4,31 MB
Nội dung
PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY IN ONE DIMENSIONAL
METAL OXIDES NANOSTRUCTURES
RAJESH TAMANG
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2010
PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY IN ONE DIMENSIONAL
METAL OXIDES NANOSTRUCTURES
RAJESH TAMANG
(M.Tech)
A THESIS SUBMITTED
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2010
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude, respect, and admiration to my supervisor,
Assoc. Prof. Sow Chorng Haur. I have been greatly motivated and influenced by him during my
course of study. I am thankful for his constant encouragement, support and the freedom for
research, he rendered to me.
I would like to express my special thanks to Assoc. Prof. TOK Eng Soon for his time and
discussion, which helped in completion of the work presented in this thesis.
I would like to express deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Binni Varghese, for all the advices,
discussions and helping in using focused ion beam (FIB). Special appreciation must be given to
Mr. Zheng Minrui, Mr. Lim Zhi Han, Mr. Xie Yilin, Ms. Sharon Lim Xiao Dai, Ms. Deng Suzi,
Mr. Bablu Mukherjee, Mr. Rajiv Prabhakar, Ms. Loh Pui Yee, Ms. Tao Ye, Mr. Chang Sheh Lit,
Mr. Lee Kian Keat, Mr. Hu Zhibin, Mr. Lu Jun Peng and Mr. Yun Tao for all the help and
creating vibrant, cheerful and co-operative environment to work in the laboratory.
I would like to thank all the technical staff in the Physics department for all the help I had
received. Specially Mr. Chen Gin Seng for helping to rectify instrumental problems. I would like
to thank Ms. Foo Eng Tin for assisting with lab suppliers. I would like to thank Mr. Ho Kok Wen
for his help in troubleshooting with scanning electron microscope (SEM).
I would also like to acknowledge National University of Singapore (NUS) for graduate
student scholarships.
Finally, I feel I am indebted to my parents for their unconditional support, love and
understanding. To my brother and sister who have been always supportive and encouraging,
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
definitely, I wouldn’t have finished this thesis without them. It gives me immense pleasure in
dedicating this work to them.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
•
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
•
TABLE OF CONTENTS
iii
•
ABSTRACT
vi
•
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
•
LIST OF TABLES
•
LIST OF FIGURES
i
viii
ix
x
Chapter 1: Introduction and Motivation
1.1 Introduction
1
1.2 Motivation
3
1.3 Brief outline of the present work
4
References
6
Chapter 2: Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
2.1 Introduction
8
2.2 Concepts in Photoconductivity
9
2.2.1 Steady-state Photoconductivity
2.3 Photoconductivity in one-dimensional metal-oxide nanowires
11
12
2.4 Factors contributing to photoresponse in one-dimensional metal-oxide nanowires
2.4.1 Surface effects
13
2.4.2 Photoresponse in dry and wet air
14
2.4.3 Electrical contacts
15
References
18
Chapter 3: Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
3.1 Niobium and vanadium oxide nanomaterials synthesis techniques
3.1.1 Cleaning of substrate/metal foil
22
3.1.2 Thermal oxidation techniques for the synthesis of Nb 2 O 5 nanowires
22
3.1.3 Hotplate techniques for the synthesis of V 2 O 5 nanowires
24
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2 Characterization Methods and Techniques
3.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
25
3.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy
26
3.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
27
3.3 Nano-device fabrication Techniques
3.3.1 Photolithography techniques
29
3.3.2 Single nanowire device fabrication
31
3.4 Electrical Characterization of Single Nanowire
32
3.5 Photoconductivity Measurement Techniques
3.5.1 Global irradiation techniques
32
3.5.2 Localized irradiation techniques
33
References
34
Chapter 4: Photoconductivity of Individual Nb 2 O 5 Nanowire
4.1 Introduction
35
4.2 Experimental Section
36
4.2.1 Characterization of Nanostructure
37
4.3 Nb 2 O 5 nano-device fabrication and electrical characterization
39
4.4 Photoconductivity study
41
4.4.1 Photoresponse of individual Nb 2 O 5 NW to global irradiation
(a) Time characteristics analysis for global irradiation
4.4.2 Photoresponse of individual Nb 2 O 5 NW with focused laser
43
45
48
(a) Time characteristics analysis for focused laser beam
52
(b) Zero bias photocurrent with focused laser beam
53
4.5 Conclusion
58
References
59
Chapter 5: Photoconductivity of Individual V 2 O 5 Nanowire
5.1 Introduction
61
5.2 Experimental Section
62
5.3 V 2 O 5 nano-device fabrication
64
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.4 Electrical characterization and photoconductivity of individual V 2 O 5 NW
65
5.5 Time characteristics analysis
73
5.6 Conclusion
75
References
77
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Future Works
v
79
ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
With recent development in individual nanowire (NW) characterization and device
fabrication, study of photoconductivity of individual NWs has been proven to be an efficient
approach in probing their electronic and surface related properties. In this work, systematic
studies were carried out to investigate the photoconductivity of individual Nb 2 O 5 and V 2 O 5
NWs. The synthesized Nb 2 O 5 and V 2 O 5 NWs were characterized using various characterization
techniques. Global and focused laser beam irradiation techniques were used as experimental
approach for photoresponse study. The focused laser beam irradiation with spot size < 1 µm had
the advantage of probing the desired section of isolated NW along the NW-Pt interface.
We observed, fast and prominent photoresponse from individual Nb 2 O 5 NW towards
visible and infrared laser irradiation under various conditions. The global irradiation on Nb 2 O 5
NW showed multiple photocurrent contribution from defect level excitations, surface states and
thermal heating effects. Significant photoresponse was observed in vacuum condition. The time
characteristic of the observed photoresponse was further analysed and revealed characteristic
response time in the photoresponse of the NW to laser irradiation. Interestingly, the
photoresponse with focused laser beam showed large enhancement compared to global
irradiation at relatively low applied bias. We found that NW-Pt contact played a major role in the
photoresponse of the sample. This envisioned in developing better insight into the photoresponse
of the NW, particularly along the metal-NW interface. The mechanisms to account for the
observed photocurrent were proposed. We proposed that Schottky barrier formation and photoinduced thermoelectric effects are key carrier transport mechanisms for photocurrent generation,
at the NW-Pt interface at zero bias. While at applied bias, the thermoelectric effect was observed
vi
ABSTRACT
to be less significant, and most photoresponse was likely from defect and surface state
excitations.
V 2 O 5 NW showed rapid photoresponse at vacuum condition and very small photocurrent
(~1 nA) in ambient condition at applied bias. The electrical properties were investigated at
various pressure conditions and with varying laser power. From the time characteristics analysis,
photocurrents in V 2 O 5 NW were mostly attributed to thermal heating. The NW device was
modelled as metal-semiconductor-metal structure composed of two Schottky diode connected
back-to-back in series. Quantitative analysis was carried out and the carrier density and mobility
of V 2 O 5 NW were determined.
vii
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
•
R. Tamang, B. Varghese, S. G. Mahaisalkar, E. S. Tok, C. H. Sow;
Probing the photoresponse of individual Nb 2 O 5 nanowires with global and localized laser
beam irradiation; Nanotechnology 22(2011) 115202
•
B. Varghese, R. Tamang, E. S. Tok, S. G. Mahaisalkar, C. H Sow;
Photothermoelectric Effects in Localized Photocurrent of Individual VO 2 Nanowires;
Journal of Physical Chemistry C 114(2010) 15149
•
Y. L. Xie, F. C. Cheong, Y. W. Zhu, B. Varghese, R. Tamang, et al;
Rainbow–like MoO 3 Nanobelts Fashioned via AFM Micromachining;
Journal of Physical Chemistry C 114 (2010) 120
Conferences
•
R. Tamang, B. Varghese, S. G. Mahaisalkar, E. S. Tok, C. H. Sow;
Systematic studies of photo – response of individual Nb 2 O 5 Nanowires; 4th MRS–S
Conference on Advanced materials, Singapore (2010)-Poster presentation.
viii
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Time characteristics analysis in vacuum and ambient condition.
Table 4.2: Rising time characteristic analysis to localized irradiation along the NW.
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram showing intrinsic and extrinsic phenomena involved in
photoconductivity.
Figure 2.2 schematic diagrams representing (a) metal-nanowire-metal contact nano device
structure on SiO 2 /Si substrate. (b) Two Schottky barrier modeled as back-to-back diode
connected in series. (c) Energy band diagram of metal-semiconductor-metal structure at
equilibrium.
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of tube furnace set up with all its necessary components for the
growth of nanostructures.
Figure 3.2 Hotplate for the growth of V 2 O 5 nanowires on SiN substrate.
Figure 3.3 The relationship between atomic planes, incident X-rays and reflected X-rays in XRD
analysis.
Figure 3.4 (a) Schematic diagram representing the steps for photolithography process, (b) Au
finger electrodes on SiO 2 /Si substrate.
Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of single nanowire device with Pt contact between the NW and
the Au electrodes.
Figure 3.6 (a) Schematic diagram of individual nanowire device with global irradiation (spot
size larger than the electrodes gap). (b) Schematic diagram of individual nanowire device inside
the vacuum chamber for photocurrent measurements in vacuum environment with global
irradiation.
Figure 3.7 Schematic experimental setup of localized photoconductivity techniques probed at
individual nanowire device.
Figure 4.1 FE-SEM image of Nb 2 O 5 nanowires grown in Nb-metal foil with thermal oxidation
techniques at 900 oC.
Figure 4.2 XRD spectrum of Nb 2 O 5 nanowires grown in Nb-metal foil with thermal oxidation
techniques at 900 oC.
Figure 4.3 Raman spectrum of as grown Nb 2 O 5 nanostructures.
Figure 4.4 SEM image of individual Nb 2 O 5 nanowire device fabricated in Au electrodes with
Pt- contacts on both ends of the NW.
Figure 4.5 Typical I-V characteristics of individual Nb 2 O 5 nanowire measured at room
temperature.
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.6 Schematic representation of individual nanowire device for photoconductivity
measurements with (a) global and (b) localized irradiation.
Figure 4.7 (a) Photocurrent measured at zero bias, under ambient condition. (b) Photocurrent
measured at applied bias of 3V, under ambient and vacuum environment, (808nm wavelength,
power ~170mW).
Figure 4.8 (a) Rising and (b) Decaying time response analysis (808nm wavelength, power ~
170mW) at ambient and vacuum conditions (solid lines are the exponential fitted curves).
Figure 4.9 (a) Schematic representation of photocurrent measurements with focused laser beam
irradiation on NW. (b) Schematic diagram of focused laser beam locally irradiated on (i) high
terminal NW-Pt interface (ii) middle of NW (ii) low terminal NW-Pt interface. (c) I-V
characteristics with/without focused laser beam irradiation on NW-Pt contacts at sweeping
voltage -2V to +2V. (d) Photoresponse at applied bias 0 . 5 Vwith laser (λ=532 nm, power ~80
µW) irradiated on the low terminal NW-Pt contacts, middle of the NW and on the high terminal
NW-Pt contacts respectively. Schematic representation of band bending diagram with
corresponding electron-hole transfer at Pt-NW interface when laser irradiated at (e) forward and
(f) reverse applied bias.
Figure 4.10 Time response analysis curve (a) rising and (b) decay, when the focused laser
(λ=532 nm) beam irradiated at the forward bias NW-Pt interface, middle of the NW, and at
reverse biased NW-Pt contact (solid lines are the fitted curves).
Figure 4.11 (a) Photoresponse at zero bias with varying laser power (λ=532 nm, 125 µW, 260
µW and 324 µW respectively) when focused laser irradiated on the low terminal NW-Pt
contacts, middle of NW and the high NW-Pt contact. (b) Schematic representation of band
diagram with corresponding electron-hole transfer at two ends of the Pt-NW due to localized
heating, resulting photocurrent due to thermoelectric effect with focused laser beam irradiated at
the Pt-NW interface at zero bias.
Figure 4.13 Photocurrent responses with global irradiation on Nb 2 O 5 NW with (a) 808 nm laser
(power ~ 50 mW) (b) 1064 nm (power ~108 mW) under ambient condition with applied bias
voltage of 3V. (c) and (d) represents photocurrent responses from Nb 2 O 5 NW with localized
laser beam irradiation (λ=1064 nm) at applied bias 0.1V (laser power ~ 120 µW) and at zero bias
(laser power ~ 160 µW) respectively.
Figure 4.12 Photoresponse at zero bias when focused laser (48 mW, λ=808 nm) irradiated on the
low terminal NW-Pt contacts, middle of NW and the high terminal NW-Pt contacts.
Figure 5.1 SEM images of V 2 O 5 nanowires on (a) SiN substrate, (b) and (c) are images of
suspended V 2 O 5 nanowire on the edge of the SiN substrate.
Figure 5.2 Raman spectrums of V 2 O 5 nanowires.
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 5.3 SEM image of individual V 2 O 5 NW, NW ends are connected to the Au finger
electrodes on Si/SiO 2 substrate with Pt deposition.
Figure 5.4 (a) Schematic diagram of experimental setup used for the study of photoresponse of
V 2 O 5 NW. (b) I-V curve of V 2 O 5 NW at ambient. (c) I-V curves with/without light illumination
at ambient. (d) I-V curves with light illumination at ambient and at different vacuum condition.
Figure 5.5 (a) I-V results of individual V 2 O 5 NW measured at vacuum (~5 x 10-5 Torr)
irradiated by different laser (λ=808) power. (b) Experimental and fitted plot of laser (λ=808 nm)
power vs photocurrent at fixed applied bias of 1.5V.
Figure 5.6 Experimental and fitted ln(I) vs V plot for V 2 O 5 on linear regime of I-V curve shown
in Figure 5.4 (b).
Figure 5.7 The response curve under laser (λ=808nm, power ~165 mW) at an ambient and
vacuum (~8.3 x 10-3Torr, 4.2 x 10-5Torr) environment.
Figure 5.8 Power dependent I-V characteristic curves on irradiation of laser (λ=1064 nm) at
vacuum environment (~ 4 x 10-5Torr). (b) Experimental and fitted plot of current with respect to
dark current versus the laser power (1064 nm) at fixed biased 1.5V.
Figure 5.9 Photoresponse of individual V 2 O 5 NW on irradiation of laser (λ=1064 nm, power
~230 mW) measured at applied bias 0.5V (a) in ambient and vacuum (~ 4 x 10-5Torr). (b) Power
dependent photoresponse at vacuum (~ 4 x 10-5Torr).
Figure 5.10 Experimental and fitted exponential time characteristics curves obtained from
Figure 5.7 (λ=808 nm) and Figure 5.9 (λ=1064 nm): (a) Rising time (b) Decay time for λ=808
nm laser irradiation. (c) Rising time (b) Decay time for λ=1064 nm laser irradiation.
Figure 5.11 Photocurrent responses from individual V 2 O 5 NW (different NW device then the
above results) on irradiation of 808 nm laser (power ~ 130 mW) at applied bias of 0.5 V.
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
1.1 Introduction
With unique and controlled optical and electrical properties, nanowires (NWs) are ideal
for applications in optoelectronics, photovoltics, and biological and chemical sensing.1-10 With
the recent development in individual NW characterization and device fabrication, study of
photoresponse of individual NWs has emerged as an efficient tool in understanding their
electronic and surface related properties. The photoresponse of NWs is determined by several
factors including its light absorption efficiency, carrier photogeneration, carrier trappingdetrapping mechanism and recombination process.11-15 In addition change in large surface-tovolume ratio in nanostructures, its electrical transport properties strongly influenced by the
surrounding environment and not dependent only on the intrinsic properties of the nanowire
material. In addition, the nature of NW-metal electrode interface also sensitively contributes to
the individual NW photoconductivity. This is typically due to formation of rectifying Schottky
barrier. In order to realize NW functional devices, an insight of the underlying mechanism of
photogeneration and transport of charge carriers in NWs contacted with metal electrodes is
critical. Currently, many reports on the studies of photoconductivity of nanowires focus on the
effect of broad beam illumination on the electrical conductivity of thin films of nanowires
contacted on both ends with conducting electrode.13-16 Naturally the observed photoresponse of
these sample depends on the interplay between the intrinsic response of the NWs, NW-NW and
the NW-electrode contact barriers. Given the wide variety of contributing factors to the
1
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
experimentally observed results in a typical photoconductivity experiment, interpretation of the
observed results could prove to be challenging.
The effects of Schottky barriers at the metal-semiconductor interface are often
encountered in the studies of semiconductor NWs. UV response in ZnO nanowire nanosensor
was improved with Schottky contact in device fabrication where its sensitivity enhanced by four
orders of magnitude, and significant decreased in reset time.17 In recent studies of
photoconductivity in individual NWs, scanning photocurrent microscopy has been a valuable
tool for the investigation of these effects with the help of focused laser beam techniques. In this
technique the individual NW can be locally probed to locate NW-electrode interface and the
desired segment of the NW body along its length. It is well know that, devices fabricated using
semiconducting NWs form non-Ohmic contacts with metal electrodes. Thus it is more likely that
their contact properties play a crucial role in understanding the overall performance of the nanodevices. Thus, the locally probe techniques is highly desirable for investigating the contact
properties and understanding the device physics mechanism in the region of interface.
The electrical measurements for metallic single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT), at
both ends of the contact generated short-circuit current manifesting an offset photovoltage.18
Mapping the electronic band structures by scanning photocurrent microscopy, could probe the
origin of photocurrent. At zero bias the enhanced photocurrent response was observed close to
the metal contacts in CNT.19 Investigation of localized photoresponse in Si NWs showed
paolarization-sensitive, and high-resolution photodetector in the visible range. On locally
probing the NWs with laser on the two ends near the contact interface, the Si NWs observed
positive photoresponse at one end and negative on the other end at zero bias. Such phenomena
have been explained as due to built in electric field near the contacts.20 However for such effect
2
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
the thermoelectric or thermal effects caused by the laser cannot be ruled out, which is one of the
key findings in our experiment using focused laser beam technique for photocurrent
measurements. Near-field scanning optical microscope (NSOM) has also been used for
photocurrent measurement by allowing local illumination along the length of metal-NW-metal in
CdS NW, and in the contact region.21 But then this technique could have limitation on
power/intensity of the illumination of light used onto the NWs. Photocurrent generated at the
Schottky contacts between the GaAs NW and the metal electrodes, interpreted that the
photoconductance due to band bending effects caused by surface states on the NW surface.11 In
controlled fabrication of Schottky and Ohmic electrical contacts in single CdS NWs, the
localized photocourrent measurements for Schottky-barrier devices, found highly localized
electric field in the contact region. And the photogenerated carriers diffuse from the nanowire
channel region into the space-charge region or the Schottky-barrier region, where they were
collected. In contrast, for the Ohmic device, both drift and diffusion were seen in different
portions of the channel region. Under biased condition scanning photocurrent microscopy images
and the transport characteristics were found to be similar for Schottky diodes, and those of
Schottky-barrier (Ohmic) devices.22 Thus it is important to investigate the various mechanism
and contributing factors to photocurrent in single NW devices for better device performance in
various nano-electronics and nano-optoelectronics.
1.2 Motivation
One-dimensional nanostructures are ideal system for exploring a large number of novel
phenomena at the nano-scale with wide range of device applicability. Nanostructures as
photodetectors are useful for applications such as binary switches in imaging techniques and
3
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
light-wave communication as well as in future storage and optoelectronic circuits. In metal-oxide
nanostructures, the role of oxygen vacancies is predominant for the electronic properties similar
to the bulk system. Considering various nanostructures, nanowires represents the smallest
dimension for efficient transport of electrons and excitons, and thus can be used as interconnects
and critical devices in future nano-electronics and nano-optoelectronics.
In comparison to the film Photodetectors, one-dimensional metal-oxide nanostructures
have several advantages as: (i) large surface-to-volume ratio with the carrier and photon
confinement in two-dimension, (ii) superior stability owing to high order of crystallinity, and (iii)
possible for surface functionalization with target-specific receptor series and FET configuration
that allow the use of gate potentials controlling the sensitivity selectively.
Considering the photocurrent measurement in single nanowires in our present work, it
was our interest to see the possible mechanism and main contributing factors to photoresponse of
metal oxide nanowires. The localized photocurrent measurements could provide insight into the
photoresponse of NWs, including in the region of interface.
1.3 Brief outline of the present work
In the present work, we investigated the studies of photocurrent in individual and isolated
metal-oxide NWs (Nb 2 O 5 and V 2 O 5 ) by using global (spot size much larger than the length of
the NWs) and localized focused laser beam irradiation in the visible and infrared region.
Photoresponse of these NWs were investigated under different environmental conditions. Using
focused laser beam techniques in our experiments, we can direct the laser beam locally in the
region of NW-electrode (Pt) interface or the main body of the NW. This allows us to develop
4
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
better insight into the photoresponse of the NW. The photoresponse of metal-oxide NWs (with
and without bias) towards visible and infrared laser irradiation was studied. Particularly, it was
found that NW-Pt contact played a major role in the photoresponse of the nanowire device.
The present work of photoconductivity studies in individual NW under local irradiation
near the interface of NW-Pt contacts facilitate better understanding of photocurrent transport
mechanism in nano-devices with light irradiation. This also highlighted the importance of
localized photoconductivity techniques, so as to have better insight of nanowire based devices.
Its importance could lie in the development of NW optoelectronic, and sensing devices with
better performance control, knowing the role of contact contribution in NW devices.
In this chapter motivation and brief outline of the present work is presented. In chapter 2
brief
reviews
on
photoconductivity
concepts,
photoconductivity
in
one-dimensional
nanostructures (nanowires) and some of the mechanism involved for photorespone in NWs are
summarized. Chapter 3 deals with the experimental techniques. Chapter 4 and chapter 5 presents
detailed study of photoconductivity in single Nb 2 O 5 and V 2 O 5 NWs, respectively. Finally,
chapter 6 summarizes with some future works of this thesis.
5
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
References:
1
B. Tian, X. Zheng, T. J. Kempa, Y. Fang, N. Yu, G. Yu et. al, Nature (2007) 449, 885
2
R. Yan, D. Gragas, P. Yang, Nature (2009) 3, 569
3
Y. Li, F. Qian, J. Xiang, C. M. Lieber, Materials today (2006) 9, 18
4
L. Cao, J. S. White, J. S. Park, J. A. Schuller et. al, Nature materials (2009) 8, 643
5
J. Wang, M. S. Gudiksen, Xiangfeng Duan, Yi Cui, C. M. Lieber, Science (2001) 293, 1455
6
M. D. Kezenberg, B. Daniel, T. Evans, B. M. Kayes, M. A. Filler, M. C. Putnam, N. S. Lewis,
H. A. Atwater, Nano. Lett (2008) 8, 710
7
Y. Cui, Q. Wei, H. Park, C. M. Lieber, Science (2001) 293, 1289
8
M. W. Ahn, K. S. park, J. H. Heo, D. W. Kim et. al, Senssors and Actuators B (2009) 138, 168
9
Y. H. Ahn and Jiwoong Park, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2007) 91, 162102
10
Q. H. Li, Y. X. Liang, Q. Wan, and T. H. Wang, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2004) 85, 6389
11
S. Thunich, L. Prechtel, D. Spirkoska, G. Abstreiter et. al, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2009) 95, 083111
12
H. Pettersson, J. Tragardh, A. I. Persson, L. Landin e.t al, Nano. Lett. (2006) 6, 2, 229
13
C. Soci, A. Zhang, B. Xiang, S. A. Dayeh, D. P. R. Aplin, J. Park, X. Y. Bao, Y. H. Lo, D.
Wang, Nano. Lett. (2007) 7, 1003
14
Z. M. Liao, Y. Lu, J. Xu, J. M. Zhang, D. P. Yu, Appl. Phys. A (2009) 95, 363
15
T. Zhai, X. Fang, M. Liao, X. Xu, H. Zeng, B. Yoshio, D. Golberg, Sensors (2009) 9, 6504
16
S. P. Mondal, S. K. Ray, App. Phys. Lett. (2009) 94, 223119
17
J. Zhou, Y. Gu, Y. Hu, W. Mai, P. H. Yeh, G. Bao et. al, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2009) 94, 191103
18
K. Balasubramanian, M. Burghard, K. Kern, M. Scolari, A. Mews, Nano Letts. (2005) 5, 507
19
E. J. H. Lee, K. balasubramanian, J. Dofmüller R. Vogelgesang et.al, Small (2007) 3, 2038
20
Y. Ahn, J. Dunning, and J. Park, Nano Letts (2005) 5, 1367
6
Chapter 1
Introduction and Motivation
21
Y. Gu, E. S kwak, J. L. Lehsch, J. E Allen et. al. Appl. Phys. Letts. (2005) 87, 043111
22
Y. Gu, J. P. Romankiewicz, J. K. David et. al. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B (2006) 24, 2172
7
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructure
2.1 Introduction
With extensive research in the synthesis techniques of various one-dimensional or quasione-dimensional nanostructures (nanowires) for the last few decades, there has been tremendous
exploration on its fundamental nano-scale physical properties, with special attentions on their
nano-electronics and nano-devices applications. To realize these nanostructures for future
applications in electronics, optoelectronics and semiconductors, study of photoconductivity of
these nanomaterials is one of the most important investigations embarked by researchers
worldwide. Photoconductivity is widely studied property of materials, started with thin-film to
presently in nanostructures.
The photoconductivity of individual or a network of nanowires (randomly or aligned
along preferred direction) is generally measured on placing/dispersing them on an insulating
substrate (mostly Si/SiO 2 substrate), under external bias applied either in two probe or three
probe (with back gate) metal electrodes configuration. Upon irradiation with light on the
NW/NWs the electrical conductivity changes, thus providing light-sensing capabilities. The
unique properties of individual or array of NW photoconductors such as light polarization
sensitivity, light absorption enhancement, and internal photoconductivity gain, could be utilized
for the realization of efficient and highly integrated optical, electronic and sensing devices.1-6
In this chapter some of the basic concepts of photoconductivity of metal-oxide NW are
reviewed, highlighting some of the mechanism involved in photoconductivity of NWs, such as
surface effect and contacts effects which are crucial in low dimensional nano-devices.
8
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
2.2 Concepts in photoconductivity
Photoconductivity is an important property of semiconductors in which the electrical
conductivity changes on irradiation of incident light. Photoconductivity phenomena can be
mainly described with electron activity in semiconductors. Photoconductivity involves the
following mechanisms: absorption of the incident light, carrier photo-generation, carrier and
transport including carrier trapping, de-trapping and recombination process. Thus, it can be
divided into (a) intrinsic: band to band conduction or (b) extrinsic: excitation of electrons from
defect or imperfect state (Figure 2.1). The extrinsic contribution to photoconductivity usually
involves two step processes: (i) recombination with a carrier of opposite type, or (ii) be thermally
excitation to the nearest energy band before recombination. The imperfection or defect state is
referred to as trap, and the capture and release processes are called trapping and de-trapping.7-9
Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram showing intrinsic and
extrinsic phenomena involved in photoconductivity.
9
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
Photoelectric phenomena involves, the concepts of optical absorption by which free
carriers are created. These free carriers contribute to electrical transport and electrical
conductivity of the material. The capture of free carriers leads to either recombination or
trapping. Thus most photoconductivity effects are due to intrinsic or extrinsic optical absorption.9
The intrinsic conductivity of a semiconductor is given by;
σ = enµ
(2.1)
Where e is the electronic charge, n is the charge carrier density, and μ is the carrier mobility. In
the presence of applied electric field F=V/L. Where V is the voltage applied across a NW with
length L. The current density is given by;
J = σF = enυ
(2.2)
Where υ = µF is the carrier drift velocity. Under irradiation of light, we have a change in
conductivity ∆n (carrier photo-generation) or a change in the carrier mobility ∆µ:
∆σ = σ light − σ dark = e( µ∆n + n∆µ )
(2.3)
In general;
J PC (t ) = [ µ (t )∆n(t ) + n(t )∆µ (t )]eF
(2.4)
Where J PC is the photocurrent, mobility and carrier density are time dependent. As in many
semiconductor ∆n >>∆µ, thus the time dependence of the mobility can be neglected. Therefore
the expression for the photocurrent density reduces to the form:
J PC (t ) = ∆σF = eµ∆n(t ) F
(2.5)
The absorption properties of semiconducting NWs are strongly dependent on the
polarization of the incident light.10-13 The main explanation for such phenomena are: (i) the
modification of energy spectrum by size quantization of carriers, (ii) the dielectric confinement
of the optical electric field due to the difference in the dielectric constants of the NW (ϵ) and the
10
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
environment (ϵ o ). The ratio of absorption coefficient for light polarization parallel and
perpendicular to the NW axis is given by:10
ε + εo
=
k⊥
2ε o
k ||
2
(2.6)
Polarization dependent photoconductivity in single NW with light irradiation has been reported
in many NW material systems.3,14,15
2.2.1 Steady-state photoconductivity
When the light is illuminated on NWs, the optical absorption causes carrier generation
and inter band excitation. Light absorption process can be described by:
dI
= −αI
dx
(2.7)
⇒ I ( x ) = I o e −α x
(2.8)
Where α is the absorption coefficient, I o intensity of incident photons and x is the direction along
which absorption occurs. The steady-state photoconductivity under constant light irradiation
directly depends on the majority carrier (electrons or holes) life time:
∆n=Gτ
(2.9)
Here, G is the photo-excitation rate and τ is the carrier’s lifetime. Thus, the photoconductivity
equation and the total steady-state photocurrent density in NW:
Thus,
∆σ=Ge(µτ)
(2.10)
J pc =∆σF
(2.11)
11
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
Due to large surface to volume ratio, NWs contains extremely high density of surface states.
Thus the surface potential and Fermi energy pinning at the surface strongly depends on the
geometry of the NWs. These factors strongly influence the performance of NWs as
photodectector devices.16
2.3 Photoconductivity in one-dimensional metal-oxide nanowires
As material system with wide range of band gap energy, metal-oxide NWs are extremely
important and attractive class of photoconductors. In addition, due to unique surface chemistry
and photoconducting properties, metal-oxide NWs are suitable choices as biological, chemical
and gas sensing devices.2,17
Among all, ZnO is the widely studied metal-oxide semiconducting NW. Its
photoconductivity alone is vastly studied. Due to wide bandgap (3.34 eV at room temperature)
and large excitonic binding energy (60 meV), ZnO NW finds applications as UV
photodetectors.18-20 Single NW or networks (randomly or vertically oriented) arrays of ZnO NWs
photodetectors have been extensively investigated.21 Literature reported 4 to 6 orders of decrease
in magnitude of resistivity in ZnO on exposure to UV light (365 nm).9 The extremely long
photocurrent relaxation time, relates to carrier trapping. Defect states played significant role in
photocurrent response as well.20 The photoconductivity in ZnO NWs is mainly governed by a
charge-trapping mechanism mediated by oxygen adsorption and desorption at the surface.7,19,22,23
Besides ZnO, variety of other metal-oxide semiconducting NW photodetectors have also
been investigated, some of them are SnO 2 , β-Ga 2 O 3, In 2 O 3, Cu 2 O and V 2 O 5 NWs. SnO 2
nanostructured materials (bandgap = 3.6 eV) are ideal as transparent conducting electrodes for
organic light emitting diodes and solar cells.24, 25 It has also been used as chemical sensors for
environmental and industrial applications. Cu 2 O is a p-type direct band gap semiconductor. It
12
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
found applications as field-effect transistors, photovoltaic devices, sensors, and photo-electrodes
in high-efficiency photo-electrochemical cells.26, 27 Cu 2 O is sensitive to blue light (488 nm) laser
irradiation in air and at room temperature.26 Monoclinic gallium oxide (β-Ga 2 O 3 ) has wide
bandgap of 4.9 eV,28,
29
it is chemically and thermally stable and has been widely used as an
insulating oxide layer in gallium-based electrical devices. β-Ga 2 O 3 is an n-type semiconductor,
which finds applications in high temperature gas sensing, solar cells, flat-panel displays and
optical limiters for UV irradiation.30 β-Ga 2 O 3 NWs are sensitive to 254 nm wavelength and is a
promising material for solar photodeterctor.31
In 2 O 3 NWs (direct bandgap of ~3.6 eV, and indirect bandgap ~ 2.5 eV) are reported as
UV Photodetectors. It is highly responsive to 254 nm UV light, due to excitation of electrons
from valance band to conduction band (excitation energy (4.9 eV) greater than the direct
bandgap).32 And its sensitivity to 365 nm light is attributed to transition in indirect bandgap.32
V 2 O 5 NWs showed a week temperature dependent photocurrent upon exposure to white light,
and its photoconductivity has been explained in terms of hopping-mediated transport.33
2.4 Factors contributing to photoresponse in one-dimensional metal-oxide nanowires
2.4.1 Surface effects
In one-dimension nanostructures, it is possible that the surface approaches the bulk, and
the defects segregate on the surface leaving a high quality bulk devoid of defects, thereby
producing large difference in properties.34 Due to high surface-to-volume ratio in one
dimensional nanostructure materials, study of interfacial properties is vital for photoconductivity
in NWs.35, 36
13
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
From the literature, the photoconductivity in ZnO NWs is mainly attributed to surface
states.37-39 The photoconductivity in NWs is highly dependent on surface absorbed oxygen
molecules.35,39,40 The effect of water vapor, and other gas species also plays vital role in
photoresponse in NWs.39-41 Due to the effect of water vapor and gas species, the shortening of
the current decay in photoresponse has been reported.39-41 However, the mechanism of water
interaction with surface of metal oxide NWs is still a subject of fundamental interest.42, 43
2.4.2 Photoresponse in dry and wet air
The photoresponse of NWs in dry air, are generally governed by adsorption of oxygen molecules
on the surface of the NWs.35-42 The presence of oxygen molecules adsorbed at the surface of
NWs decrease the carrier density in NWs in dark, by trapping free electrons
[O 2 ( g ) + e − → O2− (ad )] in n-type semiconducting NWs. This decreases the mobility of the
remaining carriers by creating depletion layers near the surface, and leads to band bending near
the surface.39 Because of large surface-to-volume ratio in NWs, the adsorption of O 2 molecules
significantly decreases the conductivity in the NWs. On irradiation of light on NWs, electronhole pairs are generated [hν → e − + h + ] . This results increase in photoconductivity, because of
increased carrier densities in NWs. In the process, holes migrate to the surface along the
potential slope created by the band bending and the recombine with the O 2 -trapped electrons,
thus releasing O2− from the surface [O2− (ad ) + h + →O 2 ( g )] . The remaining unpaired electrons
become the major carriers that would contribute to the current, unless they are trapped again by
re-adsorbed O 2 on the surface. The unpaired electrons accumulate gradually with time until the
de-sorption and re-adsorption of O 2 reach an equilibrium state, resulting in a gradual rise in
current until saturation during light irradiation. At the end of the illumination, the hole density is
14
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
much lower than electron density. Although holes recombine quickly with electrons upon turning
off the irradiated light, there would still be lot of electrons left in the NWs. O 2 molecules
gradually re-adsorb on the surface and capture these electrons, which results in a slow current
decay.44
Photoresponse is also greatly affected by surrounding wet air, with the presence of water
molecule. Under dark condition, the water molecules probably replace the previously adsorbed
and ionized oxygen, releasing electrons from the ionized oxygen molecules, partially
annihilating the depletion layer resulting rise in conductivity.45 Water molecules from the
atmosphere can be physisorbed followed by chemisorbed that can capture electrons onto the
surface of the NWs.41
2.4.3. Electrical contacts
For the measurements of transport properties in semiconducting materials including in
nanoelectronics, it is ordinarily necessary to make electrical contacts to the material, usually with
metallic contacts. However, when it comes to making electrical contacts in nanostructures, it
might not be easy and straightforward. Thus it becomes an important issue in understanding the
electrical properties in NW-metal electrodes. Nevertheless, with advances in technology, many
techniques such as optical lithography, electron beam lithography and focused ion beam
techniques are utilized as a tool for fabricating electrical contacts in nano-devices and nanoelectronics. When metal-semiconductor contact is made, it can either be an Ohmic or Schottky
barrier depending on the Fermi surface alignment and the nature of the interface between the
metal and the semiconducting nanowire. The ohmic contact can likely to be treated as Schottky
barrier having zero barrier height. Thus the metal-semiconductor-metal (metal-nanowire-metal)
15
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
structure can be modeled as two Schottky barrier connected back to back, in series with
semiconductor having resistance as shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Schematic diagrams representing (a) metalnanowire-metal contact nano device structure on SiO2/Si
substrate. (b) Two Schottky barrier modeled as back-to-back
diode connected in series. (c) Energy band diagram of metalsemiconductor-metal structure at equilibrium.
To study the intrinsic properties of NWs a good electrical contact is highly desired. But
the ideal contacts may not be realized. Most of the semiconducting NWs measured follow nonlinear I-V characteristics. The literature reports on transport properties of NWs have
demonstrated influence on contact between metal electrodes and semiconducting NWs.45-49
Several important factors, including dimensionality-dependent Schottky barriers, oxidation of
metal electrodes and/or NWs, fringing field effects, interfacial trap states, and others have been
demonstrated.47,50-52 Carriers in many oxide materials typically originates from defect level states
including oxygen vacancies (n-type) and cation vacancies (p-type).53 Stoichiometry at the
interface should affect significantly the carrier injection from electrodes/metal to oxide NWs.
16
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
With the aid of photoconductivity as experimental techniques, the studies of NW-electrode
interface is possible. Recent studies of photoconductivity of individual NW using field optical
microscopy or localized focused beam techniques have been reported, where one can direct the
laser beam towards the NW-electrode interface or the main body of the NW and thus develop a
better insight into the photoresponse of the NW3, 54, 55 Photoconductivity in single NWs could
also be affected by thermoelectric effect, a subjective of our investigation in this work.
17
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
References:
1
Y. Li, F. Qian, J. Xiang, C. M. Lieber, Materials Today (2006) 9, 18
2
Y. Cui, Q. Wei, H. Park, C. M. Liber, Science (2001) 293, 1289
3
Y. H. Ahn, J. Park, Apl. Phy. Letts. (2007) 91, 161202
4
L.Cao, J. S. White, J. S. Park, J. A. Schuller, B. M. Clemens, Nature Mat. (2009) 8, 642
5
B. Tian, X. Zheng, T. J. Kempa, Y. Fang, N. Yu, G. Yu, J. Huang, C. M. Lieber, Nature (2007)
449, 885
6
R. Yan, D. Gargas, P. Yang, Nature Photonics (2009) 3, 567
7
Photoelectronic properties of semiconductor, Chambridge University press, R. H Bube
8
Photoconductivity: art, science, and technology, Marcel Dekker, Inc. N. V. Joshi
9
C. Soc, A. Zhang, X. Y. Bao, H. Kim, Y. Lo, D. Wang, J. Nanosci. Nanotech (2010) 20, 1
10
H. E. Ruda, A. Shik, Phys. Rev. B (2005) 72, 115308
11
H. E. Ruda, A. Shik, J. Appl. Phys. (2006) 100, 024314
12
J. Qi, A. M. Belcher, J. M White, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2003) 82, 2616
13
Z. H Zhang, X. Y. QI, J. K. Han, X. F. Duan, Micron (2006) 37, 229
14
J. Wang, M. S. Gudiksen, X. Duan, Y. Cui, C. M. Lieber, Science (2001) 293, 1455
15
A. Singh, X. Li, V. Protasenko, G. Galantai, M. Kuno, H. Xing, D. Jena, Nano. Lett. (2007) 7,
2999
16
F. Leonard, A. A. Talin, Phys. Rev. Lett. (2006) 97, 026804
17
Q. H. Li, Y. X. Liang, Q. Wan, T. H. Wang, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2004) 85, 6389
18
C. Soc A. Zhang, B. Xiang, S. A. Dayeh, D. P. R. Apline, J. Park, X. Y. Bao, Y. H. Lo, D.
Wang; Appl. Phy. Lett. (2007) 7, 1003
19
H. Kind, H. Yan, B. Messer, M. Law, P Yang, Adv. Mater. (2002) 14, 185
18
Chapter 2
20
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
Y. W. Heo, B. S. Kang, L. C. Tien, D. P. Norton, F. Ren, J. R. La Roche, S. J. Pearton; Appl.
Phys. A (2005) 80, 497
21
S. Hullavarad, N. Hullavard, D. Look, B. Claffin; Nanoscale Res. Lett. (2009) 4, 1421
22
Q. H. Li, T. Gao, Y. G. Wang, T. H. Wang; Appl. Phys. Lett. (2005) 86, 123117
23
A. Bera, D. Basal; Appl. Phys. Lett. (2009) 94, 163119
24
Z. Q. Liu, D. H. Zhang, S. Han, C. Li, T. Tang, W. Jin, X. L. Liu, B. Lei, C. W. Zhou, Adv.
Mater (2003) 15, 1754
25
S. Mathur, S. Barth, H. Shen, J. C. Pyun, U. Werner, Small (2005) 1, 713
26
L. Liao, B. Tan, Y. F. Hao, G. Z. Xing, J. P. Liu, B. C. Zhao, Z. X. Shen, T. Wu, L. Wang, J.
T. L. Tong, C. M. Huang, T. Yu, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2009) 94, 113106.
27
D. P. Singh, N.R. Neti, A. S. K. Sinha, O. N. Srivastava, J. Phys. Chem. C (2007) 111, 1638.
28
J. Q. Hu, Q. Li, J. H. Zhan, Y. Jiao. Z. W. Liu, S. P. Ringer, Y. Bando, D. Golberg, ACS Nano
(2008) 2, 107.
29
P. Feng, X. Y. Xue, G. Y. Liu, Q. Wan, T. H. Wang, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2006) 89, 112114
30
Y. Huang, Z. L. Wang, Q. Wang, C. Z. GU, C. C. Tang, Y. Bando, D. Golberg, Phys. Chem. C.
(2009) 113, 1980.
31
P. Feng, Y. J. Zhang, Q. H. Li, T. H. Wang, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2006) 88, 153207.
32
D. Zhang, C. Li, S. Han, X. Liu, T. Tang, W. Jin, C. W. Zhou, Appl. Phys. A (2003) 77, 163
33
J. Park, E. Lee, K. W. Lee, C. E. Lee, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2006) 89, 183114.
34
J. S. Jie, W. J. Zhang, Y. Jiang, X. M. Meng, Y. Q. Li, S. T. Lee, Nano Lett. (2006) 6, 1887
35
C. Soci, A. Zhang, B. Xiang, S. A. Sayeh, D. P. R. Aplin, J. Park, X. Y. Bao, Y. H. Lo, D.
Wang, Nano Lett. (2007) 7, 1003.
36
A. Bera, D. Basak, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2008) 93, 053102
19
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
37
Z. M. Liao, K. J. Liu, J. M. Zhang, J. Xu, D. P. Yu, Phys. Lett. A (2007) 367, 207
38
Z. M. Liao, H. Z. Zhang, Y. B. Zhou, J. Xu, J.M. Zhang, D. P. Yu, Phys. Lett. A (2008) 372,
4505
39
Q. H. Li, T. Gao, Y. G. Wang, T. H. Wang, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2005) 86, 123117.
40
J. B. K. Law, J. T. L. Tong. Appl. Phys. Lett. (2006) 88, 133114
41
X. Xie, F. C. Cheong, B. Varghese, Y. W. Zhu, R. Mahendrian, C. H. Sow, Sens. Actuators B
(2010) in press.
42
S. Suzuki, K. Fukui, H. Onishi, Y. Iwasawa, Phys. Rev. Lett. (2000) 84, 2156
43
C. Wӧll, Prog. Surf. Sci. (2007) 82, 55
44
A. Bera, D. Basak, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2009) 94, 163119
45
Z. Chen, C. Lu, Sens. Lett. (2005) 3, 274
46
Z. Zhang, K. Yao, Y. Liu, C. Jin, X. Liang, Q. Chen, L. M. Peng, Adv. Funct. Mater. (2007)
17, 2478
47
Y. Gu, L. J. Lauhon, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2006) 89, 143102
48
Z. R. Wang, G. Zhang, K. L. Pey, C. H. Tung, G. Q. Lo, J. Appl. Phys. (2009) 105,09458
49
Y. F. Lin, W. B. Jian, Nano. Lett. (2008) 8, 3146
50
B. S. Simpkins, M. A. Mastro, C. R. Eddy, Jr, P. E. Pehrsson, J. Appl. Phys. (2008) 103,
104313
51
J. Hu, Y. Liu, C. Z. Ning, R. Dutton, S. M. Kang, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2008) 92, 083503
52
K. Nagashima, T. Yanagida, A. Klamchuen, M. Kanai, K. Oka, S. Seki, T. Kawai, Appl, Phys.
Lett. (2010) 073110
53
A. K. Singh, A. Janotti, M. Scheffler, C. G. Van de Walle, Phys. Rev. Lett. (2008) 101, 055502
20
Chapter 2
Photoconductivity in one-dimensional nanostructures
54
Y. Gu, E. S. Kwak, J. L. Lensch, J. E. Allen, T. W. Odom, L. J. Lauhon, Appl. Phys. Lett.
(2005) 87, 043111
55
S. Thunich, L. Prechtel, D. Spirkoska, G. Abstreiter, A. F. Morral, A. W. Holleitner, Appl.
Phys. Lett. (2009) 95, 083111
21
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
In this chapter, the synthesis of metal-oxide and the characterization techniques used are
detailed. Niobium and Vanadium oxide nanomaterials were synthesised using thermal oxide and
hotplate techniques, and investigated with various characterization techniques. The electrical
characterization techniques for transport properties of individual nanowire device and the home
built experimental setup for photoconducting studies are also provided.
3.1 Niobium and vanadium oxide nanomaterials synthesis techniques
3.1.1 Cleaning of substrate/metal foil
The substrate/metal foil (Niobium or Vanadium foil) purchased from Sigma-Aldrich was
cut into pieces typically of about 0.5 cm square. The substrate/metal foil was then polished with
sand paper to remove the dust particles and stain. After which the foil was put in ultrasonic bath
in deionised water, followed by acetone each for about 15 minutes and then finally again
ultrasonicated with deionised water, so as to have clean and smooth foil. Finally the foil was
dried using nitrogen gas.
3.1.2 Thermal oxidation techniques for the synthesis of Nb 2 O 5 nanowires
A horizontal tube furnace from Carbolite was used for the controlled synthesis of Nb 2 O 5
nanostructures by thermal oxidation techniques. The main component of the tube furnace
contained a ceramic tube of diameter ~10 cm with both ends vacuum sealed using O-rings. One
end of the ceramic tube was connected to a rotary pump and the lowest achievable pressure of
22
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
this set-up was ~ 2 x 10-2 mbar. While different gases can be introduced from the other end of the
tube controllably by mass flow controller. The cleaned Nb-metal foil (purchased from SigmaAldrich 0.25mm thick, 99.8%) was placed in small quartz tube of smaller diameter ~ 2.5 cm.
This small tube was then carefully placed inside the big ceramic tube so that the location of Nb
foil was exactly at the hottest region of the tube furnace set at 900 oC. The system was then
evacuated to a base pressure of ~ 2 x 10-2 mbar. This was then followed with the flow of argon
(Ar) gas at the rate of 25 standard cubic centimetre per minute (sccm) and pressure maintained at
1Torr. The temperature of the furnace was the raised at the rate of 20 oC/minute. After reaching
the required temperature the growth process for 2 hour was further initiated with the flow of
oxygen gas at the rate of 25 sccm. After the growth, the oxygen flow was terminated and the
system was left to cool down room temperature while Ar gas was kept flowing.1 A schematic of
the entire system is shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of tube furnace set up with all its necessary components
for the growth of nanostructures.
23
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
3.1.3 Hot plate techniques for the synthesis of V 2 O 5 nanowires
Hotplate techniques are easy and cost effective techniques developed for synthesis of
various metal-oxide nanostructures in our group. The hotplate from Barnstead/Thermolyne, can
be set to desirable temperature with digital display on it. Vanadium foils (99.98%) purchased
from Sigma-Aldrich were cleaned and dried as described above. The foil was then placed on the
hotplate, and a SiN substrate was placed on top of the foil. The hotplate was heated to a
temperature of ~540 oC and maintained at this temperature for 3 days.2 This technique allowed
the growth of V 2 O 5 nanowires on the SiN substrate. The SiN substrate used was 200 nm thick
SiN film with hollow microholes. The film was framed by a 300 µm thick frame. Figure 3.2
shows the hotplate used to fabricate V 2 O 5 nanowires.
Figure 3.2 Hotplate for the growth of
V2O5 nanowires on SiN substrate.
24
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
3.2 Characterization Methods and Techniques
3.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
X-Ray diffraction (XRD) is a well known tool for determining the crystal structure, grain
size and internal strain of crystalline materials. XRD is a non destructive technique. In this
method, structural information such as crystalline order of the nanostructure is determined
through Braggs Law. Also, accurate values of the d spacing are determined by X-ray diffraction.
In all crystalline materials the atoms are oriented in a regular way (Figure 3.3). This
arrangement of atoms forms different planes of the crystal. When X-ray falls on a crystalline
material it reflects from different planes. According to Bragg, the reflected X-rays will create a
diffraction pattern, when the inter-planar distance (d hkl ) satisfies the relation
2d hkl sinθ hkl =nλ
(3.1)
Where θ is the angle of incidence of the X-ray beam, λ is the wavelength of the X-ray radiation
used, (hkl) are Miller indices of a particular crystal plane and n is the order of diffraction. This
equation can be used to calculate the d-spacing of different crystal planes. The direction of the
reflected beams are determined by the orientation and spacing of the crystal planes.
25
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
Incident rays
Reflected rays
θ
N
θ
Lattice plane
d
Figure 3.3 The relationship between atomic planes, incident X-rays and
reflected X-rays in XRD analysis.
The metal foil with nanostructures on the surface was used for recording XRD spectrum
o
using Philips X’PERT MRD (Cu-Kα (1.542 A ) radiation) system. Due to large penetration
length of the X-ray, the XRD spectrum comprises peaks that correspond to the supporting metal
foil in addition to the peaks that originate from the oxide nanostructures.
3.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique and requires no contacts to the
sample. Raman spectroscopy is based on Raman effect, in which the inelastic scattering of
electromagnetic waves due to the photon-photon interaction within the material. Most oxides
nanostructures can be characterized by Raman spectroscopy. In a typical set-up, the laser is
incident on the sample and the shift in wavelengths of the scattered light are collected, analysed
and matched to known wavelengths for identification. Various properties of the sample can be
characterized. Its composition and size can be determined. Raman spectroscopy is sensitive to
26
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
crystal structure. The nanostructures fabricated on the metal foil, as such was used for recording
Raman spectrum using a Renishaw system2000 micro-Raman system. In this Raman system, the
polarized diode laser of wavelength 514 nm was focused on the nanowires using 50x objective
lense (NA: 0.9) microscope. The spectrum data was collected by the computer system for further
analysis.
3.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
An electron microscope utilizes an electron beam (e-beam) to produce a magnified image
of the sample. There are three principle types of electron microscopes; scanning, transmission,
and emission. In the scanning and transmission electron microscope, an electron beam incident
on sample produces an image.
SEM is similar to light microscopy with the exception that electrons are used instead of
photons and the image is formed in a different manner. The use of electrons has two main
advantages over optical microscopes: much larger magnification is possible since electron
wavelengths are much smaller than photon wavelengths and the depth of field is much higher.
The electron wavelength λ e depends on the electron velocity v or the accelerating voltage V as
λe =
h
h
1.22
=
=
(nm)
mυ
2qmV
V
3.2
The wavelength is 0.012 nm for V = 10kV; a wavelength significantly below the
wavelength range of visible light (400nm to 700 nm), making the resolution of SEM much better
than that of an optical microscope. The image in SEM is produced by scanning the sample with
focused electron beam and detecting the secondary and or/backscattered electrons. Secondary
27
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
electrons form the conventional SEM image. Basic components of a SEM are an electron gun, a
magnetic lens system, scanning coils, an electron collector and a cathode ray tube for viewing
the image. The electron gun provides a stable source of electrons, which are accelerated to the
operating voltage of the microscope by an anode plate. The condenser and the objective lenses
focus the beam into a fine spot, the diameter of which ultimately determines the resolution of the
microscope. To prevent the impact of the electrons with molecules in the environment, the
column is kept at a vacuum of 10-7 Torr or better. Some of the electrons escaping from each
impact point at the surface are collected, and the intensity of this signal is used to modulate the
brightness of the viewing screen. The electrons vary in energy from a few eV to keV, and their
collective behaviour and intensity are strongly influenced by the surface topography and
chemical makeup of the sample. Scanning coils deflect the spot in a television-like raster over
the surface of the sample. These are controlled by a saw tooth waveform that also drives the X-Y
input of the viewing screen, so that the rastering on the sample is identical point-by-point to that
being traced on the Cathode Ray Tube. Though identical in shape, the traces are considerably
different in size. In fact, it is the ratio of trace length on the imaging screen to that on the sample
that determines the magnification of the microscope. Probe electrons that scatter within the solid
and eventually escape through the surface are called backscattered electrons. The efficiency on
backscattering process improves with the increasing atomic number of atoms in the solid. It is
also possible for electrons within the shells of target atoms to gain enough energy in a collision
to break away and escape for detection. These are secondary electrons. Secondary electron
emission intensity is particularly sensitive to the chemical make-up of the sample and the surface
work function. Intensity variations are the basis for contrast in imaging roughness, thin films,
and hillocks and etch pits, as well as particles and contaminations. In this work, morphologies of
28
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
the Nb 2 O 5 and V 2 O 5 were envisioned by the field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, JEOL JSM-6700F). The typical acceleration voltage for electron used for the imaging was
in the range 5-10 kV and the emission current 5-20 µA.
3.3 Nano-device Fabrication Techniques
3.3.1 Photolithographic techniques
A photolithographic technique was used to pattern gold (Au) finger electrodes with the
gap of about ~ 10 μm. The standard steps for the photolithography process is shown in the figure
3.4. Heavily n-doped Si substrates (Resistivity ~1-10 Ohm.cm) with 100 nm thick insulating
oxide layer were used as the supporting substrate for the patterned electrodes. The clean Si/SiO 2
(cleaned as described above for Nb metal foil) substrate was spin coated with photoresist at the
rate of 1500 rotation per minute (rpm) for 30 seconds and the baked in a hot plate for ~15
minutes at 100 oC. The substrate was then masked and exposed to ultra violet (UV) irradiation
for 2 seconds. After which it was rinsed in a microresist developer. After development, the
substrate was sputtered with Au (~ 100 nm thickness). Finally it was put in acetone for one night
for lift up.
29
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
Figure 3.4 (a) Schematic diagram representing the steps for
photolithography process, (b) Au finger electrodes on SiO2/Si
substrate.
30
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
3.3.2 Single nanowire(NW) device fabrication
The single NW devices were fabricated by transferring individual NW from the growth
substrates to the patterned Au electrode SiO 2 /Si substrates, with the aid of tungsten needle
probes (tip size ~75 nm) attached to a micro-positioner under an optical microscope (CascadeTM
Microtech). The NW was first electrostatically attached to the tungsten probes by direct contact,
and then transferred to the SiO 2 /Si substrate by exploiting the Van der Waals force between the
substrate and the NW. The ends of these NW were then electrically connected to the Au
electrodes by depositing Pt (300nm in thickness) using a dual beam focused ion beam system
(Quanta 200-3D FIB-SEM, FEI Company, Ga+ ion beam operated at 30 kV, 50 pA). The
schematic diagram of the device is shown in the Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of single nanowire device
with Pt contact between the NW and the Au electrodes.
31
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
3.4 Electrical Characterization of Single Nanowire
The single nanowire device prepared as shown in Figure 3.5 was employed for electrical
transport measurements. The two point electrical measurements was carried out in either ambient
or vacuum (~ 10-6 torr) environment at room temperature. Keithley 6430 sub-femto amp remote
source meter was connected to the external leads from the nano-device for current-voltage and
photoresponse measurements.
3.5 Photoconductivity Measurement Techniques
Two different methodologies were employed as photoconductivity measurement
techniques for individual nanowire devices; (i) global irradiation and (ii) localized irradiation.
3.5.1 Global irradiation technique
Figure 3.6(a) below represents the schematic diagram of individual nanowire device with
global irradiation (spot size of laser beam larger than the gap between the electrodes). The
diameter of the laser is about ~ 3 mm, this would obviously means that the irradiation includes
the contact region of the electrodes too. Thus such irradiation approach was denoted as broad
beam/global irradiation approach. Figure 3.6(b) represents the schematic diagram for
experimental set-up of nano-device in vacumm environment with global irradiation.
32
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
Figure 3.6 (a) Schematic diagram of individual nanowire device with global
irradiation (spot size larger than the electrodes gap). (b) Schematic diagram of
individual nanowire device inside the vacuum chamber for photocurrent
measurements in vacuum environment with global irradiation.
3.5.2 Localized irradiation technique
Schematic home built experimental set-up for photoconductivity with focused laser
irradiation of laser beam is shown in Figure 3.7. The laser beam can be focused to a diffraction
limited spot size of ~1 µm using 100X objective lens (Leica, NA ~0.75) of the microscope with
our set-up in nanomaterial research laboratory. Thus the irradiation of focused laser beam
facilitates localized photoresponse studies along different parts of the NW. The laser beam is
focused after passing through the microscopic objective lense. This technique was used for the
study of photo-response from the contact points and middle of the individual nanowire devices.
33
Chapter 3
Fabrication and Characterization Techniques
Figure 3.7 Schematic experimental setup of
localized photoconductivity techniques probed at
individual nanowire device.
Reference
1
B. Varghese, C. H. Sow, C. T. Lim, J. Phys. Chem. C (2008) 112, 10008
2
Y. Zhu, Y. Zhang, L. Dai, F. C Cheong, V. Tan, C. H. Sow, C. T Lim, Acta Materilaia (2010)
55, 415
34
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb 2O5 Nanowire
4.1 Introduction
Niobium oxide is known to occur in many forms such as NbO, NbO 2 , Nb 2 O 3 and
Nb 2 O 5 . Among all the Niobium oxide, Nb 2 O 5 is oxygen-rich and thermodynamically the most
stable phase. Crystalline Nb 2 O 5 can be obtained by oxidation of metallic niobium by heating the
metallic niobium foil up about 800-1000 oC. Amorphous Nb 2 O 5 can be formed by heating
niobium powder between 260 oC and 350 oC or by dehydration of niobium hydrous oxides. The
temperature and treatment time are the critical conditions for various crystalline modifications.
Nearly all the phase changes are irreversible.1,2
Niobium oxide (NbO) has a unique structure, which gives each metal atom a square coordination. Nb 2 O 5 has molecular weight MW=265.82 g/mol and a melting point MP=1495oC.
Among the different polymorphs, H-Nb 2 O 5 which crystallized at temperature > 1000 oC with
monoclinic structure is the thermodynamically most stable form.3 The Nb 2 O 5 formed at
temperature range 800-1000 oC is normally labelled as M-Nb 2 O 5 with tetragonal or monoclinic
structure. Nb 2 O 5 formed at a temperature range 700-800 oC crystallizes in orthorhombic
structure and known as T-Nb 2 O 5 . The least stable polymorph of Nb 2 O 5 is the TT-Nb 2 O 5 , which
crystallises at a temperature < 700 oC with pseudo-hexagonal structure. Many of these forms are
metastable under normal conditions, and some of them are structurally quite similar. They can be
easily converted to the most stable H-Nb 2 O 5 structure by heating to high temperatures. Thus the
35
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
phase transformation of niobium oxide strongly depends on the preparation method of the
compound and the heat treatment.
Traditionally, niobium pentoxide is used in metallurgy for the production of hard
materials. In optics it is used as an additive to molten glass to prevent the devitrification and to
control the properties such as refractive index and light absorption of special glasses. Nb 2 O 5 is
an intrinsic n-type semiconductor material with wide band gap of ~ 3.4 eV.4 There are only a few
research work carried out on Nb 2 O 5 nanostructures and its functional properties.5-10 Nb 2 O 5
nanostructures have found applications in field emission,7 gas sensing,8,9 as electrochromic
materials10 and catalysis.11 It also shows potential in nano-electronics and nano-mechanical
devices.12 As a wide band gap material, photoconductivity of these nanowires would be of great
interest. In this chapter, studies of photocurrent of individual and isolated Nb 2 O 5 NW by using
global (spot size much larger than the length of the NWs) and localized focused laser beam
irradiation is presented.
4.2 Experimental Section
Nb 2 O 5 NWs were synthesized by thermal oxidation of Nb foils purchased from SigmaAldrich (0.25mm thick, 99.8%), in a horizontal tube furnace at 900 oC with the parameters as
described in section 3.1.2. The morphology and characterization of as grown nanostructures were
obtained using field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM, JEOL JSM-6700F), X-ray
diffraction (XRD, X’PERT, Cu-K α (1.542 nm) radiation) and micro Raman spectroscopy
(Renishaw system 200, excitation wavelength 532 nm).
36
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
4.2.1 Characterization of Nanostructure
(a) Morphology: The Figure 4.1 shows the FE-SEM image of the Nb 2 O 5 nanowires grown on
niobium metal foil after thermal heating at temperature ~900 oC for 2 hours in vacuum as
described in section 3.1.2. The morphology in Figure 4.1 shows that the nanowires are vertically
free standing and uniformly grown. The length of the nanowires falls in the range of 10-30 μm,
and the tip of the nanowires are sharp with a tip size of ~10-50 nm. Morpholoy of Nb 2 O 5
nanostructure is very much dependent on growth temperature.
(b) X-ray diffraction (XRD): XRD spectrum of the nanostructures fabricated at temperature
900 oC supported on the Nb foil is displayed in Figure 4.2. The peak observed at 47.6o is from
Nb substrate. All the peaks can be indexed to tetragonal Nb 2 O 5 (JCPDS: 74-1484) phase
structure.
Figure 4.1 FE-SEM image of Nb2O5 nanowires grown in
Nb-metal foil with thermal oxidation techniques at 900 oC.
37
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
20
40
50
60
(15 0 1)
(14 8 0)
(303)
(15 4 1)
(433)
(14 4 0)
(11 3 2 )
(222)(941)
(11 3 0)
(10 6 0)
(532)
(10 5 1)
(11 4 1)
(13 1 0)
(12 3 1 )
(002)
30
(770)
(640)
(431)
(521)
(800)
(541)
(701)
(440) (600)
(321) (301)
Intensity (a.u)
(101)
Chapter 4
70
80
2θ (degrees)
Figure 4.2 XRD spectrum of Nb2O5 nanowires grown
in Nb-metal foil with thermal oxidation techniques at
900 oC.
(c) Micro Raman spectroscopy: The micro-Raman spectrum of the Nb 2 O 5 nanostructure on
heated Nb-foil at 900 oC, were collected in back scattering configuration at room temperature.
The Renishaw system2000 micro-Raman system used a diode laser that emits laser beam with a
wavelength of 514 nm that was focused by a 50x objective lens for irradiation of the sample.
Figure 4.3 shows the micro-Raman spectrum collected from the Nb 2 O 5 nanostructures sample.
From the spectrum, the A 1g bands observed in the 700-1000 cm-1 region corresponded to the
longitudinal optical (LO) modes of the Nb-O stretching associated with NbO 6 octahedral and
NbO 4 tetrahedral. The spectra in the range 600-700 cm-1 corresponds to transverse optical (TO)
modes E g . The shoulder peak in this region may be due to overlap from the T 1u bands. The weak
bands observed in the 300-560 cm-1 were assigned to be T 2g mode. The strongest peak observed
38
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
in 200-300 cm-1 are assigned to the T 2u modes. These results are consistent with the previous
studies on Nb 2 O 5 single and nanocrystalline powder.6,13
Intensity (a. u.)
A1g
0
T2u
T2u
E2g
E2g
T2g
T2g
200
T2g
A1g
400
600
800
A1g
-1
1000
1200
Raman Shift (cm )
Figure 4.3 Raman spectrum of as grown Nb2O5 nanostructures.
4.3 Nb 2 O 5 nano-device fabrication and electrical characterization
Heavily n-doped Si substrates (Resistivity ~1-10 Ohm-cm) with a thick insulating oxide
layer (100 nm) were used to construct single NW devices. These substrates were pre-patterned
with gold (Au) electrodes in two-probe configurations using standard photolithography as
discussed in section 3.3. The gap between the two Au finger electrodes was 10 µm. The single
NW devices were fabricated by transferring individual NW from the growth substrates to the
patterned Au electrode SiO 2 /Si substrates, with the aid of tungsten needle probes (tip size ~75
nm) attached to a micro-positioner under an optical microscope (CascadeTM Microtech). The NW
was first electrostatically attached to the tungsten probes by direct contact, and then transferred
39
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
to the SiO 2 /Si substrate by exploiting the Van der Waals force between the substrate and the
NW. The ends of these NW were then electrically connected to the Au electrodes by depositing
Pt (300nm in thickness) using a dual beam focused ion beam system (Quanta 200-3D FIB-SEM,
FEI Company, Ga+ ion beam operated at 30 kV, 50 pA). The SEM image of the individual
Nb 2 O 5 nanowire fabricated is as shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 SEM image of individual Nb2O5 nanowire
device fabricated in Au electrodes with Pt contacts on
both ends of the NW.
We examined the transport properties of as fabricated NW device under ambient
environment at room temperature. Figure 4.5 displays a typical nonlinear I-V characteristic of a
semiconducting Nb 2 O 5 NW. A typical SEM image of the fabricated device is displayed in the
Figure 4.4. The I-V characteristic showed symmetrical and nonlinear response in positive and
negative bias condition. The NW connected with high work function metal electrodes at both
ends can be generally modeled as a circuit containing two Schottky junctions connected back-toback.14 When external bias was applied, one of these Schottky junction became forward biased
40
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
and the other became reversely biased. The current through such NW circuit was mainly
controlled and limited by the response of the reversely biased Schottky junction.
Figure 4.5 Typical I-V characteristics of individual
Nb2O5 nanowire measured at room temperature.
4.4 Photoconductivity study
The photoconductivity measurements of single NW were carried out by irradiating the
NW with laser beam from continuous wave diode lasers. As mentioned in section 3.5 two
approaches were implemented for the measurements of photoconductivity: the traditional
approach where the laser was irradiated as (i) broad beam or global (spot size was much larger
than the length of the NW) irradiation to the NW devices with the laser spot size of ~3 mm, and
in the other (ii) focused laser beam approach where the laser beam was focused to a diffraction
limited spot size of < 1µm using 100x objective lens (Leica, NA ~0.75) of an optical microscope.
41
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Figure 4.6 represents the schematic irradiation of laser on NW with the above mentioned
approaches (global and localized irradiation).
Figure 4.6 Schematic representation of individual nanowire device for
photoconductivity measurements with (a) global and (b) localized irradiation.
The electrical measurements were carried out using Keithley 6430 source meter under
zero and applied external bias conditions. Unlike the photoconductivity with global irradiation,
the focused laser beam irradiated (with area of < 1µm) had the advantage of probing the Nb 2 O 5
NWs selectively along the length of the NW so that we can specifically target NW-Pt interface
region for the photoresponse. The measurements carried out in these individual NWs had
consistent and reproducible results. With the global irradiation the photoconductivity were
measured in an ambient as well as in vacuum condition (~10-6 Torr). The schematic diagram for
photoconductivity under vacuum condition with global irradiation is represented in Figure
3.6(b). The laser was irradiated from the top of the vacuum chamber through a transparent glass
42
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
window. The device was electrically connected through the external leads of the chamber to the
source meter.
4.4.1 Photoresponse of individual Nb 2 O 5 NW to global irradiation
The global irradiation to individual NW was subjected with a laser spot size of ~ 3 mm.
The laser system used in this case emits laser beam with a wavelength 808 nm and adjustable
power (maximum power of 200 mW). Here, the presence of laser irradiation shall be denoted as
the “on” state. We made use of a card to block the laser beam from irradiating the nanowire and
this shall be denoted as “off” state. Photocurrent experiments were carried out by measuring the
current passing through the NWs as a function of time subjecting to the presence (on) and
absence (off) of the laser beam. Figure 4.7(a) represents the on/off photocurrent response
corresponding to the laser irradiation (λ=808nm, power=170mW) at zero bias under ambient
condition. Figure 4.7(b) represents the photocurrent response at an applied external bias of 3V in
ambient and vacuum (~10-6 torr) conditions respectively. For the photocurrent measurements in
vacuum environment, the laser was allowed to globally irradiate on the NW device from top of
the vacuum chamber through a transparent window (see Figure 3.6(b)). In both cases the laser
power was maintained at ~ 170 mW. At zero bias, sharp and prominent photocurrent response
was observed with the on/off of laser irradiation. While at external applied bias, the photoresponses comprised of a rapid and a slow varying components with on/off of laser irradiation.
The photocurrent measured under vacuum environment (~ 10-6 Torr) at room temperature
increased by ~ 41% ( (∆I Vacuum − ∆I Ambient ) ∆I Ambient × 100% ) compared to that measured at
ambient condition.
43
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Figure 4.7 (a) Photocurrent measured at zero bias, under ambient condition. (b)
Photocurrent measured at applied bias of 3V, under ambient and vacuum environment,
(808nm wavelength, power ~ 170mW).
The energy of the laser photon used is less than the band gap energy of the Nb 2 O 5 NWs.
The NWs are likely to have many defect level states8,9, which probably lies near mid band
energy. Thus when the laser was irradiated on the NW, free electrons (or holes) are likely to be
excited to/from the defect level state. Under the biased condition, these charge carriers can be
separated and motion of these carriers led to the detected photocurrent. Notably at the NW-Pt
contact (Schottky contact), the presence of localized electric field could further enhance the
magnitude of the photocurrent. These contributions are mainly responsible for the observed rapid
photocurrent effect. In addition, laser induced thermal heating of the NW, carrier thermalization
trapping at the NW and interaction of the surface states of the NWs with the laser irradiation are
possible contributors to the measured photocurrent as well. These factors tend to introduce a
slower photoresponse in the NW. Hence the photocurrent from these contributions exhibits
different characteristic time scales with distinct rapid and slowly varying components as evident
in Figure 4.7(b). Probing the detail nature of the defects in the Nb 2 O 5 nanowires is a challenging
44
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
task. Rosenfeld et al.8 proposed oxygen vacancies as major contributing factors with respect to
the electrical properties of Nb 2 O 5 thin film. They proposed that extrinsic impurities may
associate to form complex defects that give rise to oxygen vacancies with trapped electrons. In
addition, they argued for the presence of surface electron traps that are associated with
chemisorbed oxygen that is able to diffuse into the bulk of the material.
These trapped electrons at the oxygen-related surface or defect states could be freed upon
laser irradiation and/or laser induced thermal heating of the NW, giving rise to the observed
strong photocurrent. The additional increase in photocurrent at vacuum environment could be
attributed to heightened thermal effect and desorption of molecular species from the surface of
the NW. In the ambient environment, the presence of air helped to dissipate some of the heat
generated and suppress desorption at the same time. In vacuum condition, these impeding factors
were reduced significantly and as a consequence, additional increase in photocurrent was
observed. In the off state, the photocurrent is seen to decay to a level comparable to its dark level
under ambient condition and this can be attributable to the absence of photo-excitation, cooling
of the NWs and the trapping of charge carriers into various defect states. In the case of
experiment carried out in vacuum condition, the tailing of photocurrent in off state did not return
to its dark level (Figure 4.7(b)) prior to laser irradiation. Such a difference is indicated by the
symbol δ, in Figure 4.7(b). In fact there is an increasing trend of δ with every cycle of laser onoff irradiation. This observation is attributed to the suppression of re-absorption charge trapping
molecular species onto the nanowire in the vacuum environment [15-19].
At zero bias, the photocurrent transition is sharp but the magnitude of the photocurrent is
~ 600 times smaller than that observed under biased condition. We attribute this observation to
the contribution from the NW-Pt contact. With laser irradiation globally onto the nanowire, it is
45
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
not straightforward to draw such a deduction from the results shown in Figure 4.7 (a). In fact,
such a deduction was arrived at from the results of our studies using focused laser beam. A
further detail of the statement is elaborated in Section 4.4.2 where the results for localized laser
irradiation are presented.
(a)Time characteristic analysis for global irradiation
From the basic concepts of photoconductivity, the increase in photocurrent upon laser
irradiation is characterized by a time constant associated with the increase in photocurrent
towards its steady state (rising time). Likewise, there is a time constant associated with the
decrease of photocurrent to its dark current value when the laser irradiation is turned off
(decaying time). The simplest rate equation is given by:20
dI (t )
= − I /τ
dt
(4.1)
Thus, equation (4.1) gives I (t ) = I s (1 − e − t /τ ) for the rising curve and I (t ) = I s e − t / τ for the decay
curve, where I s = Gτ, G being the photoexcitation rate and τ as the carrier’s lifetime.
The experimentally obtained rising and decaying photocurrents were found to fit well within
this simple model. The fitted equation takes the following form for the decaying time and rising
time respectively:21,22
I (t ) = I o + Ae − (t − t o ) / τ
(4.2)
I (t ) = I o + A(1 − e − (t − t o ) / τ )
(4.3)
Here t o and t are the initial and final response time, τ is the characteristic time constant, related to
slow photoresponse process observed. I o is the dark current and A is the current amplitude. The
fitted data for both ambient and vacuum was extracted from the response curves (Figure 4.7(b))
46
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
in the regime of slowly varying photocurrent. Figure 4.8(a) shows the rising curve, while Figure
4.8(b) shows the decaying curve fitting using data shown in Figure 4.7(b). The simple time
characteristic functions (equations (4.1)-(4.3)) provide a good exponential fit to the data. From
the analysis, the amplitudes and the characteristic response times at vacuum and ambient
conditions are summarized in Table 4.1.
Figure 4.8 (a) Rising and (b) Decaying time response analysis (808nm wavelength,
power ~ 170mW) at ambient and vacuum conditions (solid lines are the exponential
fitted curves).
Table 4.1: Time characteristics analysis in vacuum and ambient condition
Vacuum condition
Ambient condition
Response
|A|
τ (s)
|A|
τ (s)
Rising
2.99 x 10-8
51
1.06 x 10-8
54
Decay
1.84 x 10-6
32
7.64 x 10-7
34
47
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
The rising and decaying response time obtained from the curve fitting for data obtained
under vacuum conditions are ~51 sec and ~32 sec respectively (Table 4.1). Such a slow
photoresponse time observed in the Nb 2 O 5 NW consistent with presence of the deep trap states23
associated with oxygen-related surface or defects in the system. Moreover, the difference in time
constants indicates that the time taken to free the trapped-charges thermally is longer than that
when it actually gets trapped. Similarly, the rising and decaying time constant to photocurrent
measured under ambient conditions were ~ 54 sec and ~ 34 sec (Table 4.1). These values are
similar to those obtained under vacuum condition and suggest that similar processes took place
in ambient conditions.
4.4.2 Photocurrent on individual Nb 2 O 5 NW with focused laser beam
In order to gain better insights into the major contributing factors to the photocurrent, we
carried out photocurrent measurement with localized focused laser irradiation. The efforts here
were to study the photocurrent effect with focussed laser beam (spot size < 1µm) that can be
locally directed at specific location such as the NW-Pt interface. Figure 4.9(a) represents the
schematic diagram of focused laser beam irradiation on individual NW. The NW device was
mounted on a precision movable stage so that focused laser beam can be irradiated along the
body of the NW. Figure 4.9(b) shows schematics of localized irradiation on (i) NW-Pt interface
at forward bias (high terminal), (ii) middle of the NW and (iii) NW-Pt interface at reverse biased
(low terminal). From here on, we shall use the labels “(i)”, “(ii)” and “(iii)” to denote the
experimental results obtained from the three different cases as depicted in Figure 4.9(b). Figure
4.9(c) shows the I-V characteristics of individual Nb 2 O 5 NW measured at ambient environment
with focused laser beam (diode laser, λ=532nm, power ~80 μW) irradiation for the three
48
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
different cases at sweeping voltage of -2V to +2V. Figure 4.9(d) represents the photocurrent
response at an applied bias of 0.5V corresponding to the three different conditions. Evidently the
magnitude of the photocurrent in the case of laser beam irradiated on the NW-Pt interface at low
terminal (case (iii)) is higher compared to response at NW-Pt interface at high terminal (case (i)).
The photocurrent measured with laser irradiating at the middle of the NW (case (ii)) is
comparatively less than the other two cases. The same observation can also be made from the I-V
characteristics shown in Figure 4.9(c) for these three cases. The magnitudes of photocurrent
increased with the increased in applied bias and the laser power.
49
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Figure 4.9 (a) Schematic representation of photocurrent measurements with focused laser beam
irradiation on NW. (b) Schematic diagram of focused laser beam locally irradiated on (i) high
terminal NW-Pt interface (ii) middle of NW (ii) low terminal NW-Pt interface. (c) I-V
characteristics with/without focused laser beam irradiation on NW-Pt contacts at sweeping
voltage -2V to +2V. (d) Photoresponse at applied bias 0.5V with laser (λ = 532 nm, power ~80
µW) irradiated on the low terminal NW-Pt contacts, middle of the NW and on the high terminal
NW-Pt contacts respectively. Schematic representation of band bending diagram with
corresponding electron-hole transfer at Pt-NW interface when laser irradiated at (e) forward and
(f) reverse applied bias.
50
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
The observed properties of the photocurrent at applied bias can be interpreted by
considering the NW system as back-to-back Schottky diode model.24 Figures 4.9(e) and 4.9(f)
illustrate the mechanism of photocurrent-generation at the NW-Pt interface under an applied
external bias. The work function of Pt is slightly higher than that of Nb 2 O 5 . Upon contact,
Schottky barrier formed and the barrier height is the difference in metal work function and the
electron affinity of the semiconductor. Applying an external bias result in band bending as
illustrated in the schematic Figures 4.9(e)-(f). When the laser irradiated was directed near the
NW-Pt contact at reverse-biased (Figure 4.9(f)), photogenerated electrons and holes are
separated by the strong local electric field. The holes move towards the Pt contact and the
photogenerated electrons, experiencing a large barrier height at the contact, diffuse across the
NW and followed by collection at the forward-biased contact. On the other hand, when the laser
was irradiated near Pt-NW interface at forward bias contacts (Figure 4.9(e)), the photogenerated
electrons are readily collected and the photogenerated holes diffuse across the NWs and followed
by collection at the reverse-biased contact. Thus there is unidirectional current flow at applied
biased conditions irrespective to where the focused laser is directed. In addition the NW being ntype semiconductor and possibly due to asymmetry in the construction of the NW-Pt contact
there is excess of electrons flow when laser is irradiated on reversed bias. Moreover, holes may
have lower mobility than electrons in Nb 2 O 5 and holes diffusion may lead to greater carrier loss
than for electron diffusion. Consequently, higher photocurrent appeared when the laser was
focused on the reverse-biased contact. In the case of laser irradiation directed at the middle of
NWs (case (ii)), presence of a potential drop maintained by the applied bias resulted in the flow
of photogenerated electrons and holes and give rise to the photocurrent. However, more efficient
recombination reduced the magnitude of the photocurrent.
51
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
(a) Time characteristics analysis for focused laser beam
Photocurrent time response analysis was carried out for the current response with focused
laser beam (λ=532nm) irradiation at the ends of the NW-Pt interface and middle of NW. The
time response curve for rising and decaying photocurrent with focused laser irradiation is shown
in the Figure 4.10(a) and 4.10(b). Similar to section 4.4.1 (a) analysis was carried out using
equations (4.1-4.4). The rising and decaying time response characteristic obtained from the cure
fitting are shown in Table 4.2. The time constant τ falls in the range of ~ 4-7 sec on irradiation at
the interface of Pt-NW, and the middle of the NW. On the other hand, decay response
characteristic in the off state for the three cases was found to be comparably similar (~ 8-9 sec)
as shown in Table 4.2, suggesting the recovery mechanism for the NW in the off state is similar.
It is noted that the time constants for rising or decay are faster than the global illumination
results. The slower tailing in time response in the case of broad beam illumination could possibly
be attributed to multiple factors that include carrier diffusion and thermalization across the NW
along with Schottky contacts in NW.
Figure 4.10 Time response analysis curve (a) rising and (b) decay, when the focused
laser (λ= 532 nm) beam irradiated at the forward bias NW-Pt interface, middle of the
NW, and at reverse biased NW-Pt contact (solid lines are the fitted curves).
52
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Table 4.2: Rising time and decay characteristics with localized irradiation
LT Pt-NW interface
Response
Rising
Decay
|A|
Middle of NW
|A|
τ(s)
-6
1.07 x10
1.53 x 10-5
~7
~9
-7
3.22 x 10
9.97 x 10-5
HR Pt-NW interface
τ(s)
|A|
τ(s)
~6
~7
1.23 x 10-5
5.18 x 10-5
~4
~8
(b) Zero bias photocurrent with focused laser beam
When the photocurrent experiments were repeated with zero applied bias, surprising
results were observed. Figure 4.11(a) shows the photocurrent response measured at zero bias
with varying laser power when the focused laser was irradiated at different regions of the NW
(see Figure 4.9(b)). The wavelength of the laser beam is 532 nm and the laser powers studied are
125 µW, 260 µW and 324 µW respectively. Similar to the experiment conducted with applied
bias, the focused laser beam was locally directed on the NW-Pt interfaces and middle of the NW
for photocurrent measurements. It is observed that the photocurrent responses exhibited opposite
trend to each other when the laser beam was focused at two different ends of NW-Pt junctions
(Figure 4.11(a)). No photocurrent was observed when the focused laser beam was directed at the
middle of the NW. It should be noted that the behaviour of the photocurrent obtained at zero bias
is in contrast to the trend observed at applied bias (Figure 4.9(d)). In addition, the magnitude of
the photocurrent under zero bias is much smaller than the photocurrent observed under biased
condition.
It is also interesting to note that similar result has been reported before for Si NW using
scanning photocurrent measurement setup by Ahn et. al.25 The interesting behaviour of the
photocurrent at zero bias can be explained by the process as illustrated in Figure 4.11(b). The
Figure 11.4(b) illustrates the flow of electron direction in the Pt-NW interface with
corresponding laser irradiation.
53
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Figure 4.11 (a) Photoresponse at zero bias with varying laser power (λ = 532 nm,
125 µW, 260 µW and 324 µW respectively) when focused laser irradiated on the
low terminal NW-Pt contacts, middle of NW and the high NW-Pt contact. (b)
Schematic representation of band diagram with corresponding electron-hole
transfer at two ends of the Pt-NW due to localized heating, resulting photocurrent
due to thermoelectric effect with focused laser beam irradiated at the Pt-NW
interface at zero bias.
The increase in photogenerated charge carriers density upon irradiation can modify the
barrier width and resulting in a narrow Schottky barrier. This may facilitates an increase in the
tunnelling of photogenerated electrons from NW to Pt through the modified Schottky barrier. In
addition, the localized thermal heating within the focused laser irradiated region resulted in
54
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
thermoelectric effects at the NW-Pt interface.26 This gives rise to a temperature gradient between
the NW-Pt contacts. The thermalization increased the energy of the electrons in NW, which
gained greater velocities than those in metal (Pt) contact region. Consequently this resulted in a
net increase in diffusion of electrons from NW to metal electrode at the NW-Pt junction. Both
processes would result in a net increase in the flow charge carriers during localised laser
irradiation. As the flow of electron are opposite in direction at two different ends of the NW, the
observed flow of photocurrent is opposite in direction. When the laser was irradiated on the
middle NW, electrons need to diffuse across the length of NW to travel near to the NW-Pt
contact region. At zero bias, not all electrons are energetic enough to travel this distance and
results in lost due to recombination and scattering along the NW before reaching the NW-Pt
interface. Thus the photo-response with laser irradiated on the middle of NW was found to be
negligible compared to that on the NW-Pt junctions. Notably there was a clear difference in the
magnitude of the opposing photocurrents. This was attributed to physical differences between the
two NW-Pt contacts (contact area, thickness of Pt etc) and difference in the relative position of
the laser spot to the NW-Pt contact during the measurement.
55
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Figure 4.12 Photoresponse at zero bias when
focused laser (48 mW, λ = 808 nm) irradiated on the
low terminal NW-Pt contacts, middle of NW and the
high terminal NW-Pt contacts.
Figure 4.12 shows the photoresponse at zero bias with a different laser source (λ=808nm,
power = 48 mW), when at the interface and middle of NW. The photoresponse is similar to that
obtained with laser irradiation (λ=532nm in Figure 4.11(a)). However the magnitude of the
photocurrent is smaller and this is attributed to the laser being less energetic. The photo-response
on irradiation at the middle body of the NW at zero bias (λ=808 nm) is not negligible. This could
possibly due to the fact that the position of the probing laser irradiation was not exactly at the
middle of the NW, but slightly shifted towards negatively bias region from the middle of NW,
resulting in slight photo-response. Similar result has been reported before for CdS NW using
near-field scanning optical microscope (NSOM) techniques by Lauhon et al.15 At this point it is
worthwhile to relate the results shown in Figure 4.12 with the results shown in Figure 4.7(a). i.e.
Comparison of the photocurrent of global and localized irradiation in ambient condition and at
56
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
zero biased. Combining the opposing photocurrent in Figure 4.12, we would obtain a “net”
positive photocurrent with a magnitude of tens of pA, this is very similar to the photocurrent for
global irradiation shown in Figure 4.7(a). Hence we argue that in the case of Figure 4.7 (a),
despite the fact that we have used a broad laser beam illumination, the contribution to
photocurrent was largely due to the photoresponse of the NW-Pt contacts.
Thus, both with global and localized laser beam irradiation on individual Nb 2 O 5 NWs,
the results tested for about 8-10 NWs showed to be consistent. All of the above results with
global and localized irradiation photocurrent response on Nb 2 O 5 were carefully taken with same
NW, so that we could analyse the results qualitatively.
At the end, we would like to display in Figure 4.13, the photocurrent response extracted
with other Nb 2 O 5 NW devices under global and localized irradiation of laser beam at applied
and zero bias conditions to show the consistency in our results. However, the magnitudes of the
photocurrent response depend on the laser power, length of the NWs, contacts, etc. The uneven
response of photocurrent at zero bias on irradiation at the middle of the NW (Figure 4.13(d)) is
possibly due to uneven distribution of contact area, including that the laser not irradiating exactly
at middle of the NW.
57
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
Figure 4.13 Photocurrent responses with global irradiation on Nb2O5 NW with (a) 808 nm
laser (power ~ 50 mW) (b) 1064 nm (power ~108 mW) under ambient condition with
applied bias voltage of 3V. (c) and (d) represents photocurrent responses from Nb2O5 NW
with localized laser beam irradiation (λ=1064 nm) at applied bias 0.1V (laser power ~ 120
µW) and at zero bias (laser power ~ 160 µW) respectively.
4.5 Conclusion
We have studied the photoconductivity of individual Nb 2 O 5 NW devices with Pt contact
electrodes through global and localized laser irradiation. The photocurrent response was found to
be sensitive to the adsorbed ambient molecules as a larger photocurrent was generated in vacuum
58
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
than in air. The photocurrent also shows different time characteristics with rapid and slow
varying components arising from defect level excitations, thermal heating effect, surface states
and NW-Pt contacts. Results from localized irradiation, revealed that the measured photocurrent
of single NW device (with and without applied bias) depended sensitively on the photoresponse
at the NW-Pt contacts. At applied bias, unidirectional photocurrent was observed and higher
photocurrent was achieved with localized laser irradiation at reverse biased NW-Pt contact. At
zero bias, opposite polarity of photocurrents were detected. We attributed this behaviour to the
presence of a reduced Schottky barrier/width resulting from an increase in charge carriers
generated by laser irradiation and also thermoelectric electric effects arising from the localized
thermal heating. Comparison of photocurrents generated upon global and localized irradiation
showed that the main contribution to photocurrent was largely due to the photoresponse of the
NW-Pt contacts.
References
1
H. Schäfer, R. Gruhn, F. Schulter, Angew. Chem. (1966)78, 28
2
H. Schäfer, A. Durkop, M. Jori, Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem. (1954) 275, 289
3
J. M Jehng, I.E Wachs, Chem. Mater. (1991) 3, 100
4
N Özer, D. G. Chen, C. M. Lampert, Thin Solid Films (1996) 177, 162
5
P. George, V. G. Pol, A. Gedanken, Nanoscale Res. Lett. (2007) 2, 17
6
M. Mozetic, U. Cvelbar, M. K. Sunkara, S. Vaddiraju, Adv. Mater (2005) 17, 2138
7
B. Varghese, C. H. Sow, C. T. Lim, J. Phys. Chem. C (2008) 112, 10008
8
D. Rosenfeld, P.E. Schmid, S. Széles, F. Lévy, V. Demarne et. al, Sens. Actua. B (1996) 37, 83
9
U. Cvelbar, K. Ostrikov, A. Drenik, and M. Mozetic, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2008) 92, 133505
59
Chapter 4
Photoconductivity of Individual Nb2O5 Nanowire
10
N. Özer, Din-Guo Chen, Carl M. Lampert, Thin Solid Films (1996) 277, 162
11
K. Taanabe, Catal. Today (2003) 78, 65
12
B. Varghese, Y. Zhang, Y. P. Feng, C. T. Lim, C. H. Sow, Phy. Rev. B (2009) 7,9115419
13
A. A. McConnel, J. S. Anderson, C. N. R. Rao, Specteochimica. Acta. A (1976) 32, 1067
14
Y. Gu, E. S kwak, T. W Odom, L. J. Lauhon, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2005) 87, 043111
15
C. Scoi, A. Ahang, B. Xiang, S. A. Dayeh, D. P. R. Aplin, J. Park, X. Y. Bao, Y. H. Lo, D.
Wang, Nano Lett. (2007) 7, 1003
16
A. Bera, D. Basak, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2009) 94, 163119
17
Y. Xie, F. C. Cheong, B. Varghese, Y. W. Zhu, R. Mahendiran, C. H. Sow, Sensors Actuators
B (2010) 115, 320
18
S. Hullavarad, N. Hullavarad, Nanoscale Res. Lett. (2009) 4, 1421
19
L. Ping, J. L. Zhai, D. J. Wang, P. Wang, Y. Zhang, S. Pang, T. F. Xie, Chem. Phys. Lett.
(2008) 156, 231
20
Richard H. Bube, photoelectronic properties of semiconductor, Cambridge University press
(1992)
21
C. Soci, A. Zhang, X. Y. Bao, H. Kim, Y. Lo, D. Wang, J. Nano Science and Nanotechnology
(2010) 10, 1
22
A. Bera, D. Basak, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2008) 93, 053102
23
J. A. Hornbeck, J. R. Haynes, Phys. Rev. (1955) 97, 311
24
Y. Gu, E. S. kwak, T. W. Odom, L. J. Lauhon, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2005) 87, 043111
25
Y. Ahn, J. Dunning, J. Park, Nano Lett. (2005) 5, 1367
26
B. Varghese, R. Tamang, E. S. Tok , S. G. Mhaisalkar, C. H. Sow, J. Phys. Chem. C. (2010)
114, 15149
60
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V2O5 Nanowire
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O 5 Nanowire
5.1 Introduction
In the past decade, several methods have been used to prepare V 2 O 5 nanostructures such
as; nanowires, nanoribbons, nanosheets, and nanotubes. These techniques include hydrothermal
syntheses, sol-gel techniques, electrodeposition, and vapour transport. Recently, Vanadium oxide
NWs have been intensively studied for use as lithium-ion batteries, electrochromic devices, gas
sensors, and also have found application in the photographic industry as antistatic coatings.1-7
V 2 O 5 in simple orthorhombic crystalline structure comprises layers of square pyramids
sharing edges and corners. These layers are weakly bound by electrostatic forces along the caxis, as indicated by the long V-O distance of 0.279 nm,8 which provides abundant sites for the
facile intercalation of various guest species. The layered structure and mixed valance of
vanadium (V5+ and V4) in V 2 O 5 makes this material an attractive candidate for electrochemical
energy storage via the intercalation and de-intercalation of Li-ions.4,6,9
Probing the intrinsic properties of nanostructures is critical to assess their possible role
and functionality nanoscale devices. In this regard CNT and ZnO have been investigated in great
detail.10-14 Thus there is a need to explore the potential of other nanostructure materials for better
device performance. This chapter details the systematic study of electrical transport and
photocurrent measurements of V 2 O 5 individual NWs, with the aim for better understanding of
these NWs for their applicability in nano-devices, such as optoelectronics and photodetectors.
61
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
5.2 Experimental Section
Vanadium metal foil (99.98%) purchased from Sigma-Aldrich was cleaned, dried and
mounted on a hotplate and on top of it a SiN substrate (with grid pattern) was placed. The
hotplate was set to temperature ~ 540oC for 3 days for the growth of V 2 O 5 nanostructures (NWs)
in an ambient environment.15 Hotplate technique for the growth of V 2 O 5 nanostructures is
detailed in Section 3.1.3.
Figure 5.1 shows the SEM image of the V 2 O 5 nanowires grown on SiN substrate. The
nanowires ranged the length of ~ 10-30 μm, with diameter ~ 50-150 nm. Figures 5.1(b) and (c)
show the V 2 O 5 NWs grown at the edge of the substrate, with one end anchored to the growth
substrate.
Figure 5.1 SEM images of V2O5 nanowires on (a) SiN substrate, (b) and
(c) are images of suspended V2O5 nanowire on the edge of the SiN
substrate.
62
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
Figure 5.2 shows the micro-Raman spectrum collected from the V 2 O 5 nanostructures
sample. The micro-Raman spectrum of the V 2 O 5 nanowires grown on SiN by placing Vanadium
metal foil on top of it at temperature 540oC, were collected in back scattering configuration at
room temperature. The Renishaw system2000 micro-Raman system used a diode laser that emits
laser beam with a wavelength of 514 nm that was focused by a 50x objective lens. The Raman
peaks are located at 213, 373, 621, 838, 896 and 952 cm-1 as shown in Figure 5.2. Among all
peaks, peak at 952 cm-1 corresponds to stretching mode of V-O group, the peaks at 213 and 373
cm-1 are caused by V-O bending vibration. The peaks at about 621, 838 and 896 cm-1 are
attributed to the streaching modes of V 2 -O and V 3 -O. All of these peaks were observed from
896
838
621
373
213
Intensity (a. u)
952
vapor-deposited V 2 O 5 films and NWs, but with shifts.16-18
200
400
600
800
1000
Raman shift (cm-1)
Figure 5.2 Raman spectrums of V2O5 nanowires.
63
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
5.3 V 2 O 5 nano-device fabrication
The single V 2 O 5 NW devices were fabricated by transferring individual NW from the
growth substrate (SiN) to the patterned Au electrodes SiO 2 /Si substrate, with the aid of tungsten
needle probes (tip size ~75 nm) attached to a micro-positioner under an optical microscope
(CascadeTM Microtech). The NW was first electrostatically attached to the tungsten probes by
direct contact from the growth substrate, and then transferred to the SiO 2 /Si substrate by
exploiting Van der Waals force between the substrate and the NW. The ends of these NW were
then electrically connected to the Au electrodes by depositing Pt (300nm in thickness) using a
dual beam focused ion beam system. Figure 5.3 shows the SEM image of an individual V 2 O 5
NW (length ~15 µm, diameter ~100 nm) device fabricated.
Figure 5.3 SEM image of individual V2O5 NW, NW ends
are connected to the Au finger electrodes on Si/SiO2
substrate with Pt deposition.
64
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
5.4 Electrical characterization and photoconductivity of individual V 2 O 5 NW
The electrical transport measurements were performed in an individual V 2 O 5 nanowire
device fabricated (Figure 5.3) in two-point probe configuration, using Keithley 6430 current
source meter. Figure 5.4(a) represents the schematic diagram of the experimental setup with
nano-device inside. The nano-device was electrically connected to the leads inside the vacuum
chamber. This leads were then externally connected to the current source meter unit (Figure
5.4(a)). Notably, the chamber comprises of a transparent window. The device was placed in its
face up position at the middle of the visible transparent window of the vacuum chamber. The
laser was irradiated on the sample through this transparent glass window. The I-V response with
laser irradiation was studied with continuous laser irradiation, while the time dependent
photoresponse were recorded with blockage of laser (on/off state) at equal time interval. All the
measurements were performed with same experimental setup.
Figure 5.4(b) shows the typical I-V characteristics of individual V 2 O 5 NW measured at
ambient and room temperature with sweeping voltage from -4V to +4V. Figure 5.4(c) shows the
I-V measured as dark current and on illumination of laser (808 nm-200 mW EOIN, diode laser)
at ambient environment. Figure 5.4(d) shows the I-V characteristics when laser was irradiated at
different pressure (ambient, ~5 x 10-3 torr, and ~5 x 10-5 torr). The current response increased in
high vacuum.
65
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
Figure 5.4 (a) Schematic diagram of experimental setup used for the study of photoresponse
of V2O5 NW. (b) I-V curve of V2O5 NW at ambient. (c) I-V curves with/without light
illumination at ambient. (d) I-V curves with light illumination at ambient and at different
vacuum condition.
Figure 5.5(a) represents the varying dependent I-V curves of V 2 O 5 NWs upon laser
irradiation (λ=808nm) at vacuum condition (~5 x 10-5torr). All the electrical transport
measurements were performed at room temperature. Thus Figure 5.4(b)-(d) and Figure 5.5(a)
shows that the individual V 2 O 5 nanowire device exhibited nonlinear and almost symmetric I-V
66
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
characteristics at various sweeping voltage. The dark current measured was as low as 2.5 nA
(Figure 5.4(c)) at biasing voltage -1.5V to +1.5V. It is well established that a Schottky barrier is
formed at the metal-semiconductor (M-S) interface, and Schottky barrier plays a crucial role in
the electrical transport in the M-S-M structure including semiconducting nanowires. The
nonlinearity in I-V characteristics could be due to Schottky barrier formation between the
nanowire and the metal electrodes (Pt) in nanowire devices. Platinum (Pt) is a high work
function material and a Schottky contact forms when Pt connected with most semiconductor
materials unless Pt is doped to reduce its work function value.19-21 Figure 5.5(b) show that the
photocurrent versus laser power at a bias voltage of 1.5V, varies almost lineary.
Figure 5.5 (a) I-V results of individual V2O5 NW measured at vacuum (~5 x 10-5 Torr)
irradiated by different laser (λ=808) power. (b) Experimental and fitted plot of laser (λ =
808 nm) power vs photocurrent at fixed applied bias of 1.5V.
67
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
At very low bias, the current passing through the NW is very small and the total voltage is
distributed mainly on the two Schottky barriers. On the other hand, at large bias, the contribution
from the two Schottky barriers become less significant and the potential drop is mainly
contributed by the potential difference across the NW. Thus at the region of larger bias regime,
the resistance of the NW can be obtained on differentiated I-V characteristics (R ≈ ∆V/∆I). Thus,
the resistance of the NW obtained was R=130 MΩ for Figure 5.4(b). Other parameters can also
be extracted from the I-V curves in the intermediate bias regime where the reverse-biased
Schottky barrier dominated the total current I 19,20
1
q
+ ln J s
ln I = ln(SJ ) + V
−
kT Eo
qE
Eo = Eoo coth oo
kT
N
Eoo = * d
2 mnε sε o
1
(5.1)
(5.2)
2
(5.3)
Where J is the current density through the Schottky barrier, S is the contact area associated with
the barrier. E o depends on the carriers density corresponding to E oo , and J s is a slowly varying
function of the applied bias. Thus, logarithmic plot of the current I as a function of the bias
voltage V gives approximately a straight line of slope q/(kT) – 1/E o , and the plot is shown in
Figure 5.6. From this plot, the electronic concentration n can then be obtained via E o and the
electron mobility can be calculated using the relation µ=1/(nqρ), with ρ (ρ=RA/L) being the
resistivity of the NW. Thus, applying the procedure to I-V curve in Figure 5.4(b), plot of In(I)
versus the bias voltage at higher regime is shown in the Figure 5.6. From the linear fitting we get
slope = 0.814, from which we can extract E o =26.43 mV, and further calculation applying
equations (5.2) and (5.3) and taking the ε o =3.389 as reported for the thin film,22 gives N d =n ≈
68
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
1.7 x 1017 /cm3. For NW in Figure 5.2 with diameter
≈110 nm and length (
L) ≈15 µm, the
resistivity ρ ≈8.23 Ω cm, and thus putting these values in equation, we get mobility µ=4.47
cm2/V s.
Figure 5.6 Experimental and fitted ln(I) vs V plot
for V2O5 on linear regime of I-V curve shown in
Figure 5.4 (b)
The current increased slightly on illumination of laser (λ=808nm) because of the photon
generated excess carriers due to excitation from defect level states (Figure 5.4(c)). The
photocurrent measurement at vacuum showed significant increase in current compared to that in
an ambient environment, attributable to desorption of oxygen/water at surface of NW or
enhanced thermal effect in vacuum condition (Figure 5.4(d)). Photon generated increased on
increasing the laser power, leading to increase in photocurrent (Figure 5.5(a)). Transport
69
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
mechanism in V 2 O 5 NW involves contribution from thermal effects. This can be seen from the
power dependent transport measurements curves indicated in Figure 5.5(a).
V 2 O 5 is an n-type semiconductor material. Nano-device on exposure to air, there is a
strong possibility of water molecules and oxygen becoming trapped on the surface of the
nanowire. The oxygen molecules that are chemisorbed can capture electrons while water
molecules from the atmosphere can be physisorbed followed by chemisorbed onto the surface of
the nanowire. When the laser was irradiated onto the NWs, the originally adsorbed negatively
charged oxygen ions combined with the holes generated from the optical absorption and
subsequently desorbed, reducing the electron depletion layer thickness to increase the electron
flow channel width, resulting increase in overall photoresponse.23
The photoresponse recorded under different environmental conditions on V 2 O 5 NWdevice at a fixed biased at 0.5V are shown in Figure 5.7. In these cases, the NW was illuminated
by the laser beam at a regular interval of about 240 seconds. At an ambient condition, there was
only a small (~pA) photoresponse to on/off state of laser. However under vacuum conditions
(~8.3 x 10-3 torr and ~4.2 x 10-4 torr), the photocurrent is significantly enhanced. Upon
illumination of laser beam, large enhancement of ~ 415% ( (∆I Vacuum − ∆I Ambient ) ∆I Ambient × 100% )
from ambient to vacuum was observed. The current dropped when the laser was blocked (off
state). The recovery process is slow and shows an apparent tailing, slightly above the original
starting current. The off state tailing, not reaching to the original current value suggests that the
laser irradiation under vacuum condition likely to be modified the surface states of NW. The
slow response in photocurrent could be attributed to the contribution from thermal effect.
Temperature increases due to laser irradiation, which causes resistance R in NW to decrease and
thus gives rise to higher current. The change in temperature is more significant in vacuum as
70
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
cooling effect from environmental air is suppressed; i.e the NW becomes even hotter and
resulted in more significant change in photocurrent.
Figure 5.7 The response curve under laser
(λ=808nm, power ~165 mW) at an ambient and
vacuum (~8.3 x 10-3Torr, 4.2 x 10-5Torr)
environment.
The laser power dependent I-V characteristics, and photoresponse at an applied bias of
0.5V were also measured using near-infrared laser (λ=1064 nm) as shown in Figure 5.8 and
Figure 5.9. Figure 5.8(b) shows the linear dependent nature of photocurrent with the laser power,
at vacuum condition. Notably the higher current on 1064 nm laser irradiation as compared with
808 nm laser, the significance of thermal contribution in transport mechanism. The I-V curves
showed non-linear and almost symmetric trend similar to the results obtained with 808 nm laser
irradiation. The photocurrent measurements show laser intensity dependent response (Figure 5.9)
71
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
measured at applied bias 0.5V. Thus one of the possible applications of V 2 O 5 NW can be in
visible-infrared range photosensing and photodetectors devices.
Figure 5.8 Power dependent I-V characteristic curves on irradiation of laser (λ=1064
nm) at vacuum environment (~ 4 x 10-5torr). (b) Experimental and fitted plot of current
with respect to dark current versus the laser (1064 nm) power at fixed biased 1.5V.
Figure 5.9 Photoresponse of individual V2O5 NW on irradiation of laser (λ=1064
nm, power ~230 mW) measured at applied bias 0.5V (a) in ambient and vacuum (~ 4
72
x 10-5Torr). (b) Power dependent photoresponse
at vacuum (~ 4 x 10-5Torr).
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
5.5 Time characteristics analysis
From the photoresponse obtained in Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.9(a) for λ=808 nm and
λ=1064nm irradiation respectively, the characteristic time associated with the increase in
photoconductivity to its steady state value on laser irradiation (rising time) at on-state, and the
characteristic time associated with the decrease of photoconductivity to its dark current value
when the laser irradiation is at off-state (decay time) can be calculated with fitted exponential
curves as shown in Figure 5.10(a)-(d), which very well fits to the exponential curve. The
simplest rate equation is a function of current with time given by:
And,
dI (t )
= − I /τ
dt
(5.4)
I (t ) = I o + Ae − t / τ
(5.5)
Here t is the response time interval, τ the relaxation time constant associated to the thermal
effect. I o is the dark current and A is the current amplitude on response to on/off of laser
irradiation. Thus the characteristic time obtained for λ=808 nm irradiation for rising and decay
was calculated to be ~ 102 sec and ~ 37 sec (Figure 5.10(a)-(b)). And for λ=1064 nm it was ~ 99
sec and 32 sec respectively (Figure 5.10(c)-(d). Thus the response times are similar in these cases
(i.e thermal effect similar). However on irradiation of green laser (λ=532 nm) there was no
observation of any photoresponse, which also suggests that the photoresponse due to thermal
effects with IR (λ=1064 nm) and near IR (λ=808 nm) laser irradiation.
73
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
Figure 5.10 Experimental and fitted exponential time characteristics curves obtained
from Figure 5.7 (λ=808 nm) and Figure 5.9 (λ=1064 nm): (a) Rising time (b) Decay time
for λ=808 nm laser irradiation. (c) Rising time (b) Decay time for λ=1064 nm laser
irradiation.
Finally, It has been observed that the above results of photoresponse in single V 2 O 5 NWs were
consistent (such photoresponse with other V 2 O 5 NW device has been displayed in Figure 5.1).
However, the photocurrent responses from the NWs also depended on the irradiated laser power,
dimension of the NWs, etc.
74
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
Figure 5.11 Photocurrent responses from individual V2O5 NW (different
NW device then the above results) on irradiation of 808 nm laser (power
~ 130 mW) at applied bias of 0.5 V.
5.6 Conclusion
The photoconductivity of individual V 2 O 5 NW device with global laser irradiation was
studied systematically. The I-V characteristics on different laser power showed a linear
photocurrent response. This increase in photoresponse with laser power suggests the significant
attribution of thermal effects. The Schottky effects near contact electrodes-NW junction also
contribute to photoresponse of V 2 O 5 NW. The photocurrent measurements at ambient and
vacuum are very significantly different. The thermal heating of NW is significant in vacuum as
the cooling effect from air is reduced. The photoresponse of V 2 O 5 NW at ambient with λ=808
nm irradiation was ~ 1nA and with λ=1064 nm irradiation was ~ 0.8nA. At applied bias 0.5V the
photoresponse showed more responsive to red laser (λ=808 nm) compared to infrared (λ=1064
75
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
nm) under vacuum environment. This could be because of higher energy of red laser compared
to infrared. The photocurrent is sensitive to the intensity of laser. Thus, this study of
photoresponse in individual V 2 O 5 NW could enrich the study of one-dimensional metal-oxide
NWs, with its potential applications in nano-optoelectronics, photodetectors and next generation
NW based electronic devices.
The localized laser beam experiment for photocurrent measurements could not be
performed on V 2 O 5 NW owing to some technical difficulties: The focused laser beam set-up for
our experiments has a very short working distance (~2-5 mm), which means that the
sample/device should be very close to the microscope objective lens. Thus at this situation the
measurements can be performed only in an ambient condition presently. And the V 2 O 5 NWs
showed no much significant photoresponse in ambient condition, it was anticipated that no
response could be seen with focused laser beam too at ambient. Due to these difficulties as
mentioned above, the contribution of photocurrent from Pt-NW junction could not be extracted;
however we would like to develop our experimental setup for localized photocurrent for future
studies.
76
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
References:
1
F. Zhou, X. Zhao, C. Yuan, L. Li, Crystal Growth & Design, (2008) 8, 723
2
C. Xiong, A. E. Aliev, B. Gnade, K. J. Balkus, Jr., ACS Nano (2008) 2, 293
3
P. E. Tang, J. S. Sakamoto, E. Baudrin, B. Dunn, J. Nano-Cryst. Solids (2004) 350, 67
4
Y. Wang, G. Z. Cao, Chem. Mater. (2006) 18, 2787
5
C. K Chan, H. Peng, R. D. Twesten, K. Jarausch,X. F. Zhang,Y. Cui, Nano Lett.(2007) 7, 490
6
C. K. Cheng, F. R. Chen, j. J. Kai, Solar En. Mat. & Solar Cells (2006) 90, 1156
7
J. L.ui, X. Wang, Q. Peng, Y. Li, Adv. Mater. (2005) 17,764
8
R. Enjalbert, J. Faly, Acta Crystallogr. C (1986) 42, 1467
9
M. Winter, O. B. Jurgen, M. E. Spahr, P. Novak, Adv. Mater. (1998) 10, 725
10
B. C. St-Antoine, D. Ménard, R. Martel, Nano Lett. (2009) 9, 3503
11
Q. Li, C. Liu, S. Fan, Nano Lett. (2009) 9, 3805
12
Y. W. Heo, B. S. Kang, L. C. Tien, D. P. Norton, F. Ren, J. R. L. Roche, S. J. Pearton, Appl.
Phys. A (2005) 80, 497
13
P. J. Li, Z. M. Liao, X. Z. Zhang, X. J. Zhang, H. C. Zhu, J. Y. Gao, K. Laurent, Y. L. Wang,
D. P. Yu, Nano Lett. (2009) 9, 2514
14
Z. L. Wang, Appl. Phys. A (2007) 88, 7
15
Y. Ahu, Y. Zhang, L. Dai, F. C. Cheong, V. Tan, C. H. Sow, C. T. Lim, Acta. Materialia.
(2010) 58, 415
16
W. Chen, L. Mai, J. Peng, Q. Xu, Q. Zhu, J. Solid State Chem. (2004) 177,377
17
J. Y.Chou, J. L. L. Falk, E. R. Hemesath, L. H. Lauhon, J. Appl. Phys. (2009) 105, 034310
18
C. Piccirillo, R. Binions, IP Parkin, Chem Vapour Depos. (2007) 13, 145
19
Z. Y. Zhang, C. H. Jin, X. L. Ling, Q. Cheng, L. M. Peng, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2006) 88, 073102
77
Chapter 5
Photoconductivity of Individual V 2O5 Nanowire
20
Z. Zhang, K. Yao, Y. Liu, C. Jin, X. Liang, Q. Chen, L. M. Peng, Adv. Mater. (2007) 17, 2478
21
T. Y. Wei, C. T. Huang, B. J. Hansen, Y. F. Lin, L. J. Chen, S. Y. Lu, Z. L. Wang, Appl. Phys.
Lett. (2010) 96, 013508
22
L. J. Meng, R. A. Silva, H. N. Cui, V. Teixeira, M. P. Santos, Z. Xu, Solid Thin Films (2006)
155, 195
23
Y. Li, F. D. Valle, M. Simonnet, I. Yamada, J. J. Delaunay, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2009) 94,
023110
78
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future Works
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future Work
The one-dimensional nanostructures (nanowires) were synthesized using tube furnace
and hotplate techniques. Nb 2 O 5 and V 2 O 5 NWs were fabricated using these techniques. These
nanostructures were characterized using XRD, SEM and micro-Raman as characterizing tool.
Following which photoconductivity studies were carried out on these nanostructures.
The single NW devices were fabricated by transferring individual NW from the growth
substrates to the SiO 2 /Si substrates with pre-patterned Au electrodes of ~10 µm gap. These
electrodes were fabricated using standard photolithographic technique. With the aid of tungsten
needle probes (tip size ~75 nm) attached to a micropositioner under an optical microscope
(CascadeTM Microtech), the NW was first attached to the tungsten probes by direct contact, and
then transferred to the SiO 2 /Si substrate by exploiting the Van der Waals force between the
substrate and the NW. The ends of these NW were then electrically connected to the Au
electrodes by depositing Pt (300nm in thickness) using a dual beam focused ion beam system
(Quanta 200-3D FIB-SEM, FEI Company, Ga+ ion beam operated at 30 kV, 50 pA).
The systematic studies of photocurrent of these nano-devices were conducted under
different environmental conditions upon irradiation of green (λ=532 nm), near-infrared (λ = 808)
nm and infrared (λ=1064 nm) laser beam. Global laser irradiation on the isolated Nb 2 O 5 and
V 2 O 5 NWs showed multiple photocurrent contribution from defect level excitations, surface
states and thermal heating effect. In another approach of photoconductivity study, the focused
laser beam techniques with spot size < 1 µm was used on individual Nb 2 O 5 NW. This technique
79
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future Works
ensured local probing along the desired section of NW and to develop better insight into the
photoresponse of the NW and at the Pt-NW interface region.
The fast and prominent photocurrent response from Nb 2 O 5 NW towards visible and
Infar-red wavelengths with focused laser beam was demonstrated. The individual Nb 2 O 5 showed
distinct photoresponse when the laser was irradiated globally and locally, especially at the PtNW interface on local irradiation. The photocurrent measurements on Nb 2 O 5 NW with focused
beam revealed the predominant contribution from the Pt-NW contacts, when the device was
operated both under a bias as well as at zero bias conditions. The polarity of the photocurrent
generated at zero bias near Nb 2 O 5 Pt-NW interface suggests Schottky barrier and thermoelectric
effects playing significant role in the carrier transport mechanism on irradiation of laser. Hence
we suggest the Schottky barrier response and thermoelectric effect as the key for transport
mechanism resulting to photocurrent response at zero bias. While at applied bias, the
photocurrent response was unidirectional when the focused laser beam irradiated onto different
segments (two ends of Pt-NW interface and middle of the NW) of NW. Most significant
photocurrent was observed when laser irradiated at reversed bias contact. Global irradiation
showed photoresponse ~ 41% at vacuum compared to an ambient in Nb 2 O 5 NW. The time
characteristic analysis showed slow rising time and fast decay time, and significant response with
focused laser beam irradiation.
The I-V characteristics on varying laser power showed increased in the photocurrent
response from V 2 O 5 NW. This increased current-response is attributed to thermal effects. The
Schottky barrier effects and contact electrodes also contributes to transport properties in V 2 O 5
NW. The thermal heating of NW was significant in vacuum as the cooling effect from air is
reduced. The photoresponse of V 2 O 5 NW at ambient upon irradiation of laser (λ=808 nm and
80
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future Works
λ=1064 nm) was ~1nA. At applied bias of 0.5V the photoresponse measured showed significant
responsive to red laser (λ=808 nm) compared to infrared (λ=1064 nm) under vacuum
environment. This is because of higher band energy of red laser compared to infrared. The
observed photocurrent was sensitive to the laser intensity.
The localized laser beam technique for photocurrent measurements could not be
implemented on V 2 O 5 NW owing to some technical difficulties: The focused laser beam setup
developed in our laboratory has a very short working distance (~ 2-5 mm). Therefore the nanodevice for photocurrent measurement should be kept very close to the microscope objective lens.
This presented restriction in vacuum photocurrent measurements using focused laser beam
irradiation. And as the V 2 O 5 NW showed no significant photoresponse in ambient condition, it
was anticipated that no response could be seen with focused laser beam too at ambient. Thus at
present situation one of the main challenge is to develop the focused laser beam technique for
vacuum measurements.
For the experiments conducted in vacuum, many additional experiments can be carried
out. These include refilling the vacuum chamber with specific gaseous species to investigate the
effect of different gaseous species on the photoconductivity of the NWs. So far all the
experiments presented in this work were carried out at room temperature. It would be worthwhile
to conduct future experiments with the NW devices placed on a heating stage. In this way, we
could investigate the temperature dependence of the individual NWs. Certainly a combination of
the environmental control as well as temperature control will be an interesting area of
investigation to be conducted in the future. Our focus in this work can also be extended to other
type of metal electrodes such as Au, Al and etc. Since each of these metals has different
workfunctions, the behavior of the NW-metal contact would be different.
81
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future Works
Henceforth, with better understanding in device physics extracted specially from the
metal-nanowire interface region of the device using focused laser beam technique, our approach
presented on photocurrent in individual metal-oxide nanowire could have better implication in
photodetectors, nano-optoelectronics, and next generation NW based electronic devices.
82
[...]... Chapter 2 Photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructures 2.2 Concepts in photoconductivity Photoconductivity is an important property of semiconductors in which the electrical conductivity changes on irradiation of incident light Photoconductivity phenomena can be mainly described with electron activity in semiconductors Photoconductivity involves the following mechanisms: absorption of the incident... potentials controlling the sensitivity selectively Considering the photocurrent measurement in single nanowires in our present work, it was our interest to see the possible mechanism and main contributing factors to photoresponse of metal oxide nanowires The localized photocurrent measurements could provide insight into the photoresponse of NWs, including in the region of interface 1.3 Brief outline of the... trappingdetrapping mechanism and recombination process.11-15 In addition change in large surface-tovolume ratio in nanostructures, its electrical transport properties strongly influenced by the surrounding environment and not dependent only on the intrinsic properties of the nanowire material In addition, the nature of NW -metal electrode interface also sensitively contributes to the individual NW photoconductivity. .. the nearest energy band before recombination The imperfection or defect state is referred to as trap, and the capture and release processes are called trapping and de-trapping.7-9 Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram showing intrinsic and extrinsic phenomena involved in photoconductivity 9 Chapter 2 Photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructures Photoelectric phenomena involves, the concepts of optical absorption... properties.34 Due to high surface-to-volume ratio in one dimensional nanostructure materials, study of interfacial properties is vital for photoconductivity in NWs.35, 36 13 Chapter 2 Photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructures From the literature, the photoconductivity in ZnO NWs is mainly attributed to surface states.37-39 The photoconductivity in NWs is highly dependent on surface absorbed... its photoconductivity has been explained in terms of hopping-mediated transport.33 2.4 Factors contributing to photoresponse in one- dimensional metal- oxide nanowires 2.4.1 Surface effects In one- dimension nanostructures, it is possible that the surface approaches the bulk, and the defects segregate on the surface leaving a high quality bulk devoid of defects, thereby producing large difference in properties.34... lie in the development of NW optoelectronic, and sensing devices with better performance control, knowing the role of contact contribution in NW devices In this chapter motivation and brief outline of the present work is presented In chapter 2 brief reviews on photoconductivity concepts, photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructures (nanowires) and some of the mechanism involved for photorespone... enhancement, and internal photoconductivity gain, could be utilized for the realization of efficient and highly integrated optical, electronic and sensing devices.1-6 In this chapter some of the basic concepts of photoconductivity of metal- oxide NW are reviewed, highlighting some of the mechanism involved in photoconductivity of NWs, such as surface effect and contacts effects which are crucial in low dimensional. .. Chapter 2 Photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructures Due to large surface to volume ratio, NWs contains extremely high density of surface states Thus the surface potential and Fermi energy pinning at the surface strongly depends on the geometry of the NWs These factors strongly influence the performance of NWs as photodectector devices.16 2.3 Photoconductivity in one- dimensional metal- oxide... one can direct the laser beam towards the NW-electrode interface or the main body of the NW and thus develop a better insight into the photoresponse of the NW3, 54, 55 Photoconductivity in single NWs could also be affected by thermoelectric effect, a subjective of our investigation in this work 17 Chapter 2 Photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructures References: 1 Y Li, F Qian, J Xiang, C M ... Concepts in Photoconductivity 2.2.1 Steady-state Photoconductivity 2.3 Photoconductivity in one- dimensional metal- oxide nanowires 11 12 2.4 Factors contributing to photoresponse in one- dimensional metal- oxide... (2006) 24, 2172 Chapter Photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructures Chapter Photoconductivity in one- dimensional nanostructure 2.1 Introduction With extensive research in the synthesis techniques... Figure 2.1 Schematic diagram showing intrinsic and extrinsic phenomena involved in photoconductivity Figure 2.2 schematic diagrams representing (a) metal- nanowire -metal contact nano device structure