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Foundations on Rock Second edition Foundations on Rock Duncan C.Wyllie Principal, Golder Associates, Consulting Engineers Vancouver, Canada With a Foreword by Richard E.Goodman Professor of Geological Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, USA Second edition E & FN SPON An imprint of Routledge London and New York First edition published 1992 by E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall Second edition published 1999 by E & FN Spon, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” E & FN Spon is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 1992, 1999 Duncan C.Wyllie All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. The right of Duncan C.Wyllie to be identified as the author of this publication has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-47767-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-78591-6 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-419-23210-9 (Print Edition) Contents 1.1 Foreword to first edition xiv Introduction xv Introduction to first edition xvii Notation xix Note xxi Characteristics of rock foundations Types of rock foundation 1.1.1 Spread footings 1.1.2 Socketed piers 1.1.3 Tension foundations 1.2 Performance of foundations on rock 1.2.1 Settlement and bearing capacity failures 1.2.2 Creep 1.2.3 Block failure 1.2.4 Failure of socketed piers and tension anchors 1.2.5 Influence of geological structure 1.2.6 Excavation methods 1.2.7 Reinforcement 1.3 Structural loads 1.3.1 Buildings 1.3.2 Bridges 10 1.3.3 Dams 11 1.3.4 Tension foundations 11 1.4 Allowable settlement 11 v 1.4.1 Buildings 11 1.4.2 Bridges 12 1.4.3 Dams 13 1.5 Influence of ground water on foundation performance 14 1.5.1 Foundation stability 14 1.5.2 Dams 14 1.5.3 Tension foundations 16 1.6 Factor of safety and reliability analysis 16 1.6.1 Factor of safety analysis 16 1.6.2 Limit states design 17 1.6.3 Sensitivity analysis 18 1.6.4 Coefficient of reliability 18 1.7 2.1 References 25 Structural geology 27 Discontinuity characteristics 27 2.1.1 Types of discontinuity 27 2.1.2 Discontinuity orientation and dimensions 29 2.2 Orientation of discontinuities 30 2.3 Stereographic projection 31 2.3.1 Pole plots 34 2.3.2 Pole density 34 2.3.3 Great circles 36 2.3.4 Stochastic modeling of discontinuities 38 2.4 Types of foundation failure 39 2.5 Kinematic analysis 39 2.5.1 Planar failure 41 2.5.2 Wedge failure 41 2.5.3 Toppling failure 41 2.5.4 Friction cone 41 2.6 Probabilistic analysis of structural geology 43 vi 2.6.1 Discontinuity orientation 43 2.6.2 Discontinuity length and spacing 45 2.7 References 48 Rock strength and deformability 50 3.1 Range of rock strength conditions 50 3.2 Deformation modulus 52 3.2.1 Intact rock modulus 53 3.2.2 Stress-strain behavior of fractured rock 55 3.2.3 Size effects on deformation modulus 58 3.2.4 Discontinuity spacing and modulus 60 3.2.5 Modulus of anisotropic rock 61 3.2.6 Modulus-rock mass quality relationships 62 3.3 Compressive strength 64 3.3.1 Compressive strength of intact rock 66 3.3.2 Compressive strength of fractured rock 66 3.4 Shear strength 71 3.4.1 Mohr-Coulomb materials 71 3.4.2 Shear strength of discontinuities 71 3.4.3 Shear strength testing 77 3.4.4 Shear strength of fractured rock 80 3.5 Tensile strength 82 3.6 Time-dependent properties 83 3.6.1 Weathering 84 3.6.2 Swelling 86 3.6.3 Creep 87 3.6.4 Fatigue 92 References 92 Investigation and in situ testing methods 97 Site selection 97 3.7 4.1 4.1.1 Aerial and terrestrial photography 98 vii 4.1.2 4.2 Geophysics Geological mapping 100 103 4.2.1 Standard geology descriptions 103 4.2.2 Discontinuity mapping 108 4.3 Drilling 110 4.3.1 Diamond drilling 110 4.3.2 Percussion drilling 115 4.3.3 Calyx drilling 116 4.4 Ground water measurements 116 4.4.1 Water pressure measurements 118 4.4.2 Permeability measurements 121 4.5 In situ modulus and shear strength testing 124 4.5.1 Modulus testing 124 4.5.2 Direct shear tests 132 4.6 References 132 Bearing capacity, settlement and stress distribution 138 5.1 Introduction 138 5.2 Bearing capacity 140 5.2.1 Building codes 140 5.2.2 Bearing capacity of fractured rock 141 5.2.3 Recessed footings 145 5.2.4 Bearing capacity factors 146 5.2.5 Foundations on sloping ground 147 5.2.6 Bearing capacity of shallow dipping bedded formations 147 5.2.7 Bearing capacity of layered formations 152 5.3 Bearing capacity of karstic formations 153 5.3.1 Characteristics of solution features 154 5.3.2 Detection of solution features 155 5.3.3 Foundation types in karstic terrain 157 5.4 Settlement 163 viii 5.4.1 Settlement on elastic rock 164 5.4.2 Settlement on transversely isotropic rock 169 5.4.3 Settlement on inelastic rock 173 5.4.4 Settlement due to ground subsidence 174 5.5 Stress distributions in foundations 175 5.5.1 Stress distributions in isotropic rock 175 5.5.2 Stress distributions in layered formations 179 5.5.3 Stress distributions in transversely isotropic rock 180 5.5.4 Stress distributions in eccentrically loaded footings 182 References 185 5.6 Stability of foundations 189 6.1 Introduction 189 6.2 Stability of sliding blocks 189 6.2.1 Deterministic stability analysis 191 6.2.2 Probabilistic stability analysis 195 6.3 Stability of wedge blocks 196 6.4 Three-dimensional stability analysis 201 6.5 Stability of toppling blocks 202 6.6 Stability of fractured rock masses 206 6.7 External effects on stability 209 6.7.1 Seismic design 209 6.7.2 Scour 210 6.8 7.1 References 213 Foundations of gravity and embankment dams 215 Introduction 215 7.1.1 Dam performance statistics 216 7.1.2 Foundation design for gravity and embankment dams 217 7.1.3 Loads on dams 218 7.1.4 Loading combinations 219 7.2 Sliding stability 220 ix 7.2.1 Geological conditions causing sliding 220 7.2.2 Shear strength 221 7.2.3 Water pressure distributions 221 7.2.4 Stability analysis 223 7.2.5 Factor of safety 227 7.2.6 Examples of stabilization 227 7.3 Overturning and stress distributions in foundations 228 7.3.1 Overturning 230 7.3.2 Stress and strain in foundations 230 7.4 Earthquake response of dams 235 7.4.1 Introduction 235 7.4.2 Measured motions of foundation rock 236 7.4.3 Sliding stability and overturning under seismic loads 237 7.4.4 Finite element analysis 238 7.4.5 Earthquake displacement analysis 239 7.5 Preparation of rock surfaces 243 7.5.1 Shaping 244 7.5.2 Cleaning and sealing 245 7.5.3 Rebound 246 7.5.4 Solution cavities 246 Foundation rehabilitation 247 7.6.1 Monitoring 248 7.6.2 Grouting, sealing and drainage 248 7.6.3 Anchoring 249 7.6.4 Scour protection 249 7.6 7.7 Grouting and drainage 250 7.7.1 Grouting functions 252 7.7.2 Grout types 252 7.7.3 Mechanism of grouting 253 7.7.4 Drilling method 254 420 APPENDIX II APPENDIX II 421 APPENDIX III Conversion factors Imperial unit Length mile foot inch Area square mile acre square foot square inch Volume cubic yard cubic foot cubic inch Imp. gallon pint US gallon SI unit SI unit symbol Conversion factor (Imperial Conversion factor (SI to to SI) Imperial) kilometer meter millimeter millimeter km m mm mm square kilometer km2 hectare hectare square meter m2 square meter m2 square millimeter mm2 cubic meter cubic meter liter cubic millimeter cubic centimeter liter cubic meter liter liter cubic meter liter Mass ton tonne ton (2000 lb) (US) kilogram ton (2240 lb) (UK) m3 m3 liter mm3 cm3 m3 l l m3 l t kg mile=1.609 km ft=0.3048 m ft=304.80 mm in=25.40 mm km=0.6214 mile m=3.2808 ft mm=0.003 281 ft mm=0.039 37 in mile2=2.590 km2 mile2=259.0 acre=0.4047 acre=4047 m2 ft2=0.092 90 m2 in2=645.2 mm2 km2=0.3861 mile2 ha=0.003 861 mile2 ha=2.4710 acre m2=0.000 247 acre m2=10.7643 ft2 mm2=0.001 550 in2 yd3=0.7646 m3 ft3=0.028 32 m3 ft3=28.32 1 in3=16 387 mm3 in3=16.387 cm3 in3=0.016 39 1 gal=0.004 56 m3 gal=4.546 l pt=0.568 l US gal=0.0038 m3 US gal=3.8 l m3=1.3080 yd3 m3=35.3150 ft3 liter=0.035 31 ft3 mm3=61.024×10−6 in3 cm3=0.061 02 in3 liter=61.02 in3 m3=220.0 gal liter=0.220 gal liter=1.7606 pt m3=263.2 US gal 11=0.264 US gal ton=0.9072 tonne ton=907.19 kg = 1016.1 kg tonne=1.1023 ton kg=0.001 102 ton = 0.000 984 ton 423 Imperial unit SI unit SI unit symbol Conversion factor (Imperial Conversion factor (SI to to SI) Imperial) kip kilogram kg kip=453.59 kg pound kilogram Mass density ton per cubic yard (2000 kilogram per cubic meter lb) (US) tonne per cubic meter ton per cubic yard (2240 lb) (UK) pound per cubic foot kilogram per cubic meter tonne per cubic meter pound per cubic inch gram per cubic centimeter tonne per cubic meter Force ton force (2000 lb) (US) kilonewton ton force (2240 lb) (UK) kip force kilonewton pound force newton tonf/ft (2000 lb) (US) kilonewton ton f/ft (2240 lb) (UK) pound force per foot Hydraulic conductivity centimeter per second foot per year foot per second Flow rate cubic foot per minute cubic foot per second gallon per minute Imperial unit kg=0.002 204 kip kg lb=0.4536 kg kg=2.2046 lb kg/m3 ton/yd3=1186.49 kg/m3 t/m3 ton/yd3=1.1865 t/m3 ton/yd3=1328.9 kg/m3 kg/cm3 t/m3 g/cm3 lb/ft3=16.02 kg/m3 lb/ft3=0.01602 t/m3 lb/in3=27.68 g/cm3 kg/m3=0.000 842 ton/ yd3 t/m3=0.8428 ton/yd3 kg/m3=0.000 75 ton/ yd3 kg/cm3=0.062 42 lb/ft3 t/m3=62.42 lb/ft3 g/cm3=0.036 13 lb/in3 t/m3 lb/in3=27.68 t/m3 t/m3=0.036 13 lb/in3 kN kN N kN/m tonf=8.896 kN =9.964 kN kipf=4.448 kN lbf=4.448 N ton f/ft=29.186 kN/m per meter newton per meter N/m =32.68 kN/m lbf/ft=14.59 N/m kN=0.1124 tonf (US) =0.1004 tonf (UK) kN=0.2248 kipf N=0.2248 lbf kN/m=0.034 26 tonf/ft (US) =0.0306 tonf/ft (UK) N/m=0.068 53 lbf/ft meter per second meter per second meter per second m/s m/s m/s cm/s=0.01 m/s ft/yr=0.9665×10−8 m/s ft/s=0.3048 m/s m/s=100 cm/s m/s=1.0346×108 ft/yr m/s=3.2808 ft/s cubic meter per second m3/s m3/s=2119.093 ft3/min liter per second cubic meter per second liter per second liter per second l/s m3/s l/s l/s ft3/min=0.000 471 m3/s ft3/min=0.4719 l/s ft3/s=0.028 32 m3/s ft3/s=28.32 l/s gal/min=0.075 77 l/s SI unit Pressure, Stress ton force per square kilopascal foot (2000 lb) (US) ton force per square SI unit symbol Conversion (Imperial to SI) kPa l/s=2.1191 ft3/min m3/s=35.315 ft3/s l/s=0.035 31 ft3/s l/s=13.2 gal/min factor Conversion factor (SI to Imperial) tonf/ft2=95.76 kPa kPa=0.01044 ton f/ft2 tonf/ft2=107.3 kPa kPa=0.00932 ton/ft2 424 Imperial unit SI unit SI unit symbol Conversion (Imperial to SI) foot (2240 lb) (UK) pound force per pascal Pa square foot kilopascal kPa pound force per pascal Pa square inch kilopascal kPa Weight density* pound force per cubic kilonewton per cubic kN/m3 foot meter Energy foot lbf joules J * Assuming a gravitational acceleration of 9.807 m/s2 factor Conversion factor (SI to Imperial) lbf/ft2=47.88 Pa lbf/ft2=0.047 88 kPa lbf/in2=6895 Pa lbf/in2=6.895 kPa Pa=0.020 89 lbf/ft2 kPa=20.89 lbf/ft2 Pa=0.000 1450 lbf/in2 kPa=0.1450 lbf/in2 lbf/ft3–0.157 kN/m3 kN/m3=6.37 lbf/ft3 ft.lbf=1.355 J J=0.7376 ft.lbf Index Acid leachate 234 Active/passive wedges 137 Adit 93, 122, 128 Air photograph 93, 95 Alignment studies 94 Allowable bearing pressures 135 see also Bearing capacity Anhydrite 83, 228 Anisotropic rock 59, 126 Anode 320 Aperture 102, 328, 381 Artesian pressure 328 Arylamide grout 235fc Asperities 69, 76, 102, 106 rock socket 253 Asphalt 234 Attenuation blasting 353, 355 seismic waves 97 Atterburg limits 83 Australia 136 Bearing surface improvement 225, 356 Bedding 25, 94, 95, 113, 119, 125 Bell solution 139, 142 Bending failure 143 Bentonite 71, 114, 116, 151, 239, 258 Beta distribution 20 Bieniawaski, Z.T. 60, 203 Blasting 7, 194, 226, 227, 345 burden 347 preshear 348 controlled blasting 347 corners 349 damage 113, 347 damage thresholds 353 free face 346 ground vibration control 349 horizontal surfaces 349 line drilling 349 modulus test 119, 122 preshearing 348 rock anchor damage 318 rock fracture mechanism 345, 346 scaled distance 352 shockwave 346 sub-drill 349 trim blasting 348, 356 vibration frequency 353 vibration particle velocity 352 vibrations in uncured concrete 353 Blasting mats 319 Block size/shape 103, 385 Borehole surveying 111 Borehole video camera 111 Boussinesq equations 166 Brazilian tension test 71, 80 Breccia 71, 211 Bridge Back analysis 50, 65, 76 Basalt 69, 211, 272 Base shear Bearing capacity 131, 133, 138 bedded formations 142 building codes 133 dipping formations 140 fractured rock 136 karstic formations 144 layered formations 143 recessed footing 139, 142 slab 144 sloping ground 139 wedge 141 Bearing capacity factors 139 425 426 INDEX arch exploration 93 foundation failure scour of foundations 195 settlement 12 calculations of 159 suspension 11, 131, 136, 287 Britain 136, 164, 290 Buckling failure 143 Building codes 133, 142 foundation design, seismic loads Bulk modulus 97 Burger substance 85, 164 Calcite 71, 82 Calcium carbonate 5, 228 Calcium hydroxide 243 California 10, 58, 194, 219, 220, 223, 229 Canada 9, 16, 53, 83, 136, 200, 226, 230, 258 Carbonation 82, 83 Cathode 320 Cement grout 234 leaching 243 piezometer 114, 117 Centre of gravity 188 Centrifugal force 173, 274 Chalk 69 China 88, 211, 218, 219 Chloride 298, 323 Chlorite 83 Clay 71, 83, 144, 215, 217, 272, 324 classification 378 Claystone 82, 211 Cleavage 26 Coal 319 Coal mining 164 Coecient of reliability 18, 23, 230 Cohesion 66, 70, 71, 76, 192, 194, 215 grout 237 in situ test 128 sliding stability 180 wedge 186 Com624, 275 Compass 110, 111 geological 29, 104, 105, 370 Compressive strength 48 asperities 70 bearing capacity 137 classification 61, 375 fractured rock 64 intact rock 63 point load strength 63 rock anchor bond 306 rock socket 257, 264 shotcrete 359 testing 51 Compressive wave 97 Concrete arch dam 231 bearing surface improvement 227 blasting damage 353 buttress 361 dam abutment reinforcement 218 properties 217 scour protection 199, 233 Conglomerate 69 Consolidation 163 Contracts blasting 364 build-operate-transfer 363 components of contract documents 362 definition of rock and soil 364 design-build 363 Dispute Review Board 367 end product 362, 367 factual data 364 general and special provisions 362 interpretative data 364 lump-sum 363 measurement and payment 363 method specifications 361, 367 partnering 368 prequalification 366 ripping 364 risk 366 rock excavation and reinforcement 364 technical specification 363 types of contract 363 unit price 363 variation in quantities 366 Correction factor borehole jack 121 footing shape 138 settlement 158 Corrosion INDEX bacterial corrosion 323 cables 287 hydrogen embrittlement 323 in grout 323 monitoring 327 pitting corrosion 321 rock anchors 320 stress corrosion 322 Corrosive environment 323 Creep 80, 83, 87 carbonate 84 components (four) 84 constants 88 ductile rock heave 83 in situ measurement 86 long term 88 mechanisms 84 modulus test 54 rock anchors 332 rock sockets 261 salt 85 sandstone 85 shale 85 shear loading 88 stress dependent 5, 163 weathering 48 Curved shear strength envelope 79 Cut and cover 131 Cyclic loading 50, 89, 317 Dam 1, arch 200, 202, 215, 216 buttress 202 dam-foundation interaction 221 earthquake response 218, 220 see also Pseudo-static analysis factor of safety 210 and sliding 207, 210 failures and deteriorations 4, 201 finite element analysis 221 gravity 202 overturning 213 stress distribution 214, 215 hydrodynamic force 220 ice forces 204, 208 in situ testing 119 loading combinations 204 loads 203 probability analysis 230 reliability 201 reservoir filling 219 seismic upgrading 229 silt forces 204, 208 sliding joint 219 stability against sliding/overturning 203, 220 tailwater 204, 208 thermal expansion 204 water forces 203 wind forces 204, 208 Dam failure floods 202 reservoir filling 202 seepage and uplift 203 seismic events 202 time of failure 203 Dam foundations blasting 227 bored concrete piles 211 buckling strength 210 cleaning and sealing 226 concrete ballast 211 concrete shear keys 211, 217, 218 cuto trench 227 displacement (earthquake) 221, 224 drainage 207, 211, 244 drains, bacterial growth 244 dynamic pore pressure 220 erosion 202, 225 excavation and concreting 211 factor of safety 215 finite element analysis 215, 218 flow net 13 grout 229, 233 internal water forces 204 investigation/design 200 monitoring 230 neoprene sheet 218 open joints 218, 227 permeability 116 Dam foundations (contd.) preparation of rock surfaces 218, 225 rebound 228 recessed foundation 209 rehabilitation 229 rock anchor 210, 212, 228, 231 rock-concrete shear strength 205, 207, 216 rock shear strength 205 427 428 INDEX seepage 218 seismic forces 204 seismic ground motion 219 shaping 225 sliding failure 204, 207, 208 slush grout 227 solution cavities 228 stabilization 211 water pressure 207, 214, 244 Dam performance statistics 201 Dam rehabilitation anchoring 231 grouting 230 monitoring 230 scour protection 231 Dams Albigna dam 218, 230 Ambiesta dam 220 Auburn dam 223 Cabril arch dam 233 Cambambe dam 215 Cannelles dam 217 Cat Arm dam 226 Chirkey dam 220 Clyde dam 219 Elkhart dam 210 Funcho dam 216 Garrison dam 228 Gezouba project 211 Ghe Zhou gravity dam 88 Gordon dam 51 Hsinfengkiang dam 219 Inguri dam 212 Itaipu dam 211 Karakaya dam 213 Kariba dam 219 Keban dam 228 Konya dam 219 Liu-Jia-Xia dam 211 Long Valley dam 10 Longton arch dam 218 Malpasset dam 5, 203 Mintang project 227 Morris dam 219 Morris Shepard dam 211 Nagawado dam 219 Normandy dam 227 Nukui arch dam 128 Oahe dam 228 Pacoima dam 220 Peace Canyon project 228 Quail Creek 228 Revelstoke gravity dam 200 San Fernando dam 219 Stewart mountain 231 Stewartville dam 230, 234 Teton dam 203, 225 Wimbleball dam 236 Zimapan dam 228 Darcy’s law 112 Debris flow 95 Deere, D.U. 205, 206 Deformation modulus 48, 50, 56, 216 anisotropic rock 58 back analysis 51 borehole jack 121 definition 51 dilatometer 120 fractured rock 57, 58 in situ testing 119 intact rock 51, 57 plate load test 122 radial jacking test 125 rock mass 58, 60 rock socket 256 settlement 160, 162 size eect 56 weak rock 55 Degree of fracturing 97 Delphi panel 18 Dental concrete 226, 358 Deterministic analysis 15, 179 Development length 307 Diamond drilling 93, 106, 109, 117, 361 Dilation angle 217 Dilatometer 86 Diorite 231 Dip 28, 102, 104, 379, 381 Dip direction 28, 102, 104, 379, 381 Direct shear test 74–6, 128 Discontinuity aperture 381 daylight 27, 38, 40, 177, 205, 280 dispersion 40 displaced 73 frequency 106 infilling 71, 205 length (probability distribution) 42 INDEX mapping 44 number of sets 103, 385 orientation 28, 379 and scour 198 orthogonal 26, 33, 95, 100 persistence 103, 383 roughness 69 sets 33, 196 spacing 46, 58, 103, 105, 383 probability distribution 43 type 378 undisplaced 73–4 Dolomite 82, 212, 261 Dowels 215 Drainage 116, 244, 328, 361 shotcrete 358 Drill core 111, 133 orientation 109 photograph 106 recovery 107 Drilling 106, 334 auger 342 bencher 334 calyx 106, 111, 342 cased holes 342 Christienson-Hugel 110 clay impression core barrel 109 diamond drilling 106, 107, 109, 147, 335 directional drilling 343 down-the-hole (DTH) drill 337, 338 drill string vibration 111 drilling mud 336 feed rate 111 fluid pressure 111 hole alignment 231 integral sample 109 large diameter drilling 342 overburden drilling 340 percussion drilling 111, 147, 235, 334, 337 rotary drill 340 super drill 343 tool thrust 111 tool torque 111 triple tube core barrel 107, 336 Tubex system 341 Dynamic compaction 151 Dywidag threadbar 292, 324 Earthquake 56, 173, 182, 231, 274 building foundation displacement analysis 195, 223 fault displacement 218 force modification factor ground motion variation 219 hydrodynamic force 220 importance factor 10 reservoir filling 219 seismic response factor stability analysis 194 zonal velocity ratio see also Pseudo-static seismic analysis Eccentricity 173 Elastic material 53 Elastic modulus 120 Electrolyte 320 Epoxy 231 Erodibility index 232 Erosion 225, 228 Expansion agents (rock breakage) 356 Explosives 112, 346, 352 Extensometer 230 Factor of safety 15, 66 3-d slope 188 dam foundations 211 bearing capacity 138 design values 16 deterministic 23 planar failure 179 rock sockets 263, 264 toppling failure 191 uplift 313 wedge failure 185 Failure type circular 36, 191 planar 36, 38, 177 sliding 205, 206 toppling 36, 38, 188 wedge 25, 35, 36, 38, 183, 283 Fatigue 89 Fault 94, 95 bridge foundation dam foundation 212, 218, 219 definition 25 geophysics 97 ground water 119 infilling 71, 103 mapping 104 429 430 INDEX Fibre glass rock anchors 327 Fill loads Finite dierence analysis 163 Finite element analysis borehole jack 121 dam foundation 217, 231 dynamic 221 layered foundation 143 rock socket 254, 265 settlement 160 FLAC 159, 163 Flatjack 122, 126 Flexural strength, shotcrete 359 Flood 231 Flow net 15 Flyrock 319 Flysch 55 Foliation 26, 113 Foundation failures 4, 201 France 5, 203, 290 Friction angle back analysis 76 dam foundation 215 infilling 71 limit equilibrium 40 Mohr-Coulomb material 66 Newmark analysis 223 residual 71 rock type 66 sliding stability 180 stability analysis 192 stress distribution 171 toppling failure 191 wedge 186 Friction cone 40 Geological mapping 99, 104, 374 Geophysics 96, 147 explosive 97 ground penetrating radar 99, 147 resistivity 98 seismic 97 Germany 29, 290 Gneiss 53, 69, 213 Goodman, R.E. 159, 171, 187, 188, 225 Goodman jack tests 53 Grain size 85, 375 Granite 69, 82, 99, 131 Graywacke 216 Great circle 30, 35, 370 Ground water 13, 112 mapping 104, 387 rock socket 251 tension crack 181, 186 toppling 190 Grout 7, 82, 116, 228, 230, 233 blanket grouting 236 bleeding 235 cohesion 237 consolidation grouting 233 curtain grouting 237 drilling method 235 erosion control 234 fluidizers 239 grouting procedures 240 hole patterns 236, 237 leaching 243 mechanism of 235 mixes 237 monitoring 241 overburden pressure 239 permeability control 233 criteria 241 pressure 239 strength 239 types of 234 uplift control 233 viscosity 235 Gypsum 5, 82, 83, 228 Halite 5, 82 Heat shrink tubing 326 Heave 83, 83 Helicopter 287 Hoek back analysis 76 dam foundation 205 foundation failure 143 tensile strength 80, 313 wedge failure 186 Hoek-Brown strength criterion 65, 76, 137, 142 Hong Kong 140 Hydration 82, 83 Hydraulic impact hammer 7, 355 Hydraulic jack 122 Hydraulic splitter 7, 356 Hydrofracture 239 INDEX Hysteresis 52 Illite 83 Impression packer 111 In situ testing 93, 119, 217 Inclinometer 230 Industrial waste 324 Inelastic rock 163 Infilling 70, 71 classification 382 dam foundation 227 in situ test 128 mapping 103 normally-, over-consolidated 74 permeability 113 scour 197 Instrumentation 230 International Society of Rock Mechanics 100, 374 Italy 220 Japan 29, 95, 128, 136, 195, 219 Joint 26 Joint compressive strength (JCS) 70, 376 Joint roughness coecient (JRC) 70, 102, 105 Kaolinite 82, 83 Karst 94 Karstic formation 4, 144 characteristics 145 dam foundation 228 deep foundations 151 foundation type 148, 149 foundation treatment 151 geophysics 96 ground penetrating radar 99 rock socketed pier 6, 249, 263 sealing 228 Key block theory 187 Kinematic analysis 38 Kulhawy, F.H. 159 Landfill 234 Landslide 94, 95, 219 LATPILE 275 Leaching 243 Lime 243 Limestone 13, 55, 69, 71, 82, 145, 152, 212, 217, 228, 230, 234, 249 Limit equilibrium analysis 179, 207, 210 431 Limit states design 16 Line mapping 104 Line of intersection 35, 40, 183, 372, 381 Linear variable dierential transformer (LVDT) 52, 74, 120 Load dead load 138 highway bridge 10 impact 10 live load 138 railway bridge 10 Load factor 17 Load-deformation behaviour, fractured rock 53 Lognormal distribution 43 Lugeon 241 Mapping 93 Mapping sheets 388, 389 Margin of safety 20 Marl 55, 68 Mexico 228 Mica 59, 68, 82 Modulus of elasticity 120 Mohr diagram 71 Mohr-Coulomb material 66, 180, 253 Monitoring 230 Monte Carlo analysis 21, 40, 183 Montmorillonite 71, 83 Mudstone 83, 258 Multi-position extensometers 122, 125 Negative exponential distribution 43 Neoprene 230 New York 133 Newmark, N.M. 223 Nitrogen 117 Non-explosive excavation 345, 355 Non-shrink grout 298 Normal distribution 20 Olivine 83 Oolite 144 Orthogonal joint sets 26 Osterburg hydraulic cell 264, 272 Overturning moment 173 Oxidation 82, 83 Packer 117, 240, 328 Peck, R.B. 133 Permanent deformation 54 432 INDEX Permeability 13 anisotropic rock 113 Darcy’s law 112 discontinuity aperture 102 drainage 361 drilling 111 falling head tests 237 infilling 103 mapping 104 measurement 116 piezometers 113 primary permeability 112 pump test 119 secondary permeability 113 shape factor 118 UDEC 215 variable head test 117 Persistence classification 384 mapping 44 Perspex 109 Photograph 110 Phyllite 59 Piezometer 113, 117, 230, 231 electrical transducers 115 multiple standpipe 115 multi-port (MP) 115 pneumatic 114 standpipe 114 time lag 114 Piles 88, 152, 249 Pin piles 153 Pins (rock reinforcement) 360 Plate load test 53, 55, 87, 122 correction factor 124 Plate tectonics 195 Plunge 29, 373 Point load test 63 Poisson’s ratio 52, 53, 97, 120, 160 Pole density 32 Pole plot 31, 370 Polyethylene (HDPE) 326 Polypropylene 327 Polyurethane 234 Porosity 97 Portugal 215, 217 Potentiometer 120 Pre-load 272 Pressure gradient 112 Probabilistic analysis 18, 183 Probability 40, 385 density function 183 detection of sink holes 147 distributions 19, 42 of failure 18, 21, 36, 202, 230 Pseudo-static seismic analysis 194 bridge 182, 192 dam 223 gravity dam 204, 213, 220, 221 Punching failure 143 p-y curves 275 Pyrrotite 82 Radial stress 172 Railway 10 Rayleigh wave 97, 351 Rebound 228 Recessed footing 138, 209 Reconnaissance 93 Reinforcement of rock 7, 356 Release surface 177, 183 Reliability analysis 18 Residual soil 147 Resin anchor 301, 304 Resin grout 235 Resistivity 98 Retaining-wall instability Reynolds number 113 Rigidity factor 155 Rip rap 199, 233 Ripping 355 River hydraulics 95 Rock anchor 1, 182, 361 acceptance criteria 330 allowable working load 290 anchor materials 289 bearing capacity 142 bond length 297 cement admixtures 298 cement grout anchorage 292, 296 cement grout mix 297 centralizers 300 Ciment Fondu 319 corrosion failure 302, 320 mechanism 320 protection 293, 324 types 321 corrosive conditions 323 INDEX creep 302, 317, 330, 332 cyclic loading 317 dam 210, 228, 231 displacement of the head 308 drilling 335 eect of blasting 318 embedment length 307 failure galvanized 327 group action 316 grout bleed 298 grout pressures 300 guaranteed ultimate tensile strength 290 hole diameter 296 lift-o test 330 load transfer mechanism 303 load-extension measurement 329 mechanical anchor 292, 302 moment/tension loads 314 optimum plunge angle 186 passive 308 performance test 329 permafrost 319 polypropylene sheath 294 pre-stressed 307 proof test 330 resin anchor 300, 320 rock cone 310, 313 seepage 328 shear stress distribution 303 Split Set bolts 290 stagger steel relaxation 290, 317 steel/grout bond 307 strand anchors 293 strength properties 292 Swellex bolts 290 tie-down 174 toppling 191 tube en machette 300 uplift capacity 308 water testing 328 working bond strength 306, 320 yield stress 290 Rock mass 65 Rock mass rating (RMR) 60 Rock mass strength 48 Rock socketed pier belling 273, 274 433 bentonite 258 condition of end of socket 260 condition of side walls 258 creep 261 eect of rock modulus 255 eect of rock strength 257 eect of socket geometry 255 end-bearing capacity 264 factor of safety 263 failure influence factors 265, 269 investigation 249 karstic formation 151, 263 lateral load 274, 280 lateral stability 280 load capacity 251, 254 load transfer 251 pre-load 272 p-y curve 276, 277 recessed socket 267 reduction factor 267 rock layering 261 settlement end bearing 267 socketed 269 settlement mechanism 265 settlement side wall 265 side-wall shear resistance 253, 263, 265 uplift load 272, 273, 274 Rock type 100, 374 Roughness angle 74 classification 381 discontinuity 102 infilling 103 measurement 105 rock socket 253 scour resistance 197 RQD 106, 133, 196, 258, 278, 279, 280, 355 Russia 212, 220, 244 Salt 163 Sandstone 53, 69, 80, 83, 131, 156, 159, 211, 215, 253, 273 Saponite 83 Sarma 225 Schist 55, 59, 68, 159, 211 Schistosity 26 Scour 4, 112, 198 dam foundation 203, 231 434 INDEX energy dissipation 232 erosive power of water 195, 232 foundation stability 5, 195 grout strength 239 Q-system 232 resistence of rock 196 rock susceptibility 355 sealing grout 234 water action 13 Sculpting (of rock) Sea water 298, 323 Seed 225 Seepage 13, 15, 112, 116 blasting 148 classification 386, 387 dam failure 202 Seepage (contd.) embankment dam 225 grouting 233, 236 leaching 243 mapping 34, 104 permeability criteria 241 weathering 82 Seiche 219 Seismic codes 195 Seismic upgrading 229 Sensitivity analysis 17 Serpentine 83 Settlement 4, 131 allowable 11 arch bridge bridges 12, 50 buildings 50 compressible bed within sti formation 156 compressible layer on rigid base 156 deformation modulus 28 dierential 11, 50 elastic 54 elastic rock 155 geological conditions 133 ground subsidence 164 homogeneous, isotropic rock 155 inclined, variable thickness beds 159 layered formation 155 sliding 154 sti layer overlying compressible formation 158 time dependent 154, 163 transversely isotropic rock 159 Shale 55, 59, 68, 82, 83, 131, 144, 156, 159, 216, 227, 228, 261 Shape factor permeability 118 settlement 156 Shear modulus 58, 97, 120, 121, 161 Shear strength 48, 66, 69, 112, 119 discontinuities 66 fractured rock 75 steel 360 Sheeting joint Shotcrete 82, 228, 358 mix 359 silica fume 359 steel fibre reinforcing 358 wire mesh reinforcing 358 Silicate grout 234 Siltstone 69, 211, 215, 254 Sine wave 111 Singapore 254, 257 Site selection 93 Size eects 56, 64 Slate 69 Sliding stability 133 Solution cavity detection 147 Sowers, G.F. 144, 153 Spacing (of discontinuities), classification 384 Spain 135, 136 Spread footing 2, 62 Stability of foundations 2, 5, 13, 27, 177 Stainless prestressing steels 327 Stereo net 31, 38, 104, 106, 109, 370 data selection 33 Stereographic projection 29 Stiness 58, 120, 161, 216, 218 Stiness ratio 172 Stochastic model (discontinuities) 36 Strain gauges 52 Strength testing in situ 49–50 laboratory 49 Stress distribution 164 distributed loads 167 eccentrically loaded footings 173 elastic isotropic rock 166 layered formations 168 line load 168 transversely isotropic rock 171 Stress field 83 Stress relief 83, 113, 228 INDEX Strike 28 Structural geology 7, 93, 177, 312, 370 Styrofoam 9, 264 Subsidence 164 Sulphates 298 Sulphide 83 Survey 110 Swelling 82 chemical reaction 83 clay 82 hydration 82 pressures 82 Switzerland 218, 230, 290 Sylvite 82 Talus 95 Tar sand 163 Tensile strength 48, 79–80, 144, 217 fractured rock 313 Tension crack 95 Tension foundation Terrestrial photograph 95 Terzaghi, K. 137 Terzaghi correction 105 Test pit 106 Texture 375 Three-dimensional stability analysis 187 Tiltmeter 230 Time-dependent properties 80 Toppling 188 see also Failure type Transmission tower 11, 272, 309 Trend 29, 372 Triangular distribution 20 Tunnel 125, 249 seepage 389 UDEC 159, 215 United States of America 8, 136, 203, 210, 231 University of California, Berkeley 50 Variable head test 116 Vermicullite 83 Visco-elastic material 87, 163 Viscous flow 85 V-notch weir 244 Wall strength 102 Water jets 227 Water sampling 115 Water table 97, 118 Weathering 4, 48 bearing capacity 135, 163 chemical 376, 379 classification 80, 379 decomposition 82 disintegration 80 geophysics 96 mapping 102 mechanical 376, 379 settlement 156 Wedge rock socket, lateral load 283 see also Failure type Well sounder 114 Williams all-thread bar 292 Williams hollow core bar 302 Window mapping 104 Wire-line 109 Worked examples bearing capacity 142 rock anchor (uplift, moment loading) 315 settlement elastic rock 158 fractured rock 162 socketed piers 269 stability analysis planar failure 182 wedge failure 187 XSTABL 193 XSTABL stability analysis 193 Yield acceleration 224 Young’s modulus 53 435 [...]... overall 8 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCK FOUNDATIONS Figure 1.4 Construction of rock foundation: (a) attempted ‘sculpting’ of rock foundation to form shear key; and (b) ‘asbuilt’ condition with footing located on surface formed by joints foundation Methods of construction and rock reinforcement are discussed in Chapter 10 1.3 Structural loads The following is a summary of typical loading conditions produced by... weathering include TYPES OF ROCK FOUNDATION poorly cemented sandstones, and shales, especially if they contain swelling clays Common causes of weathering are freeze-thaw action, and in the case of such rocks as shales, wetting and drying cycles Foundations which undergo a significant change in environmental conditions as a result of construction, such as dam sites where the previously dry rock in the... geotechnical engineering literature Although there is wide experience and expertise in the design and construction of rock foundations, this has not, to date, been collected in one volume A possible reason for the absence of a book on rock foundations is that the design and construction of soil foundations is usually more challenging than that of rock foundations Consequentially, there is a vast collection... response, R is a force modification factor and Ue is a calibration factor with a value of 0.6 The lateral seismic force Ve is defined by: 10 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCK FOUNDATIONS (1.2) The following is a discussion on each of these factors • R, force modification factor, is assigned to different types of structure reflecting design and construction experience, and the evaluation of the performance of... of bridge foundations, with the frequent construction of abutments and piers on steep rock faces from which blocks can slide Other causes of failure are ground water effects which include weathering, uplift pressures on blocks which have a potential to slide, river scour and wave action which can undermine the foundation, and traffic vibration which can slowly loosen closely fractured rock It is standard... liability for negligence or otherwise can be accepted by the author or the publisher 1 Characteristics of rock foundations 1.1 Types of rock foundation There are two distinguishing features of foundations on rock First, the ability of the rock to withstand much higher loads than soil, and second, the presence of defects in the rock which result in the strength of the rock mass being considerably less than... permafrost 345 9.4 Corrosion protection 345 9.4.1 Mechanism of corrosion 346 9.4.2 Types of corrosion 347 xii 9.4.3 Corrosive conditions 349 9.4.4 Corrosion protection methods 350 9.4.5 Corrosion monitoring 352 9.5 Installation and testing 353 9.5.1 Water testing 353 9.5.2 Load testing 354 9.5.3 Acceptance criteria 356 9.6 References 357 10 Construction methods in rock 360 10.1 Introduction 360 10.2 Drilling... investigation and measurement of the primary factors that influence the performances of rock foundations Namely, rock strength and modulus, fracture characteristics and orientation, and ground water conditions Chapters 5–9 provide details of design procedures for spread footings, dam foundations, rock socketed piers, and tension foundations These chapters contain worked examples illustrating the practical... support in comparison with the friction component of the rock strength Another function of the reinforcement is to prevent loosening of the rock mass, because reduction in the interlock between blocks results in a significant reduction in rock mass strength Where the rock is closely fractured, pumping of cement grout into holes drilled into the foundation can be used to increase the bearing capacity and... foundations bearing on rock has been included describing the rock conditions and the actual bearing pressures that have been successfully used Also, the section on the detection of karstic features and the design of foundations in this geological environment has been greatly expanded With respect to prediction of foundation performance, an example of numeric analysis of the stability of jointed rock .