Corruption and policy implementation in the philippine a comparative analysis of the teacher training and textbook delivery programmes at the department of education

CORRUPTION AND POLICY IMPLEMENTATION IN THE PHILIPPINES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE TEACHER TRAINING AND TEXTBOOK DELIVERY PROGRAMMES AT THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION VICENTE CHUA REYES, JR. (MA (Hon), University of New South Wales) (MPA, University of the Philippines) (BA, University of the Philippines) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2005 Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been completed without the counsel, help and encouragement from outstanding people. My supervisor Prof. Jon Quah, demonstrated incredible patience and commitment in generously sharing with me his valuable time and renowned expertise in corruption and policy implementation. His words of advice and counsel were very helpful most especially during the critical and trying times of PhD research and writing. Special thanks go out to the former Secretary of the Department of Education (DepEd), Dr. Edilberto de Jesus for allowing me to conduct a nationwide study on the biggest bureaucracy in the Philippines. My gratitude also goes out to Undersecretary Juan Miguel Luz, who took time out from his busy schedule to share with me his vision for a reformed and revitalized DepEd. I would also like to thank the IMCS Executive Director, Ms. Socorro Pilor for allowing me to spend some time interviewing and observing the functions of the Secretariat. Many thanks to the Regional Directors, Division Superintendents, District Officers, school principals and teachers from Nueva Vizcaya, Cebu City and Zamboanga City. These administrators and educators unstintingly shared their time and experience in helping me appreciate and understand better the contributions they continually make to the DepEd. Very special thanks also go out to Ms. Adora Perez and Ms. Cherry Santos of AusAID Philippines. They unwearyingly explained to me the many issues and challenges that confront international aid agencies in the country. Without their assistance, I would not have been able to reach out to the programme respondents and beneficiaries in the different case areas of the study. My eternal appreciation also goes out to the PROBE fellows from Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao who indefatigably perform a labour of love by training their fellow teachers in the mountains and islands within their jurisdiction. They are a source of constant inspiration. Inestimable assistance was also extended to me by Prof. Lee Lai To, Prof. Kripa Sridharan, Prof. Shamsul Haque, Stephanie, Zauwiyah, Mumtaj and Sani and the other staff members of the Political Science (PS) Department. My fellow graduate students at the PS Department – Shaofeng, Li Dan, Gu Jing, Shibuichi, Yaping, Wei Jia, Rongbin, Thiam Chye, Bill, Andy, Jonathan, Tracy, Kerstein, Rosa, Jiang Yang, Huang Wei, Linda and Jingru – gave me helpful assistance on countless occasions. I pay homage to the most important persons in my life – Dad, Mom, my younger sister Haydee, my younger brother Volt, and to the littlest one in the family Vivian. Finally, I dedicate this work to Jessie: who inspires me to be the best I can be. To all my dear friends: Godspeed! ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . II TABLE OF CONTENTS . III ABSTRACT .VI LIST OF TABLES .IX LIST OF FIGURES .IX CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION . INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY . DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM . SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY METHODOLOGY Key Participants 11 Case Areas . 12 Comparative Case Study Protocol 15 Data Analysis Strategy 17 Outline of the Study . 21 CHAPTER TWO . 23 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 23 CORRUPTION: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS . 23 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 28 CORRUPTION AND POLICY IMPLEMENTATION 39 Corruption and Policy Implementation: Dominant Paradigms and Political Culture in a Philippine Setting . 43 TOWARDS AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK: CORRUPTION-IMPLEMENTATION NEXUS 54 Corruption- Implementation Nexus . 56 CHAPTER THREE 66 THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DEPED) . 66 PHILIPPINE EDUCATION HISTORICAL PANORAMA: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE 67 STUDIES ON THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION: HISTORICAL TURNING POINTS 70 Crisis in Education: A Continuing Dilemma 72 Roots of Education Crisis: Discontinuities in American Colonial Policy . 74 ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE DEPED . 77 Mission . 77 Legal Basis . 79 Manpower 80 Organizational Structure . 83 CORRUPTION AND POLICY IMPLEMENTATION: PARADOX OF THE DEPED 91 Determinants of Implementation . 95 Operational Demands 95 Nature and Availability of Resources 103 Power and Shared Authority . 112 CAUSES OF CORRUPTION 118 Monopoly Opportunities 118 Discretion and compliance 123 Accountability and Incentives 129 Anti-corruption efforts: Collaboration, networks and the impact of discretionary power 136 iii CONCLUSION . 144 CHAPTER FOUR: 146 THE NATIONAL TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME 146 THE TEXTBOOK DELIVERY PROGRAMME . 146 TDP Project Workflow 150 Failure of the TDP . 151 Failure of the TDP . 152 CORRUPTION-IMPLEMENTATION ANALYSIS 153 Operational Demands 157 Nature and Availability of Resources 161 Power and Shared Authority . 168 CAUSES OF CORRUPTION . 173 Monopoly opportunities . 177 Discretion Compliance 191 Accountability incentives . 196 CONCLUSION . 202 CHAPTER FIVE: 204 THE PROGRAMME ON BASIC EDUCATION 204 PROGRAMME ON BASIC EDUCATION . 204 Successes of PROBE 209 CORRUPTION-IMPLEMENTATION ANALYSIS 212 Operational Demands 214 Operational Demands 215 Nature and Availability of Resources 217 Power and Shared Authority . 222 CAUSES OF CORRUPTION . 227 Monopoly Opportunities 230 Monopoly Opportunities 231 Discretion compliance . 237 Accountability Incentives . 243 CONCLUSION . 248 CHAPTER SIX: . 250 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: TDP AND PROBE 250 DETERMINANTS AND OBSTACLES TO IMPLEMENTATION 250 Operational Demands 250 Nature and Availability of Resources 256 Power and Shared Authority . 264 CAUSES OF CORRUPTION 272 Monopoly Opportunity 273 Discretion Compliance 284 Accountability incentives . 294 Complex Linkages: Breeding ground for corruption 298 Stakeholdership networks: Platform for effective implementation and anti-corruption . 306 CONCLUSION . 309 CHAPTER SEVEN: 312 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 312 THEORETICAL BASES OF THE STUDY 312 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES: CONCLUSIONS AND AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDY 317 iv RECOMMENDATIONS . 323 AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDY 331 BIBLIOGRAPHY 333 v Abstract In the pursuit of the Philippines to achieve development, corruption has been a perennial obstacle. This dissertation is directed at political scientists and area studies specialists who are interested in comprehending implementation within a setting of widespread corruption in a Philippine context. The Philippine Department of Education (DepEd) is considered to be one of the nation’s most corrupt agencies. Two existing DepEd policies possess striking similarities yet reveal diametrically-opposed implementation outputs. The Textbook Delivery Programme (TDP) has been described a failure while the Programme on Basic Education (PROBE) has been hailed a success. This study accounts for the contrast of implementation performance with the extensive use of local perspectives via the “narratives of implementation actors.” Findings brought to light in the study provide insightful lessons on: (1) the issues and challenges that accompany the evolution of the educational bureaucracy in the Philippines; (2) the utility of network actor perspectives in appreciating the myriad concerns that determine and impede implementation performance and (3) the causes and impact of corruption and policy implementation on government programmes in the Philippines. The study was primarily qualitative. The main data sources for the study were the interviews undertaken with key actors of the TDP and the PROBE complemented by official government reports and external studies related to corruption and implementation. Three case areas corresponding to the three main islands of the Philippines: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao were selected for the study. This study was designed to be diachronic, as it explored the continuities and changes that have characterized the transformations of the Department of Education vi (DepEd) from 1901 to the present. One of the key findings from the historical analysis is the dominance of centralized bureaucracy and the resulting concentration of power in the highest level that has persisted starting from the time of colonial America until the present. Two other key conclusions derived from an historical analysis of the education bureaucracy are: (1) the outpacing of demands for education versus supply and (2) the unwavering—albeit unrecognized—importance of teachers in the implementation of programmes within the bureaucracy. This dissertation critiqued the dominant paradigms in the study of Philippine politics. (ie Patron-client approaches, a class of powerful oligarchs, and the proliferation of local and national bosses ) The notion of complex linkages found in dysfunctional bureaucracies was an attempt to explore the utility of viewing Philippine public administration not solely from the dominant “elitist” perspectives. Two of the key findings of the thesis are (1) the existence of complex relationships across the educational bureaucracy that are prone to collusion and corruption—which may or may not necessarily be an offshoot of patron-client ties and (2) the existence of empowered local actors—who may or may not necessarily be helpless against local or national bosses nor oppressed by elite oligarchs. These complex linkages within DepEd could be delineated in general terms between discordant and dysfunctional pockets and stakeholdership networks. The dysfunctional pockets contribute to failure, while the stakeholdership networks allow successful implementation to happen. The study highlighted that the documented corruption linkages in TDP are alarmingly high. Collusion and circumvention of procedure for private gain occurs primarily through linkages between private publishers, unscrupulous officials from the field offices and the school-based supply officers. The corrupt practices that occur through these linkages usually deal with (i) falsification of records in order to obtain vii substantial money transactions to the disadvantage of the government; (ii) delivery of substandard textbooks, delay in actual deliveries and of the insufficient amounts to the disadvantage of the end-users and (iii) the misuse and diversion of resources earmarked by the national government for specific programmes, projects and uses to other unauthorized areas. Some other allegations of corruption such as nepotism, favouritism and non-transparency of the use of funds have likewise been reported though to a lesser extent in the case of the corruption linkages in PROBE. The highlycentralized and highly-coordinated operating style of PROBE prevented corruption from proliferating in PROBE. The study put forth specific policy recommendations to address implementation shortfalls and to counteract the corruption linkages within the DepEd. A general recommendation is to use the findings as a viable source of organizational reflection. The TDP which has been besieged by failure in certain key aspects provides a suitable analytical starting point in diagnosing organizational and implementation actors’ strengths and weaknesses. On the other hand, the successes of PROBE—made more remarkable as it exists in a dysfunctional bureaucracy plagued by corruption—provides an appropriate case study of how actors and systems can overcome obstacles and tap on the strengths they possess in accomplishing positive implementation results. viii List of Tables Table 1: Distribution of Key Participants by Geographic Area and Group Category . 12 Table 2: Simplified Version of Chase’s Assessment of Implementation Difficulties . 32 Table 3: History of the Philippine Department of Education . 70 Table Comparative Wages In Selected Asian Countries As of July 26, 2005 82 Table 5: Comparative Analysis of No. of Teachers/Population Density . 90 Table 6: Status of Implementation and Incidences of Corruption (Zero Order Table) . 94 Table 7: Implementation and Corruption with controlling variable Complex Linkages 99 Table 8: Implementation and Corruption with controlling variable ROLE 108 Table 9: Implementation and Corruption with controlling variable LOCALE . 113 Table 10: Cases Filed with the Office of the Ombudsman 135 Table 11: Total Workload and Status of Cases Filed with the Sandiganbayan . 136 Table 12: Status of Implementation with TDP Membership . 154 Table 13: Status of Implementation with PROBE Membership 213 Table 14: Comparative Perspective of TDP and PROBE 271 Table 15: Implementation and Corruption with Program Participation . 273 Table 16: Implementation and Corruption with Complex Linkages 299 Table 17: TDP and PROBE Causes of Corruption . 309 List of Figures Figure 1: Data Analysis Approach of the Study . 21 Figure 2: Dimensions of Policy Implementation 29 Figure 3: Determinants and Obstacles to Implementation . 62 Figure 4: Causes of Corruption . 63 Figure 5: Conceptual Map in analysing corruption and implementation . 64 Figure 6: Organizational Setup of the DepEd . 85 Figure 7: National Textbook Delivery Programme Workflow/Feedback 151 Figure 8: TDP Authority Flow 156 Figure 9: TDP Authority and Coordination Linkages 162 Figure 10: TDP Authority-Coordination-Service/Delivery Linkages 169 Figure 11 TDP Authority-Coordination-Service/Delivery-Corruption Linkages 176 Figure 12: Philippines-Australia PROBE 209 Figure 13: PROBE Authority Linkages 214 Figure 14: PROBE Authority-Coordination Linkages . 218 Figure 15: PROBE Authority-Coordination-Service/Delivery Linkages 224 Figure 16: PROBE Authority-Coordination-Service/Delivery-Corruption Linkages . 230 ix CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Introduction and Background of the Study The original Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) founding members or ASEAN as an entirety has experienced phenomenal economic performance from the 1970s to the present. These developing countries have also been proclaimed as models of social development. Most of the countries in the region have been lauded for exemplary performance particularly in the implementation of economic and social development policies. However, one particular country within the region experienced an ambivalent performance as regards policy implementation – the Philippines. Once heralded as a very promising nation in the 1960s and 1970s, the country today has been often referred to as the “sick man of Asia.” Not only has it suffered from chronic deficits in the effective implementation of economic policies; it also has lagged behind most of its neighbours in implementing vital redistributive social policies. A recent study by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) stated that “among its ASEAN neighbours, the Philippines is notable both for its very high poverty incidence, especially when measured relative to total basic expenditure rather than just expenditure on food, and for its very slow progress in reducing the rate of poverty.” The IMF study aptly implied the ineffectiveness of existing economic policies in addressing the fundamental challenge of poverty in the country. Faulty Philip Gerson, "Poverty, Income Distribution and Economic Policy in the Philippines," Finance and Development, Vol. 35, No. (1998): 4. -1- adherence to policy standards and objectives. Increased coordination among implementers improves checks and balances. Involving and empowering key actors (in the case of the TDP, the school principals and District and Division supply officers) in the service-delivery link will also contribute to improving checks and balances. The experience of PROBE which highlighted a high degree of coordination is very useful. DepEd can undertake a system-wide exercise in which key stakeholders (in this case of the TDP) can be asked to participate in regular monitoring of project mission goals and objectives. Ownership of the mission and goals among key implementers can be a positive step towards positive implementation performance. Evidence of the effect of this joint responsibility in management and monitoring can be seen in the encouraging experience of the Project Management and Monitoring component of PROBE. (2) Nature and Availability of Resources—The study validated the assumption that the textbook demand for services within the DepEd far outstrips its supply capability. The resource gaps inherent in DepEd can be found in all the levels of the bureaucracy. However, the scarcity is most acute at the level of the frontline servicedelivery providers or the School Heads, Principals and Teachers. DepEd’s attempts to simplify and streamline the deliverables of the TDP (i.e. titles for books in years) are positive steps. Moves towards this direction should be institutionalized by making sure that current reforms are insulated from leadership changes that are characteristic of DepEd. The nature of the Instructional Materials Council Secretariat (IMCS) should be carefully re-studied. On paper, the IMCS is a Secretariat mandated to carry out staff roles but in actuality they also perform line functions. Moreover the manpower complement of IMCS is a measly 36 staff (mostly 325 contractual), organizational inventory may need to be undertaken in order to arrive at more realistic personnel numbers. The multiple titles phenomenon, the Special Education Fund (SEF) funding for textbooks that are really not what schools need from LGUs and the systemic lack of coordination from middle levels of the bureaucracy all amount to redundancy and a pitiful wastage of scarce resources for the DepEd. The service-delivery linkages could be re-examined; a well-managed and appropriately staffed office within the DepEd; that consolidates the various resource requirements involved in the TDP could be identified. An office that performs strictly “clearinghouse functions” in relation to TDP may be considered. At present, the IMCS is the de facto unit that performs this role, albeit in a haphazard and inefficient manner. (3) Power and Shared Authority— The study presented evidence confirming that the implementation settings of the DepEd—in particular the TDP—is prone to abusive discretionary authority. This is particularly true at the school-level supply officer position and at the middle level layers of the DepEd. DepEd can delineate areas in which discretion may be exercised by local leaders. The areas of day to day operations (that are greatly affected by the context and locale of an implementing unit) may be devolved. However, sensitive areas such as budgets, supplies (like the TDP) must be controlled properly. Related to this, the chief implementers who carry out these roles must likewise be sufficiently trained and empowered to their jobs efficaciously. DepEd may need to invest in re-training and constantly upgrading the school supply officers. The selection of personnel for this post may also need to be re-evaluated. Recognizing that supply officers play key roles in TDP (and other related supply and logistics functions within DepEd) an institutionalized training programme in partnership with existing Philippine centres 326 may be considered. DepEd may consider creating strategic partnerships with the Philippine Institute for Supply Management (PISM) and the Philippine Institute of Certified Public Accountants (PICPA) to strengthen the logistics and supply chain of DepEd—focusing on the supply officers. The Philippine Business for Social Progress (PBSP) actively solicits corporate giving for laudable causes in the Philippines. DepEd may consider creating partnerships with PBSP to finance the overhaul of supply chain management at DepEd. Current grants received by DepEd could be reviewed in order to accommodate such partnerships with PISM and PICPA. The experience of PROBE in training fellows and institutional partnerships with regional Teaching Education Institutes (TEIs) that are recognized as centres of excellence and the subsequent dividends of an empowered and vigilant corps of classroom practitioners are valuable lessons to learn from. For Failed Programmes – National agencies and bureaucracies can benefit in conducting in-depth analyses of their functions using the determinants and obstacles to implementation as a framework. The findings from such an analysis can help not only the organization itself—but more importantly the actors in order to arrive at better outputs (capitalizing on the strengths inherent in an organization) and dampening the ill effects of the obstacles to implementation. The experience of the TDP which has experienced failure in certain key aspects provides a suitable analytical starting point in diagnosing organizational and implementation actors’ strengths and weaknesses. For Successful Programmes – National agencies, bureaucratic organizations and implementation actors can derive usefulness in reviewing the case history of successful programmes and projects using the determinants and obstacles to implementation. PROBE managed to deliver on its targeted outputs (i.e. training 327 teachers and improving student performance in PROBE schools) within the given time-frame and effectively mustering support and assistance from local institutions. The successes of PROBE—made more remarkable as it exists in a dysfunctional bureaucracy plagued by corruption—provides an appropriate case study of how actors and systems can overcome obstacles and tap on the strengths they possess in accomplishing positive implementation results. Causes of Corruption The study recognizes that corruption increases with the sinister combination of: (1) amplified monopoly opportunities highlighted by ineffectual controls on sanction (among key stakeholders); and a general breakdown in operative procedures; (2) increased discretionary authority and concomitant decrease in compliance as manifested by the vulnerability of resources and incapacity of implementers to carry out their functions (due to lack of preparation and severe imbalance in job scope); and (3) non-existent accountability systems complicated by distorted incentives and disincentives schemes as typified by incongruent practices in the different institutional contexts and discordant power relations in the implementation settings. The corruption linkages that have been identified as existing in TDP (and also in PROBE) need to be closely monitored. These choke points and vulnerabilities need to be corrected in order to prevent corruption from spreading. In this regard five concrete steps may be undertaken: (1) reduce monopoly; (2) disallow discretion; (3) increase accountability; (4) exercise political will and the (5) combination of empowerment and institutional measures. 328 First, the clarity of goals and procedures of projects need to be clearly established. Moreover, sharing the implementation burden can prove strategic: not only does it address the resource gaps of DepEd; it also ensures and strengthens ownership. Aside from ensuring that key stakeholders are cognizant of the mission and processes, the opportunities for monopoly are reduced. The experience of strengthened and functional partnerships in PROBE could be used as a model. Second, transparency in the linkages of the TDP must be fostered. The coordination linkages among the key implementers can be increased and strengthened. This allows for builtin checks and balances and prevents the occurrence of abusive discretion and noncompliance. This can be done by keeping the operating procedures simple, and streamlined. The heightened coordination linkages within PROBE served as a natural buffer to protect it from the inherent corruption that pervades teacher training at the DepEd. Increased professional coordination linkages in TDP can emulate the PROBE model of building checks and balances. Thirdly, existing accountability measures need to be reviewed. One thing that could be done immediately is to enhance the predictability of the deliverables of the TDP (i.e. how many books, which books, when, what happens in case of delays, etc.) in order for proper accountability to be discernible. Although accountability schemes are currently available, the study discovered that these are not being utilized. In this regard, the key stakeholders of programmes need to collaborate in order to arrive at functional accountability measures that not only are useful but proactive. PROBE had a PID and the Project Monitoring Unit: these were two institutional devices that helped check corrupt practices within the programme. Combining number two (transparency) and number three (accountability) above as measures to combat corruption at the DepEd needs to be supported by a clear public perception that such a practice is a “high-risk, low- 329 reward” activity9. A purge of actors and levels that contribute to an increase in the linkages of corruption needs to be undertaken. Supply officers who have been proven to be unable to carry out their roles need to be replaced (or retrenched). The extant Office of the Ombudsman and Sandiganbayan that investigate and prosecute allegations of corruption within government are also experiencing capacity and servicing difficulties. Consequently, an independent impartial and highly credible unit within – or even outside – DepEd may be convened with the sole, yet highly significant purpose of undertaking regular monitoring. It is important that this anticorruption unit be “incorruptible” in order not to “erode its legitimacy” and in order for it to continue performing its “tasks impartially and effectively.” 10 The DepEd needs to be creative in exploring its mandate and the Magna Carta for Teachers in coming out with simple yet effective procedures to establish accountability. This proposed unit needs to review the incentives and disincentives schemes. In this respect exemplary conduct should be encouraged (awards, distinctions, promotions, even bonuses) and poor performance and outright corrupt behaviour must be punished. Fourth is the exercise of political will, which Quah describes as “the most important prerequisite” 11 of an anti-corruption strategy. Thus in carrying out anti-corruption reform all the actors involved need resoluteness in exercising their political will. The study has proven that—at least in the case areas—a sizeable number of supply officers are unwilling to perform their roles. Private publishers that have had questionable transactions in the past must be blacklisted. The documents related to the TDP prove that there is no shortage of potential suppliers desirous of servicing the needs of the TDP. These attempts at transparency and purging within the DepEd must Quah, Curbing Corruption in Asia: A Comparative Study of Six Countries, p. 187. Ibid., p. 185. 11 Ibid., p. 181. 10 330 be undertaken with political determination and courage. Lastly, another powerful formula for combating corruption can also be jointly promoted by local actors and other stakeholders involved with the DepEd: social empowerment of local actors plus institutional measures. 12 The impressive results produced by stakeholdership networks of PROBE actors ably supported by the partnership of AusAID and several agencies of the DepEd are testimonies to the resiliency of this approach against corruption and also its effectiveness in implementation. More careful analysis of the causes of corruption as proposed in this study can be useful in future attempts to mitigate the dire impact of corrupt practices. Identifying these causes and mapping out their occurrence within the organization among the different layers of the bureaucracy would be helpful in minimizing the negative effects of corruption and pushing the organization and its actors towards more productive implementation outputs. Areas for Further Study Four areas of policy implementation studies could be explored using the findings of this study as the starting point: Corruption Studies in the Philippine Bureaucracy and Private Sector Studies highlighting causes and consequences of corruption in other agencies of the Philippine bureaucracy are not only timely but useful. Corruption in the private sector and the interface of public and private sector corruption are also instructive areas for study. 12 Michael Johnston, "Fighting Systemic Corruption: Social Foundations for Institutional Reform," p.85. 331 Comparative Studies of National Agencies in the Philippines or other settings More comparative studies of various agencies in the Philippines can be conducted using some of the findings generated from the study. In-depth investigations of the bureaucratic evolution of parallel government agencies in the Philippines would be insightful. Other educational bureaucracies in Southeast Asia could likewise provide interesting analyses, particularly since most of the countries in the region possess rich colonial histories. 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What are the major organizational transformations of the DepEd that impinge on the implementation of the TDP and PROBE? (ii) What is the extent of the impact of the organization and the environment of specific implementation sites on the implementation of both programmes? (2) What are the causes and consequences of corruption in the TDP and PROBE of the DepEd? (i) What are the causes of corruption in. .. 7 3 international consensus.”9 Haque arguing about the decreasing “publicness” of public bureaucracies says that international organizations have played a “significant role in popularizing the ‘miracle’ of market forces and reinforcing an unfavourable public perception of state agencies.”10 In a period of increased globalization, international organizations have thus become a major factor in the implementation. .. performed using SPSS Version 13 26 on the variables to determine statistically significant measures of association and thus arrive at meaningful inferential analyses Table 2 below presents the operationalisation of the variables Table 2: Operationalisation of Variables Variables Indicators (Ordinal Scales) Status of Implementation Failure Problematic Functional X (STATUS) Incidences of Corruption Never... well as the causes and consequences of corruption in implementation Chapter five analyzes the collaboration and conflicts that have transpired in the processes and outputs as well as corrupt practices in PROBE Chapter six undertakes a comparative analysis of the TDP and PROBE This chapter also investigates the causes of corruption and other factors that account for the success or failure of both programmes. .. legitimate status as the incarnation of the general interest” as the main causes for the eruption of corruption 9 More recently, Johnston’s definition of political corruption as a dissipation of sustainable democracy leading to an imbalance in the relationship between state and society on the one hand, and in the relationship between wealth and power on the other and moving through four different quadrants,... consequences of corruption to implementation? 3 What are other causal factors that determine the success or failure of implementation in both programmes? The study argues that the linkage between the variance in the outputs of TDP and PROBE is linked to what the study refers to as the processes or the determinants and obstacles to implementation In other words, the success and failure of TDP and 13 Ledivina Cariño... socialization 18 Checkel underscored that in many instances international organizations and civil society groups can “trump states and their powers.” 19 Ortiz provided an insightful glimpse of the increasing relevance of studies targeted at exploring the interaction of state, civil society and international organizations Her study was an in- depth analysis of participatory development planning among various... bureaucracy It also features an analysis of its mandate, functions and organizational structure The subsequent chapters feature an application of the proposed analytical framework in carefully reviewing implementation of the TDP and PROBE Chapter four is an in- depth analysis of the outputs of the TDP This chapter zeroes in on the 21 consistencies and contradictions in the processes and outputs as well... setting the actors find themselves in the implementation of policy POWER – These involve the diverse power relations that the actors encounter in implementing policy 28 Ethnograph Version 5 is a qualitative data software developed by Qualis Research Associates Ethnograph is an example of a Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) programme that is very helpful particularly for voluminous interviews More information... Quah, "Public Bureaucracy and Policy Implementation in Singapore." p viii 17 Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization, Vol 52, No 4 (Autumn 1998): 887-917 7 promotion of norms in organizations Both writers also emphasize the impact of states, international organizations, civil society and networks of NGOs as agents of socialization . Visayas and Mindanao who indefatigably perform a labour of love by training their fellow teachers in the mountains and islands within their jurisdiction. They are a source of constant inspiration (i) What are the major organizational transformations of the DepEd that impinge on the implementation of the TDP and PROBE? (ii) What is the extent of the impact of the organization and the environment. redistributive and regulatory).” 14 The particular area in public administration that is addressed is corruption and policy implementation and its relation to the increasing tension between international