Place, capital representation the politics of heritage tourism in lijiang, PR china

PLACE, CAPITAL AND REPRESENTATION: THE POLITICS OF HERITAGE TOURISM IN LIJIANG, PR CHINA XIAOBO SU (B. Arch. and M. Sc.) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2007 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Without the support and help of the following people, I would not have completed this research project. They helped me to overcome many difficulties and made my life in Singapore enjoyable. For that, I will be forever grateful. First, my sincere thanks go to my supervisor Dr. Peggy Teo. She has been with me since the very beginning of my studies at NUS. If, say, my mother gave birth to my physicial body, I would say Dr. Teo fostered my academic development. I truly appreciate and enjoy her kindness, patience and wisdom in instructing me. She has always been tolerant of my inadequacies and has given me invaluable advice about both work and life. As my dissertation committee members, Dr. Brenda Yeoh and Dr. Joan Henderson gave me many insightful comments about heritage tourism. I am grateful for the effort they put in to help me solve many issues that puzzled me. I like very much the unfettered freedom of discussion with Dr. Tim Bunnell on post-structuralism, Dr. Lily Kong on hegemony, Dr. Henry Yeung on critical realism, Dr. T.C. Chang on heritage tourism, Professor Wang Gungwu on Chinese nationalism, Dr. Tim Winter on post-colonialism, Dr. Pal Nyiri on China’s tourism, Dr. Pow Choon Piew on China’s politics and Dr. James Sidaway on dialectic. I thank them for tolerating my many unpredictable disturbances. I would like to thank the staff and fellow postgraduates of the Department of Geography, NUS for the congenial social and academic environment they proffered. My special thanks go to Lim Kean Fan and Ong Chin Ee for their warm encouragement when I encountered hardship in my early stages of my research. The good memories and friendship I shared with them will linger for a long time. I also appreciate the efforts of Yan Ping, Yang Gengfu and Wang Shiying in helping me during my fieldwork in Lijiang, and also Dr. Bao Ji-gang, Prof. Peng Hua, Dr. Zhu Hong, Dr. Zhang Lei and Dr. Du Guoqing for providing me support and encouragement. I need express my gratitude to Dr. Philip Xie and Dr. Geffeory Wall for their insights on China’s long-term tourism potential. My friends in Eugene, Oregon, Professor Alexander Murphy, Dr. Lise Nelson, Dr. Peter Walker and Dr. Shaul Cohen, I also thank for the stimulating conversations about philosophy and hegemony. I need express my gratitude to Dr. John Donaldson and Dr. Chou Kwok Ping for beer parties. I am forever indebted to my family members. Although they not understand what I am working on in NUS, they have always been there for me and backing me all the way. I owe special thanks to my wife, Chunyuan, for her unfailing support. Finally, I appreciate National University of Singapore for its generous financial assistance over the last four years. i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i TABLE OF CONTENTS .ii SUMMARY vi LIST OF TABLES .vii LIST OF FIGURES ix ABBREVIATIONS .xi Chapter Introduction . 1.1 Rethinking Tourism Politics 1.2 Lijiang Ancient Town: Ripe for an Analysis of Tourism Politics 17 1.3 Research Rationale and Objectives .21 1.4 Overview of the Thesis 24 Chapter Literature Review and Theoretical Considerations 27 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 The Politics of Heritage Tourism .31 2.2.1 Heritage in a global-local nexus 31 2.2.2 Dominance and resistance in heritage tourism 37 2.2.3 The commodification of heritage landscapes in tourism 43 2.3 A Neo-Gramscian Approach to Tourism Politics 51 2.3.1 A critical theory of hegemony .51 2.3.2 Hegemony, space and representation .57 2.3.3 Conceptual framework 66 2.4 Summary 72 Chapter Methodology 74 3.1 Introduction 74 3.2 Methodological Commitment 75 ii 3.3 Data Collection 78 3.3.1 Questionnaire survey 80 3.3.2 In-depth interviews .87 3.3.3 Participant observation 93 3.3.4 Site survey: Mapping tourism businesses .95 3.3.5 Secondary data .98 3.4 Data Analysis .100 3.5 Research Ethics 102 3.6 Summary 105 Chapter Locating Lijiang: Connections and Process . 107 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 China’s Tourism in a Transitional Period 108 4.2.1 The state: From planned economy to socialist market economy 110 4.2.2 The revival of Chinese nationalism 117 4.2.3 Urban competition and interurban coalition 124 4.2.4 The rise of consumerism and its effects on social stratification .127 4.3 Lijiang’s Heritage 129 4.3.1 A brief history of Lijiang Ancient Town 129 4.3.2 Lijiang as a World Heritage Site 140 4.4 Summary 146 Chapter Producing Heritage: Lijiang’s Immersion into Global Tourism 148 5.1 Introduction 148 5.2 Hegemonic Discourses on the Production of Heritage Tourism 151 5.2.1 The imagination: A ‘perfect’ tourist destination .152 5.2.2 Showcasing Naxi ‘lived’ heritage .154 5.2.3 ‘Successful’ heritage preservation 157 5.3 Globalising Lijiang for Tourism 160 5.3.1 Bringing Lijiang to the world .160 iii 5.3.2 Bringing the world to Lijiang .164 5.4 Hanisation as a National Force in the Production of Lijiang .170 5.5 Heritage Tourism and the Locals .177 5.5.1 Functions of local authorities .177 5.5.2 The preservation and reconstruction of heritage landscapes .183 5.6 The Success of Tourism in Lijiang 190 5.7 Summary 192 Chapter Consuming Heritage: Tourist Expectations and Influence on Lijiang 195 6.1 Introduction 195 6.2 Consuming Heritage: Knowledge and Practice .196 6.2.1 The imagination of Lijiang 196 6.2.2 Consuming through gazing, touching and listening .201 6.3 Seeking Authenticity 218 6.4 Tension among the Consumers 223 6.5 Summary 234 Chapter Landscapes of Hegemony: Commodification and the Socio-spatial Transformation of Lijiang . 236 7.1 Introduction 236 7.2 The Scope of Commodification in Lijiang 238 7.3 Commodified Heritage Landscapes .246 7.3.1 Material landscapes 246 7.3.2 Vernacular landscapes 256 7.3.3 Symbolic landscapes .261 7.4 The Museumisation of Lijiang .266 7.5 Summary 272 Chapter Local Agency in Heritage Tourism: Naxisation and the Reclaimation of Tourist Space . 274 8.1 Introduction 274 iv 8.2 Locals’ Readings of Heritage Tourism 276 8.3 Naxisation: Local Agency in Heritage Tourism 285 8.3.1 Reclaiming space for a sense of place 285 8.3.2 Naxi language education and identity building 292 8.3.3 Local involvement in heritage tourism .297 8.4 Policy Implications for Lijiang’s Future Tourism Development .302 8.5 Summary 310 Chapter Conclusion: Cultural Politics of Heritage Tourism and Beyond 311 9.1 Introduction 311 9.2 Thesis Summary 312 9.3 Theoretical Reflections and Implications 321 9.4 Drawing from Cultural Geography: The Value of a Dialectical Outlook for Tourism Geography .328 REFERENCES 331 APPENDIX 1: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TOURISTS .363 APPENDIX 2: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LOCAL RESIDENTS 366 APPENDIX 3: IMPORTANT SECONDARY RESOURCES .369 v SUMMARY Since acquiring World Heritage status in 1997, Lijiang Ancient Town has annually attracted millions of tourists. This thesis engages a neo-Gramscian approach to explore the politics of heritage tourism in Lijiang. Using the concepts of hegemony, dominance and resistance, the thesis examines the dialectics between global and domestic capital, the Chinese state, tourists and locals as they collaborate and contest one another in a struggle for capital accumulation without forgoing identity and conservation of its rich heritage. With the opening of China, the state and private enterprise have commercialised Lijiang in the name of development and growth for this peripheral region. While this hegemonic discourse is pervasive, consent is incomplete. Strategies of resistance from native Naxi will be examined to document how spaces are reclaimed from commodification. In addition, strategies will be suggested for sustained tourism interest in the location. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are employed in this research. vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 3.1 Methodologies Employed 80 Table 3.2 Demographic Profile of Survey Sample (%) 83 Table 3.3 Place of Origin of Visitors 84 Table 3.4 Chi-Square Test of Tourist Survey Sample 85 Table 3.5 Profile of Local Respondents 86 Table 3.6 Composition of Tourist Interviewees 88 Table 3.7 Composition of Local Interviewees 89 Table 3.8 Composition of Migrant Merchants or Workers in Tourism 90 Table 3.9 Composition of Government Officials Interviewed 90 Table 3.10 Composition of Other Interviewees 91 Table 3.11 Categories of Businesses in Lijiang Ancient Town 97 Table 4.1 International Tourist Arrivals to China, 1965-78 114 Table 4.2 China’s Tourism Themes, 1992-2006 120 Table 5.1 Top Investment Projects, 2002-03 174 Table 5.2 The Evolution of Heritage Agencies in Lijiang Ancient Town 178 Table 5.3 Tourist Arrivals and Receipts, Lijiang Prefecture (City), 1996-2005 191 Table 6.1 Information Sources 197 Table 6.2 Reasons for Visiting Lijiang Ancient Town 201 Table 6.3 Main Activities Undertaken by Tourists 203 Table 6.4 Tourists’ Social Interaction with Locals 211 Table 6.5 Mean Importance of Heritage Elements 214 Table 6.6 Evaluation of Government’s Effort in Successfully Restoring Traditional Buildings 216 Table 6.7 Evaluation of Government’s Effort in Preserving Naxi Culture 217 Table 7.1 Types of Shops, 2002 and 2004 241 Table 7.2 Shop Distribution on Main Streets of Lijiang 243 vii Table Page Table 7.3 A Comparison of Lijiang’s Commercial Landscape in Different Periods 269 Table 8.1 The Perceived Impacts of Tourism on Locals’ Daily Life (%) 277 Table 8.2 Local Responses to Tourism Impacts on Naxi Culture (%) 279 Table 8.3 The Role of Government in Heritage Tourism (%) 283 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1.1 Location Map of Lijiang, China 18 Figure 1.2 A Streetscape in Lijiang Ancient Town 19 Figure 1.3 Lijiang Ancient Town in the City of Lijiang 21 Figure 1.4 Structure of Dissertation 24 Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework 67 Figure 4.1 International and Domestic Tourist Numbers, China, 1985-2005 116 Figure 4.2 Map of Yunnan 122 Figure 4.3 Satellite Image of Lijiang and Surroundings 130 Figure 4.4 Schematic Map of Lijiang Ancient Town in the Qing Dynasty 136 Figure 4.5 A ‘Three-eyed’ Well in Lijiang Ancient Town 141 Figure 4.6 A Typical Residence in Lijiang 142 Figure 4.7 An Overview of Rooftops in Lijiang Ancient Town 143 Figure 4.8 Naxi Costume 144 Figure 4.9 A Page of Pictography from a Dongba Religious Script 145 Figure 5.1 KFC, located at the North Entrance 167 Figure 5.2 The Conserved Area of Lijiang Ancient Town 184 Figure 5.3 Dongda Street 187 Figure 5.4 Frontage of Mu Palace: A Mini Forbidden City? 188 Figure 6.1 Remembering Lijiang Ancient Town 208 Figure 6.2 Foreign Tourists in Zhongyi Market 227 Figure 6.3 A Typical Café along Cuiwen Lane 228 Figure 7.1 Sifang Square in the 1920s 239 Figure 7.2 Shop Distribution in Lijiang Ancient Town 242 Figure 7.3 A Landscape of Spectacle in Lijiang Ancient Town 247 Figure 7.4 A Shop Selling Naxi-style Attire in Sifang Square 250 Figure 7.5 Sifang Square in 2004 253 ix Rapoport, A. 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(1995) The Cultures of Cities, Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. 362 APPENDIX 1: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TOURISTS I would be most grateful if you could spare some time to fill in this questionnaire. This questionnaire forms part of a study of heritage tourism I am carrying in Lijiang ancient town. The aim of the study is to understand how you perceive Lijiang ancient town. I hope that the study will help to develop the balance between heritage tourism and conservation which can enable sustained tourism interest in this ancient town. Please note that I not ask for you name and your answers remain anonymous. Please, however, take the survey seriously because I am trying to find out some important information about tourism development in Lijiang ancient town. Thank you! 1. Have you been to Lijiang ancient town before? □Yes; □No 2. Why have you come to visit Lijiang ancient town? (Please tick (√) those which apply to you). □to experience its rich cultural diversity and local practices; □to enjoy its unique urban form and local architecture; □to visit the nature parks nearby (e.g. Yulong Snow Mountain) □to visit family/friends who reside in Lijiang ancient town; □to attend local festivals □for business □because Lijiang ancient town is a world heritage site □because many people recommended Lijiang ancient town to me □others. Please specify_______________________________________ 3. Where did you get information about Lijiang ancient town? (Please tick (√) in box as many as apply). □videos/television/radio; □ internet; □ books/magazine/newspaper □ brochures/travel guide; □ friends or family members; 4. Who are you traveling with this time? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □ family member only; □friends only; □ family& friends □ people in tour group; □alone 5. In this visit, how long you stay in Lijiang ancient town? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □less than hour; □ day tour □2-4 days; □ more than days 6. If you have done any of these activities in the ancient town during this visit: (Please tick (√) as many as is relevant). □ Sightseeing; □Shopping; □Dined out in Restaurants; □Lived in a guesthouse; □Horse ride; □Consumed drink or food in a bar; □Lived in a hotel; □Dancing; □Attended music theatre; □Took photos; □Visited Mu Palace; □others (Please specify)___________ 363 7. Would you like to contact with local residents? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □Yes, I did; □Yes, but I have no chance to do; □No; □I don’t care about it 8. What is your overall impression of Naxi culture in Lijiang ancient town: (Please tick (√) in one box only). □The culture is dying (Slowing disappearing) □Naxi culture is still vibrant □Naxi culture has become commercialized □Others (Please specify) _________________ 9. The following can be found in Lijiang ancient town. Please circle the number which you think best describe their value in representing Naxi culture. Not Representative Neutral/ don’t know Very representative -Handicrafts (carvings, sliver etc.) -2 -1 -Naxi ancient music (instruments, tunes, rhythms) -2 -1 -Naxi language (spoken dialect and pictography) -2 -1 -Dongba religion/spiritual life (animism, belief etc.) -2 -1 -Traditional costume -2 -1 -Dance -2 -1 -Local buildings and canals -2 -1 -Mu Palace (Mu Fu) -2 -1 -Folktales, myths and legends etc -2 -1 10. Please circle the appropriate number to indicate whether you agree or disagree with each of the following statements: Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongl y agree -Government has balanced tourism development and the protection of Naxi culture -2 -1 -The government has done an excellent job in restoring historical buildings -2 -1 -My stay here has helped me to understand Naxi culture -2 -1 -Lijiang ancient town matches the status of a World Heritage site -2 -1 11. How you evaluate your overall satisfaction with Lijiang ancient town? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □Very high; □high; □okay; □low; □very low 364 12. Will you recommend Lijiang ancient town to others to visit? □Yes □No 13. If there are improvements to be made in the ancient town, where would these be: (Please tick (√) as many as apply). □Food and beverage □Accommodation □Attractions to see □Things to □Condition of roads and public access □Cleanliness □Furniture □Others (Please specify) _______________________________________________ Directions: some background information about you would be required so that the results can be better interpreted. (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). 14. Age: 15. Gender: □19 and below; □40-49; □Male; □20-29; □50-59; □30-39; □60 and above □Female 16. Educational Attainment: □No formal education; □Primary and lower secondary; □Upper secondary and pre-college; □Diploma and degree; 17. Occupation □Company employee; □Businessman; □National serviceman; □Professional; □Housewife; □Student; □Retired/unemployed; □Others; 18. By what means to reach Lijiang: □Airline; □Public bus; □Private car; □Bus from Tourism Company; 19. Which country you come from? _____________________________________ Thank you very much for your help. Results of this questionnaire will be reported as general trends. No individual will be identified. If you have any other comments you would like to make, please add them below. 365 APPENDIX 2: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LOCAL RESIDENTS I would be most grateful if you could spare some time to fill in this questionnaire. This questionnaire forms part of a study of heritage tourism I am carrying in Lijiang ancient town. The aim of the study is to understand how you perceive Lijiang ancient town. I hope that the study will help to develop the balance between heritage tourism and conservation which can enable sustained tourism interest in this ancient town. Please note that I not ask for you name. Your answers will remain anonymous. Please, however, take the survey seriously because I am trying to find out some important information about tourism development in Lijiang ancient town. Thank you! DIRECTIONS: Please circle the most appropriate response. 1. How long have you lived in the ancient town? □3 months to months; □6 months to one year; □One year to two years; □Three years to five years; □Six years to ten years; □More than ten years 2. What is your overall impression of Naxi culture in Lijiang ancient town: (Please tick (√) in one box only). □The culture is dying (Slowing disappearing) □Naxi culture is still vibrant □Naxi culture has become commercialized □others (Please specify) ________________________________ 3. The following can be found in Lijiang ancient town. For each point, please circle the number which you think best describe their value in representing Naxi culture. Not Representative Neutral/ don’t know Very representative -Handicrafts (carvings, sliver etc.) -2 -1 -Naxi ancient music (instruments, tunes, rhythms) -2 -1 -Naxi language (spoken dialect and pictography) -2 -1 -Dongba religion/spiritual life (animism, belief etc.) -2 -1 -Traditional costume -2 -1 -Dance -2 -1 -Local buildings and canals -2 -1 -Mu Palace (Mu Fu) -2 -1 -Folktales, myths and legends etc -2 -1 366 4. Would you want to talk and interact with tourists? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □Yes, what you communicate with tourists? □Introduce Naxi culture to tourists □Show tourists around your buildings □No actual contents □Other, Please specify______________________________ □No, why would you not want to? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □ I am shy; □I am not interested; □There was not enough time for such interactions; □Because tourist did not look interested to talk with me; □Other, Please specify_______________________________ 5. Listed below are a range of phenomena probably related to tourism development. Please tick (√) one of the boxes only to indicate whether they emerged in Lijiang ancient town. Yes No -More congestion □ □ -More safety □ □ -More commodification/ □ □ -Sifan square is overcrowded □ □ -More noise and pollution □ □ -More disturbance of local activities □ □ -More litter □ □ - More increasing cost of living □ □ -More improved social services □ □ -More employment □ □ 6. The following is a list of possible results due to tourism development in Lijiang ancient town. (For each statement, please tick (√) one of the choices only) Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree -Naxi culture is revived due to tourism -2 -1 -Tourism caused a loss of identity because of commercialization -2 -1 -Local residents are treated like second-class compared to tourists -2 -1 -Lijiang would be a dull place without tourists -2 -1 367 Strongly Agree 7. Please circle the appropriate number to indicate how highly you agree or disagree with the role of government: (For each statement, please tick (√) one of the choices only) Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree -Government does an good job in restoring historical buildings -2 -1 -Government should encourage further tourism development in the town -2 -1 -Government should enact more stricter regulations to protect Lijiang -2 -1 8. Do you think Lijiang ancient town is a good international attraction? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □Yes □No □ No comment 9. Do you think Lijiang ancient town is important to the central government? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □Yes □No □ No comment 10. Could you evaluate the overall satisfaction with Lijiang ancient town? (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). □Very high; □high; □okay; □low; □very low Directions: some background information about you would be required so that the results can be better interpreted. (Please tick (√) one of the boxes only). 11. Age: □19 and below; □20-29; □30-39; □40-49; □50-59; □60 and above □Male; 12. Gender: 13. Nationality: □Naxi; □Han; □Female □Others, (please specify) _____ 14. Educational Attainment: □No formal education; □Primary and lower secondary; □Upper secondary and pre-college; □Diploma and degree; 15. Monthly personal income: □Less than 1000; □1000-1999; (RMB¥): □2000-3999; □4000-9999; □10000 and above; 16. Occupation □Student; □Homemaker/Housewife; □Production/Clerical; □Technical/Sales; □Executive/Managerial/Professional; □Self-employed; □Retired/unemployed; □Others; 368 APPENDIX 3: IMPORTANT SECONDARY RESOURCES 1. Lijiang Almanac (1997－2001) [丽江年鉴] 2. The Conservation Plan of Lijiang Historical Town (1987) [丽江历史文化名城保护规划] 3. The Detailed Conservation Plan of Lijiang Dayan Ancient Town (1997) [丽江大研古城保护详细规划] 4. The Revised Master Plan of Lijiang City (2005) [丽江城市总体规划修编] 5. The History of Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County (2001) [丽江纳西族自治县志] 6. Records of Lijiang Prefecture (2000) [丽江地区志] 7. Historical and Cultural Materials about Lijiang (1985-2000) [丽江文史资料] 8. An Investigation of Naxi Society and Culture (1983) [纳西族社会历史调查] 9. Lijiang Daily (1996-2006) [丽江日报] 369 [...]... negotiating the spatial claims of others This is a politics of space as much lived in the body as it is written in law That the ‘ordinary’ enters into the arena of politics shows up the importance of many ‘cultural’ dimensions in defining and dividing power relations So rather than economic relations and the state determining social reaction and individuals’ ordinary experiences (Chouinard 1996), they... politics celebrate can continue to flourish However, I am of the opinion that the “power of capital (Harvey 1993:24) should not be devalued It is this critical notion of cultural politics that informs my thinking on politics in tourism geographies Besides incorporating the cultural with the economic in social change, other important issues relevant to this thesis are the study of politics beyond the. .. this strategy includes the construction of infrastructure, a restructuring of the economic system in the region, the promotion of science and technology, and the restoration of the area’s threatened ecological systems 2 same time, however, for tourism to be sustainable, Lijiang must also maintain the authenticity of its unique cultural heritage Combined together, tourism- driven development in Lijiang... achieve a compromised equilibrium in a case study of Lijiang Ancient Town In sum, the rethinking in tourism politics has motivated me to adopt a more critical geographical engagement with the politics of heritage tourism in Lijiang Influenced by the above-mentioned intellectual debates, I intend to take into account the geo-historical contexts of tourism development in the city as well as the extra-local... perspectives of politics causes trouble for tourism theory (Franklin and Crang 2001) Policy-led studies on tourism politics in geography and other disciplines place the state and capital at the centre of tourism politics As Picard (1996:103) argues, they highlight “an objective of social control that will allow the tourist product to be more finely tuned to the demands of the international market.” In many... also in the production of cultural meanings and identity Tourism is an important showground for expression of such politics Richter (1989:2), one of the leading scholars in tourism politics, argues that tourism is a highly political phenomenon” Henderson (2003:113-114) shares a similar viewpoint, arguing that the political nature of tourism is “an expression of political philosophy and instrument of. .. sustained tourism interest in Lijiang 1.4 Overview of the Thesis The main body of this dissertation consists of three parts (Figure 1.4) All parts seek to conceptualise and elaborate the interconnectedness of place, capital, and representation embedded in the acts of dominance and resistance in tourism development and heritage preservation in Lijiang Ancient Town Figure 1.4 Structure of Dissertation Part... during which a strong tradition of categorising and ordering difference in a binary manner has emerged e.g., between capital and labour, economy and culture, self and other, majority and minority, and so on (Rose 1994) This binary thinking does not give enough emphasis to the spatially and socially marginalised In contrast, the dominant are spotlighted in the analysis of politics In tourism studies, the. .. that tourism politics can be likened to a circuit involving interactions between producers and consumers Tourism spaces are commonsensical to those within the circuit because their outcome is composed of points of acceptable compromises between all involved The politics of tourism has engendered concerns over who has power to benefit from tourism development and influence the transformation of a destination... governed and maintain their dominance through controlling and disciplining space On the other hand, the governed can try to resist the imposed order through claiming their own space or to express their discordance if they are discontented with the existing power structure Both sides have to negotiate with each other and make compromises Space is thus a container expressing such negotiations and the spatial . PLACE, CAPITAL AND REPRESENTATION: THE POLITICS OF HERITAGE TOURISM IN LIJIANG, PR CHINA XIAOBO SU (B. Arch. and M. Sc.) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF. study of politics beyond the centres of the ‘West’ and of the ‘state’. First, the decentring of the West: Geographers have in postcolonial studies shifted the conceptualisation of politics in the. binary thinking does not give enough emphasis to the spatially and socially marginalised. In contrast, the dominant are spotlighted in the analysis of politics. In tourism studies, the influential