Language ideology and linguistic investment among korean educational migrant families in singapore

LANGUAGE IDEOLOGY AND LINGUISTIC INVESTMENT AMONG KOREAN EDUCATIONAL MIGRANT FAMILIES IN SINGAPORE BAE SO HEE (M.A. in English Language, National University of Singapore) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILISOPHY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 Acknowledgements This thesis was made possible only through the generous help and support of many people. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the diverse support I have received. First, I wish to acknowledge the families who participated in my study, sharing their lives and thoughts with me. In particular, the three mothers in my study generously worked with me as informants and close friends, providing endless help. I am also thankful for the children who spent their precious time on working and studying with me. Their thoughts and voices provided me with insights that I otherwise could never have. I would like to thank the fathers in my study who took time out of their busy schedule to share their stories and views. I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Joseph Sung-Yul Park, who has always been supportive and encouraging at each stage of my graduate career. I have been immensely inspired by his boundless enthusiasm and precision for his work. I really appreciate his close reading of my writing and the thought-provoking comments he always makes. I am also grateful to Dr. Mie Hiramoto and Dr. Sunita Abraham for their helpful comments and suggestions on the earliest draft of this thesis. I have benefited from the friendship and support of many friends in NUS. My warmest thanks go to Hwang Eunshil for being a good friends and advisor all throughout my graduate years. She made this academic journey full of joy and happiness with her warm heart and friendship. I am especially grateful to her for her help with the technical part of the thesis production. I also would like to thank Yurni and Shuang for their helpful comments about my early drafts, warm support, and friendship. Many thanks go to the members of Graduate Student Reading Group who i provided me with a vital academic community. I am thankful to my family in Korea, my parents, Bae Sung Wan and Jang Sung Ja for their lifelong support and love. I am also grateful to my parents-in-law, Jung Kyu In and Lee Jong Rye who always trust me and worry about my health. Without their encouragement and emotional support, this work was not possible. Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my loving husband, Myung-Jin who has been unfailing in his support. I have no words to express how grateful I am to him for his love and believing in me. He has been my faithful companion and I am so happy to have him by my side always. My two sweethearts, Euna and HaeSung have been the joy and energy of my life. I really thank them for being such a great son and daughter of mine who expressed deep love for me and encouraged me whenever I felt tired and down. Without the unconditional love of my family, I could not have completed this work. Thank you for everything, my loved ones. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i Table of Contents iii Summary vii CHAPTER TRANSNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL MIGRATION AS SCOCIOLIGUISTIC PRACTICE 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Introduction Research questions and significance of study Theoretical framework 1.3.1 Sociolinguistics of globalization 1.3.1.1 Mobility and linguistic resources 1.3.1.2 Multiple scales of TimeSpace 12 1.3.2 Multilingualism in globalization 14 1.3.2.1 What is the desirable form of multilingualism in globalization? 14 1.3.2.2 Language as commodity and language as identity 1.3.3 Linguistic investment 23 1.3.4 Language and neoliberalism in globalization 26 Overview of the chapters 30 CHAPTER TRANSNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL MIGRATION: KOREAN JOGI YUHAK FAMILIES IN SINGAPORE 2. 2. 2.3 2.4 2.5 18 34 Introduction 34 Monolingual Korea in pursuit of multilingualism 35 2.2.1 Ideological construction of monolingualism in South Korea 35 2.2.2 Yongyeo yeolpung (English frenzy) in Korea 40 2.2.3 A war for more linguistic resources for better competitiveness 43 Jogi yuhak in South Korea 47 2.3.1 Historical and social perspectives on Korean jogi yuhak 47 2.3.2 Previous research on transnational educational migration 51 Singapore as an alternative destination for Korean jogi yuhak 58 2.4.1 What does ‘alternative’ mean to Korean jogi yuhak families? 58 2.4.2 Singapore as an ideal ‘alternative’ location for the development of global elite 60 2.4.3 Anxieties over an ‘alternative’ choice 62 2.4.4 Ambivalence of ‘alternative’ choice 66 Conclusion 68 iii CHAPTER RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 3.2 3.3 70 Ethnography as research methodology 70 3.1.1 Ethnographic approach to sociolinguistics of globalization 70 3.1.2 The current study: sociolinguistic ethnography with qualitative research methodology 73 The participant families 76 3.2.1 Jogi yuhak families as transnational migrants 76 3.2.2 Recruitment of the families 80 3.2.3 Socio-economic background of the families 82 3.2.4 The families 85 3.2.4.1 Minsu’s family 85 3.2.4.2 Juni’s family 88 3.2.4.3 Jaemin’s family 90 Data collection 93 CHAPTER LANGUAGE AND INVESTMENT: STRATEGIES OF LINGUISTIC INVESTMENT IN TRANSNATIONAL SPACE 4.1 4.2 4.3 98 Introduction 98 Linguistic investment strategies of the three families 101 4.2.1 Investment in English 101 4.2.1.1 The families’ strategies of linguistic investment for attaining ‘good English’ 102 4.2.1.2 English as a necessity 104 4.2.1.3 Discrepancy between the ideal and the reality of language learning 110 4.2.1.4 Investment in Singlish 112 4.2.2 Investment in Mandarin 117 4.2.2.1 More linguistic resources for better competitiveness 117 4.2.2.2 Material constraints in acquiring additional linguistic resources 120 4.2.3 Investment in Korean 122 4.2.3.1 Language as commodity vs. language as identity 122 4.2.3.2 Dilemma in language learning: acquiring foreign languages at the cost of mother tongue 125 Conclusion 129 iv CHAPTER LANGUAGE AND IDEOLOGY: MULTIPLE LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES ABOUT LOCAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Introduction 132 Monolingualism orientation 137 5.2.1 Singlish as cheap English 137 5.2.2 The families’ strategies to avoid Singlish 142 Multilingualism Orientation 147 5.3.1 Learning how to use different Englishes 147 5.3.2 The families’ positive evaluation of Singlish 151 Stratified multilingualism orientation 155 5.4.1 Stratification of linguistic resources in multiple TimeSpaces 155 5.4.2 Complexity of language ideologies in transnational movement 159 Conclusion 164 CHAPTER LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY: FLEXIBLE IDENTITY THROUGH MULTILINGUALISM 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7.3 7.4 167 Introduction 167 The ideal of flexible global identity 171 6.2.1 Language learning as economic activity 171 6.2.2 “It was weird to speak Korean to my Korean friend”: Detaching language from identity 174 6.2.3 “Korea is no more than a place where I was born”: Flexible sense of belonging? 177 Limits of flexible identity 182 6.3.1 Social exclusion in transnational space 182 6.3.2 “We cannot deny that we are Koreans”: Conflicting ideologies about language and identity in language learning 186 Renegotiating the ideal of flexible transnational identity 190 Conclusion 196 CHAPTER LANGUAGE AND INSECURITY: ANXIETY AND PRECARITY IN THE NOELIBERAL PURSUIT OF GLOBAL SUCCESS 7.1 7.2 132 198 Introduction 198 Anxiety in the pursuit of neoliberal subjectivity through language learning 200 Anxieties in transnational movement 204 7.3.1 Anxiety over Time – Minsu’s family 205 7.3.2 Anxiety over Space – Juni’s family 212 7.3.3 Anxiety over the relativity and complexity of multiple TimeSpace – Jaemin’s family 217 Conclusion 226 v CHAPTER CONCLUSION 8.1 8.2 228 Language and mobility in neoliberal globalization 228 Implications for further study 236 8.2.1 A critical sociolinguistics of globalization 236 8.2.2 Language learning and teaching in neoliberal globalization REFERENCES 238 244 vi Summary This thesis examines the effects of globalization and transnational movement on language through a 2.5-year ethnographic study on three Korean educational migrant families in Singapore. The thesis explores how language ideology is reflected in and constructed by the families’ everyday experiences of language learning and transnational life through the analysis of their strategies of linguistic investment and the process of constructing transnational identity. This thesis aims to investigate complex language ideologies embedded in various linguistic and educational choices of the families during their transnational migration and to identify social and material constraints which affect those choices. I examine the strategies of linguistic investment of the families, their ambivalent attitudes towards local varieties of English and complex ideologies about English, the families’ pursuit of global subjectivity of the children through language learning, and the anxieties and insecurities which the families experienced during their educational migration in Singapore. Through the analysis of the sociolinguistic practices and transnational experiences of the families who move and imagine their movement across various places in transnational space, I show how the multi-scalar dimensions of sociolinguistic practices in globalization account for the complex interrelationship between language and mobility. As Korean educational migrant families move across different locations in transnational space, they encounter various difficulties and problems in acquiring valuable linguistic resources and attaining the ideal global subjectivity of the children through educational migration. Constantly changing conditions of living and learning throughout transnational movement require the families to continuously reconfigure and renegotiate the meanings and values of their resources in various spaces at different points in time. The families orient to the complex networks of value that vii form across multiple linguistic as well as educational markets as they explore the best opportunities for the children in search of useful resources. As Korean transmigrant families orient simultaneously to the expectations of multiple scales of TimeSpace, the families continuously readjust to different resources, systems, experiences, and expectations embedded in each location along their migratory trajectories, modifying the strategies of linguistic investment and developing more complex ideologies about language and identity. Korean transmigrant families' awareness of the complex and indeterminate relationship between language and space often leads to anxiety about the ambivalence and complexity of language in society, as they try to prepare for the uncertain future in the rapidly transforming global society. By exploring the complex way in which Korean transmigrant families construct the ideologies about language and identity in transnational space, this thesis highlights the tensions and contradictions underlying sociolinguistic practices in the context of transnationalism and neoliberal globalization. The thesis argues that polycentricity in globalization and transnationalism highlights the complexity and multiplicity of language ideologies in which people constantly negotiate between competing ideologies about language and identity in neoliberal globalization. The increasing mobility of people and resources in globalization leads to intensifying anxiety and insecurity among language learners by complicating the way in which language is perceived and mobilized by individuals who strive to survive and succeed in neoliberal transformation of globalization. viii learners with the development of the media and technologies of mobility. And this polycentric environment of language learning raises the issue of normativity of language and stratification between languages. This point was elaborated in this study through the discussion of how the choice of a different location of language learning leads to unexpected results in language learning and how this serves to highlight linguistic stratification in the linguistic market. The families’ choices of Singapore, an alternative destination of jogi yuhak, and the children’s consequent acquisition of local varieties of English lead to the development of very sophisticated strategies of language learning as well as complex ideologies about the relation between different languages and language varieties. The complexity of language ideologies is produced not only by the complex relation between languages but also by the polycentric position of language learners who orient simultaneously to multiple TimeSapces. The finding of this study suggests that it is important to address the complexity and multiplicity of language ideology in language learning process caused by the polycentric nature of language learning environment in globalization. For this reason, future research will benefit greatly by paying more attention to the complex and layered character of linguistic repertoires to account for increasing contacts and mixing between languages. At the same time, it is necessary to raise a wide variety of issues regarding normativity and stratification in the social use of language heightened by the polycentric environments of language learning. In addition to this, emphasis on the multiple but stratified environments of language learning highlights the importance of the social and political grounding of language learning; it is important to note that language learners need to acquire language within various socio-political, economic and material constraints which regulate their access to those languages. As Norton (2000) argues, language learners learn language to have a ‘voice’, the capacity to make themselves heard and to engage in social and communicative interactions with others in a meaningful and 245 acceptable way. Blommaert (2010) also contends that, since voice is subject to normative judgment, one has to accumulate resources or learn languages in order to operate effectively and legitimately within the norms and expectations of a given society which he or she dwells in and passes through (Blommaert 2005, 2010; Blommaert and Backus 2012). In this sense, language learning is deeply related to the issues of power in which a learner negotiates his or her social position through language learning. By more deeply engaging in the discussion of the relation between individuals’ language learning and social structure, research on language learning and teaching can address the social meaning of language learning and the complex way in which language learners construct identity through language learning. In order to enhance our understanding of language learning and teaching in the ever more globalizing world, it is necessary for both researchers and practitioners in language learning and teaching to engage with the new conditions of language learning, particularly regarding the changing meaning and function of language and the role of language education in relation to economic and social conditions of neoliberal globalization. 246 References Abelmann, Nancy, So Jin Park, and Hyunhee Kim. 2009. 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Accessed on September, 2010. 260 [...]... the social meaning of language and the role of language ideology in mediating language practices of speakers (Schieffelin, Woolard, and Kroskrity 1998) In other words, the social value and meaning of linguistic patterns or language practices is constructed by language users through the mediation of their beliefs about language, and language ideology is also involved in the shaping of linguistic differentiation... four main issues of this thesis and sets of research questions related to each issue below (a) The strategies and patterns of linguistic investment of Korean jogi yuhak families in Singapore, with a focus on their effort to attain multilingual competence in three languages of English, Mandarin, and Korean: how do jogi yuhak families distribute their material resources and time in learning different languages,... different norms and expectations Second, reflecting the recent ‘significant rethinking of multilingualism and its consequences for identity’ (Park and Lo 2012, 149) that is taking place in the sociolinguistics of globalization, it examines the way in which the families make sense of multilingual interactions in actual language learning processes in the multilingual and multicultural context of Singapore, ... language practice in their educational migration in Singapore and they point to the contradictions and conflicts which the families encountered in their pursuit of multilingual skills in transnational space First, Korean jogi yuhak families language learning can be viewed as their serious investment in language The families develop highly sophisticated strategies of linguistic investment for effective... ideology that motivates the Korean families pursuit of multilingualism and global subjectivity The discussion of these sociolinguistic issues in globalization provides a basis for our understanding of the dynamic role and meaning of language in globalization presented in the case of Korean families transnational educational migration 1.3.1 Sociolinguistics of globalization 1.3.1.1 Mobility and linguistic. .. conflicintg ideologies about language help us to 24 explore how individauls strategically negotiate between multiple ideologies in their real-life linguistic and social choices 1.3.3 Linguistic investment As language is commodified as a resource to be attained and managed, individuals as well as organizations come to be deeply involved in language management and language learning The notion of linguistic. .. multilingual competence As the families engage in multilingual and multicultural interactions in Singapore, their strategies of language learning continue to change and this change is shaped by their constant negotiation between various constraints in local context of language learning as well as their careful calculation of the value of linguistic resources in global 5 context Second, the Korean families ... identity Korean transmigrant families' awareness of the complex and 3 indeterminate relationship between language and space often leads to anxiety about the ambivalence and complexity of language in society, as they try to prepare for the uncertain future in the rapidly transforming global society In this sense, the case of Korean educational migrant families serves as a good site for exploring intensifying... remains as a very controversial question due to the conflicting ideologies about bilingualism as well as the difficulty in defining what constitutes ideal bilingual competence Though bilingualism is conceived as a linguistic and social consequence of linguistic heterogeneity (Romaine 1995), ideologies of linguistic and cultural homogeneity and standardization have been dominant ideologies in bilingual... 2 families are concerned about what kind of linguistic resources they need in order for their children to succeed in the rapidly changing global world as well as in the neoliberal social transformation of Korean society Since accumulation of linguistic resources is the prominent purpose of Korean families transnational educational migration, and since the families need to engage in multilingual interaction . LANGUAGE IDEOLOGY AND LINGUISTIC INVESTMENT AMONG KOREAN EDUCATIONAL MIGRANT FAMILIES IN SINGAPORE BAE SO HEE (M.A. in English Language, National University of Singapore) . strategies and patterns of linguistic investment of Korean jogi yuhak families in Singapore, with a focus on their effort to attain multilingual competence in three languages of English, Mandarin, and. yuhak families in Singapore who show various educational and linguistic investment strategies. By examining these transnational migrant families who have various transnational experiences and