THE USE OF SEXUALLY PROPAGATED SCLERACTINIAN CORALS FOR REEF RESTORATION

THE USE OF SEXUALLY PROPAGATED SCLERACTINIAN CORALS FOR REEF RESTORATION TOH TAI CHONG B.Sc. (Hons), Nanyang Technological University, Republic of Singapore A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information, which have been used in the thesis. This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. TOH TAI CHONG JUNE 2014 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. “The corals have not given up, so neither should we” - Professor Chou Loke Ming i Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The past 4.5 years of my Ph.D. journey had been a humbling experience: the wonders of Godʼs creation have shown me how the natural world is so vast and complex, and yet so intricately designed to provide for our needs. The route to completion was a difficult journey and I would not be able to finish it if not for the people who have supported and helped me along the way. Professor Chou, it is my honor to be one of your last Ph.D. students that you are supervising in DBS. I am eternally indebted to you for accepting me as a graduate student in your laboratory in 2010, even though I had no prior experience in environmental research. I am thankful for the all the life skills and knowledge that you have imparted and the provision of opportunities to be part of the conservation efforts that you have been actively involved in both locally and globally. You have been an exceptional role model, teacher, mentor and inspiration. I will always be there if you need any help. Lionel, thank you for being my “work spouse” and confidante. Your assistance in the field was instrumental in the completion of all my projects and I will always be grateful to you for offering to refine my manuscripts regardless of how busy you may be. At some point during my Ph.D., I had wanted to give up but thank you for all your advice and for nudging me on to complete my studies. We have accomplished quite a lot in the past 4.5 years, and I hope we can continue to work alongside each other in the future. “For honour and glory” and “for the love of science” as you have always put it. ii Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Kok Ben, thank you for all your statistical help and your inputs for my project. You are always willing to share your knowledge and your expertise whenever I am at a loss with my analysis. Thank you for being a faithful friend and for looking out for me all the time. James, thank you for guiding me through the basics of coral reef ecology and restoration science when I first started out as a graduate student. To the past and present members of the Marine Biology Laboratory and Reef Ecology Laboratory: Meilin, Siti, Karenne, Jani, Jeff, Hang, Jessica, Yujie, Samantha, Lynette, Dexiang, Yanxiang, Ross, Samuel, Kassler, Hansheng, Gavan, Inn Zheng and Juat Ying. Thank you for all your support and encouragement. A large part of my project was conducted on the Tropical Marine Science Institute, St. Johns Island and their support and friendship will be cherished forever: Dr. Tan Koh Siang, Dr. Serena Teo, Chee Kong, Swee Cheng, Chin Sing, Serena, Nick, Iris, Helen and Yen Ling. My overseas collaborators were also pivotal in shaping my thesis: Dr. Gomez, Dr. Helen Yap, Dr. Ronald Villanueva, Van and Dexter (University of the Philippines Diliman). I will also like to thank Prof. Dai Chang-Feng and Dr. Hsieh Chih-Hao (National Taiwan University) for their hospitality while I was in Taiwan for a short visit. As a part-time teaching assistant in the department for the past years, I will also like to take this opportunity to thank the lecturers and full-time teaching assistants for their guidance and trust: Dr. Ng Ngan Kee, Dr. Darren Yeo, Dr. Tan Heok Hui, Dr. Zeehan, Dr. Amy Choong, Dr. Seow, JC, Weiting, Amanda, Erica and Hongxia. iii Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. I will also like to acknowledge the administrative staff in the department: Mrs Chan, Priscilla, Reena, Sally, Joan, Lisa, Ann Nee, Tommy, Poh Moi, Morgany, Reuben, Syidah, Mr. Ow, Soh Fun, Mr. Song, Mr. Yap, the Galaxea crew (Mr Wong, Rahmat, Salim, Eshark). They have always been playing a supportive role to all staff and students, quietly working behind the scene to ensure that our work can be completed smoothly and that we are safe in the field. This dissertation project would not have been possible if not for the funding that was granted for my research. The National University of Singapore (NUS) Research Scholarship and the NUS Department of Biological Sciences (DBS) SingHaiyi Scholarship provided funding for my stipend and tuition fees. A Singapore Ministry of Education Tier grant awarded to James during his stint as a Post-doctoral fellow in NUS provided the funds for the first years of my project. The last years of my research was supported by the Wildlife Reserves Singapore Conservation Fund (WRSCF) which I secured in 2012 (Thank you Dr. John Sha, Ms. Frances Warren and Ms. Daisy Ling for the administrative help). Over the course my Ph.D. I had the opportunity to present my work in 13 international and regional conferences, and this was only possible with the support from the following sources: DBS, WRSCF, International Coral Reef Society and Asia Pacific Coral Reef Society. To my mom and sis, thank you for supporting me for all the choices that I have made so far and for giving me the freedom to grow. To Venetia and Veralyn, both of you have been my pillar of support all these years and you iv Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. are the reason that kept me focused on excelling in what I am doing. Thank you for the unconditional love and laughter, I will love and cherish the both of you forever. Lastly, thank you God for all your provisions in my life. v Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS II SUMMARY . IX LIST OF TABLES XI Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: XII LIST OF FIGURES XIII Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: XIV CHAPTER 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION . 18 1.1. CORAL REEFS AT RISK . 18 1.2. CORAL TRANSPLANTATION AS A TOOL FOR REEF RESTORATION . 20 1.3. THE NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH IN PROPAGATING SEXUALLY-DERIVED SCLERACTINIAN CORALS . 25 1.4. SCLERACTINIAN CORAL BIOLOGY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO PROPAGATING SEXUALLY-DERIVED CORALS FOR REEF RESTORATION 27 1.5. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 33 1.6. THESIS STRUCTURE AND OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS . 34 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 19 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 19 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 21 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 26 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 28 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 34 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 35 CHAPTER 2. OBSERVATIONS ON PROPAGULE RELEASE, LARVAL DEVELOPMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF THREE COMMON SCLERACTINIAN CORAL SPECIES 38 2.1. INTRODUCTION . 38 2.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS . 41 2.3. RESULTS 47 2.4. DISCUSSION 52 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 39 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 39 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 42 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 48 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 53 vi Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. CHAPTER 3. TRANSPLANTING SEXUALLY PROPAGATED CORALS FOR REEF RESTORATION 57 3.1. INTRODUCTION . 57 3.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS . 60 3.3. RESULTS 69 3.4. DISCUSSION 78 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 58 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 58 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 61 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 70 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 79 CHAPTER 4. INCLUSION OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS OF FOULING MACROALGAE IN THE EX SITU MARICULTURE OF CORAL JUVENILES . 86 4.1. INTRODUCTION . 86 4.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS . 90 4.2.1. Examining the dietary habits of Salmacis sphaeroides and Trochus maculatus in ex Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 87 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 87 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 91 situ mariculture . 90 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 4.2.2. Examining the effects of Trochus maculatus and Salmacis sphaeroides on the Deleted: 91 health of Pocillopora damicornis juveniles reared in an ex situ coral mariculture 95 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 4.3. RESULTS 99 Deleted: 96 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 4.3.1. Dietary habits of Salmacis sphaeroides and Trochus maculatus influence their Deleted: 100 suitability as biocontrols in ex situ mariculture . 99 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 4.3.2. Introduction of Trochus maculatus and Salmacis sphaeroides improves the health Deleted: 100 of Pocillopora damicornis juveniles in ex situ coral mariculture . 105 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 4.4. DISCUSSION 111 Deleted: 106 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 112 CHAPTER 5. HETEROTROPHY IN THE RECRUITS OF THE SCLERACTINIAN CORAL POCILLOPORA DAMICORNIS 119 5.1. INTRODUCTION . 119 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 120 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 120 vii Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. 5.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS . 125 5.2.1. Examining heterotrophic feeding in juvenile Pocillopora damicornis corals . 125 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 126 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 5.2.2. Examining the effects of nutritional enhancement on juvenile Pocillopora Deleted: 126 damicornis corals . 127 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 5.3. RESULTS 131 Deleted: 128 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 5.3.1. Early onset of heterotrophic feeding in juvenile Pocillopora damicornis corals 131 5.3.2. Nutritional enhancement augments post-transplantation growth and survivorship of Deleted: 132 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 132 juvenile Pocillopora damicornis corals . 134 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 5.4. DISCUSSION 142 Deleted: 135 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 143 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS 149 6.1. FROM LARVAL REARING TO TRANSPLANTATION: BEST PRACTICES FOR USING SEXUALLY PROPAGATED CORALS FOR REEF RESTORATION . 149 6.2. CONCLUDING REMARKS . 153 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 150 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 150 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 155 BIBLIOGRAPHY 155 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 156 APPENDICES 170 APPENDIX A: SUPPLEMENTARY DATA 170 APPENDIX B: LIST OF MANUSCRIPTS PUBLISHED FROM THIS DISSERTATION . 171 APPENDIX C: OTHER MANUSCRIPTS PUBLISHED WITHIN THE CANDIDATURE . 172 APPENDIX D: LIST OF CONFERENCES ATTENDED WITHIN THE CANDIDATURE 173 APPENDIX E: PRESS RELEASE . 175 APPENDIX F: LIST OF AWARDS AND FUNDING SECURED WITHIN THE CANDIDATURE 176 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 171 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 171 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 172 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 173 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 174 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 176 Toh Tai Chong 9/9 Deleted: 177 viii Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Hundloe TJ (1990). Measuring the value of the Great Barrier Reef. Australian Parks and Recreation 26 (3): 180-189. Johnson CR, Mann KH (1986). The crustose coralline alga, Phymatolithon Foslie, inhibits the overgrowth of seaweeds without relying on herbivores. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 96: 127-146. Jompa J, McCook LJ (2003). Contrasting effects of turf algae on corals: massive Porites spp. are unaffected by mixed-species turfs, but killed by the red alga Anotrichium tenue. Marine Ecology Progress Series 258: 79-86. Juinio-Menez, MA, Macawari NND, Bangi HGP (1998). Community-based sea urchin (Tripneustes gratilla) grow-out culture as a resource management tool. In: Jamieson GS, Campbell A (eds). Proceedings of the North Pacific Symposium on Invertebrate Stock Assessment and Management. Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 125: 393-399. Kayal M, Lenihan HS, Pau C, Penin L, Adjeroud M (2011). Associational refuges among corals mediate impacts of a crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci outbreak. Coral Reefs 30(3): 827-837. Kenny I, Kramer A, Kelly PW, Burbury T (2012). Coral Relocation: A mitigation tool for dredging works in Jamaica. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia, 9-13 July 2012. Klumpp DW, Salita-Espinosa JT, Fortes MD (1993). Feeding ecology and trophic role of seaurchins in a tropical seagrass community. Aquatic Botany 45: 205-229. Kohler KE, Gill SM (2006). Coral Point Count with Excel extensions (CPCe): A Visual Basic program for the determination of coral and substrate coverage using random point count methodology. Computers and Geosciences 32(9): 1259-1269. Kuanui P, Chavanich S, Raksasab C, Viyakarn V. (2008). Lunar periodicity of larval release and larval development of Pocillopora damicornis in Thailand. Marine and Freshwater Research 11: 375-377. Lambrinidis G, Luong-Van Thinh J, Renaud S (1997). Food preference of Trochus niloticus fed algae from Darwin Harbour. In: Lee CS, Lynch PW (eds). Trochus: Status, Hatchery Practice and Nutrition, Proceedings of a workshop held at Northern Territory University, 6-7 June 1996. Lang JC, Chornesky EA (1990). Competition between scleractinian reef corals. In: Dubinsky (ed). Coral Reefs Ecosystems of the World 25. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Pp. 209-252. Lemire M, Himmelman JH (1996). Relation of food preference to fitness for the green urchin, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Marine Biology 127: 73-78. Levy G, Shaish L, Haim A, Rinkevich B (2010). Mid-water rope nursery – testing design and performance of a novel reef restoration instrument. Ecological Engineering 36: 560-569. Lewis JB, Price WS (1975). Feeding mechanisms and feeding strategies of Atlantic reef corals. Journal of Zoology: Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 176: 527-544. 161 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Lindahl U (1998). Low-tech rehabilitation of degraded coral reefs through transplantation of staghorn corals. Ambio 27(8): 645-650. Lindahl U (2003). Coral reef rehabilitation through transplantation of staghorn corals: effects of artificial stabilization and mechanical damages. Coral reefs 22(3): 217223. Lively CM, Johnson SG (1994). Brooding and the evolution of parthenogenesis: strategy models and evidence from aquatic invertebrates. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 256(1345): 89-95. Lodeiros C, Garcia N (2004). The use of sea urchins to control fouling during suspended culture of bivalves. Aquaculture 231(1): 293-298. Loh TL, Tanzil JTI, Chou LM (2006). Preliminary study of community development and scleractinian recruitment on fibreglass artificial reef units in the sedimented waters of Singapore. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 16(1): 61-76. Marshall PA, Baird AH (2000). Bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef: differential susceptibilities among taxa. Coral reefs 19(2): 155-163. Marubini F, Barnett H, Langdon C, Atkinson MJ (2001). Dependence of calcification on light and carbonate ion concentration for the hermatypic coral Porites compressa. Marine Ecology Progress Series 220: 153-162. Mattson JS, DeFoor JA (1985) National resource damages: Restituition as a mechanism to slow destruction of Floridaʼs Natural resources. Journal of Land Use Environment Law 1(3): 295-319. McCook LJ, Jompa J, Diaz-Pulido G (2001). Competition between corals and algae on coral reefs: a review of evidence and mechanisms. Coral Reefs 19: 400-417. McFarlane IS (1970). Control of the preparatory feeding behaviour in the sea anemone Taelia felina. Journal of Experimental Biology 53: 211-220. McKay JK, Christian CE, Harrison S, Rice KJ (2005). ʻʻHow local is local?ʼʼ - A review of practical and conceptual issues in the genetics of restoration. Restoration Ecology 13: 432–440. Morse ANC, Iwao K, Baba M, Shimoike K, Hayashibara T, Omori M (1996). An ancient chemosensory mechanism brings new life to coral reefs. The Biological Bulletin 191: 149-154. Morse DE, Hooker N (1979). Induction of larval abalone settling and metamorphosis by γ-aminobutyric acid and its congeners from crustose red algae: II: Applications to cultivation, seed-production and bioassays; principal causes of mortality and interference. Proceedings of the World Mariculture Society 10: 81-91. Muscatine L, Porter JW (1977). Reef corals: mutualistic symbioses adapted to nutrient-poor environments. Bioscience 27: 454–460. Nakamura R, Ando W, Yamamoto H, Kitano M, Sato A, Nakamura M, Kayanne H, Omori H (2011). Corals mass-cultured from eggs and transplanted as juveniles to their native, remote coral reef. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 436: 161–168. 162 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Nakamura T, Van Woesik R, Yamasaki H (2005). Photoinhibition of photosynthesis is reduced by water flow in the reef-building coral Acropora digitifera. Marine Ecology Progress series 301: 109-118. Nakamura R, Ando W, Yamamoto H, Kitano M, Sato A, Nakamura M, Omori M (2011). Corals mass-cultured from eggs and transplanted as juveniles to their native, remote coral reef. Marine Ecology Progress Series 436: 161-168. Ng CSL, Ng SZ, Chou LM (2012). Does an ex situ nursery facilitate reef restoration in Singaporeʼs waters?. In: Tan KS (ed) Contributions to Marine Science. National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore. Pp. 95-100. Ng CSL, Toh TC, Toh KB, Guest J, Chou LM (2013). Dietary habits of grazers influence their suitability as biological controls of fouling macroalgae in ex situ mariculture. Aquaculture Research. DOI: 10.1111/are12128. Nicotri ME (1980). Factors involved in herbivore food preference. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 42: 13–26. Nozawa Y, Harrison PL (2005). Temporal settlement patterns of larvae of the broadcast spawning reef coral Favites chinensis and the broadcast spawning and brooding reef coral Goniastrea aspera from Okinawa, Japan. Coral Reefs 24(2): 274-282. Nyström M, Folke C (2001). Spatial resilience of coral reefs. Ecosystems 4(5): 406417. Okamoto M, Nojima S, Furushima Y, Nojima H (2005). Evaluation of coral bleaching condition in situ using an underwater pulse amplitude modulated fluorometer. Fisheries Science 71: 847–854. Oliver J, Babcock R (1992). Aspects of the fertilization ecology of broadcast spawning corals: sperm dilution effects and in situ measurements of fertilization. The Biological Bulletin 183(3): 409-417. Omori M (2005). Success of mass culture of Acropora corals from egg to colony in open water. Coral Reefs 24: 563. Omori M, Iwao K, Tamura M (2008). Growth of transplanted Acropora tenuis years after egg culture. Coral Reefs 27(1): 165-165. Padilla DK (1985). Structural resistance of algae to herbivores. Marine Biology 90: 103-109. Pancer Z, Gershon H, Rinkevich B (1995). Coexistence and possible parasitism of somatic and germ cell lines in chimeras of the colonial urochordate Botryllus schlosseri. Biological Bulletin 189:106–112. Patterson MR, Sebens KP, Olson RR (1991). In situ measurements of flow effects on primary production and dark respiration in reef corals. Limnology and Oceanography 36(3): 936-948. Paul VJ, Nelson SG, Sanger HR (1990). Feeding preferences of adult and juvenile rabbitfish Siganus argenteus in relation to chemical defenses of tropical seaweeds. Marine Ecology Progress Series 60: 23-34. 163 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Penin L, Michonneau F, Baird AH, Connolly SR, Pratchett MS, Kayal MS, Adjeroud (2010). Early post-settlement mortality and the structure of coral assemblages. Marine Ecology Progress Series 408: 55-64. Penland L, Kloulechad J, Idip D, Woesik R (2004). Coral spawning in the western Pacific Ocean is related to solar insolation: evidence of multiple spawning events in Palau. Coral Reefs 23(1): 133-140. Petersen D, Carl M, Borneman E, Brittsan M, Hagedorn M, Laterveer M, Schick M (2008). Noahʼs Ark for the threatened Elkhorn coral Acropora palmata. Coral Reefs 27(3): 715-715. Petersen D, Wietheger A, Laterveer M (2008). Influence of different food sources on the initial development of sexual recruits of reefbuilding corals in aquaculture. Aquaculture 277(3): 174-178. Petersen D, Laterveer M, Van Bergen D, Hatta M, Hebbinghaus R, Janse M, Jones R, Richter U, Ziegler T, Visser G, Schuhmacher H (2006). The application of sexual coral recruits for the sustainable management of ex situ populations in public aquariums to promote coral reef conservation - SECORE Project. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 16(2): 167-179. Petersen D, Laterveer M, Schuhmacher H (2005). Spatial and temporal variation in larval settlement of reefbuilding corals in mariculture. Aquaculture 249: 317-327. Peterson CH, Renaud PE (1989). Analysis of feeding preference experiments. Oecologia 80: 82-86. Piniak GA (2002). Effects of symbiotic status, flow speed, and prey type on prey capture by the facultatively symbiotic temperate coral Oculina arbuscula. Marine Biology 141: 449-455. Poore AGB, Campbell AH, Coleman RA, Edgar GJ, Jormalainen V, Reynolds PL, Sotka EE, Stachowicz JJ, Taylor RB, Vanderklift MA, Duffy JE (2012). Global patterns in the impact of marine herbivores on benthic primary producers. Ecology Letters 15(8): 912-922. Rasher DB, Stout EP, Engel S, Kubanek J, Hay ME (2011). Macroalgal terpenes function as allelopathic agents against reef corals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108(43): 17726-17731. Raymundo LJ, Maypa AP (2004). Getting bigger faster: Mediation of size-specific mortality via fusion in juvenile coral transplants. Ecological Applications 14(1): 281295. Raymundo LJ, Maypa AP, Gomez ED, Cadiz P (2007). Can dynamite-blasted reefs recover? A novel, low-tech approach to stimulating natural recovery in fish and coral populations. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54: 1009-1019. Raymundo LJ, Work T, Bruckner A, Willis B (2008). A decision tree for describing coral lesions in the field. In: Raymundo LJ, Couch CS, Harvell CD (eds). A Coral Disease Handbook: Guidelines for Assessment, Monitoring and Management. Coral Reef Targeted Research & Capacity Building for Management Program, St. Lucia, Australia ii. Pp. 17-32. 164 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Richmond RH (1987a). Energetics, competency, and long-distance dispersal of planula larvae of the coral Pocillopora damicornis. Marine Biology, 93: 527-533. Richmond RH (1987b). Energetic relationships and biogeographical differences among fecundity, growth and reproduction in the reef coral Pocillopora damicornis. Bulletin of Marine Science 41(2): 594-604. Richmond RH, Jokiel PL (1984). Lunar periodicity in larva release in the reef coral Pocillopora damicornis at Enewetak and Hawaii. Bulletin of Marine Science 34(2): 280-287. Rinkevich B (1995). Restoration strategies for coral reefs damaged by recreational activities: the use of sexual and asexual recruits. Restoration Ecology 3(4): 241251. Rinkevich B (2005). Conservation of coral reefs through active restoration measures: recent approaches and last decade progress. Environmental Science & Technology 39(12): 4333-4342. Rinkevich B (2014). Rebuilding coral reefs: does active reef restoration lead to sustainable reefs?. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 7: 28-36. Rinkevich B, Weissman IL (1992). Chimeras vs. genetically homogeneous individuals: potential fitness costs and benefits. Oikos 63:119–124. Sammarco PW (1983). Effects of fish grazing and damselfish territoriality on coral reef algae. I. Algal community structure. Marine Ecology Progress Series 13: 1-14. Sammarco PW (1980). Diadema and its relationship to coral spat mortality: Grazing, competition, and biological disturbance. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 45(2): 245-272. Sato M (1985). Mortality and growth of juvenile coral Pocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus). Coral Reefs 4(1): 27-33. Schiebling R (1986). Increased macroalgal abundance following mass mortalities of sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) along the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. Oecologia 68: 186-198. Schopmeyer SA, Lirman D, Bartels E, Byrne J, Gilliam DS, Hunt J, Johnson ME, Larson EA, Maxwell K, Nedimyer K, Walter C (2012). In situ coral nurseries serve as genetic repositories for coral reef restoration after an extreme coldwater event. Restoration Ecology 20(6): 696-703. Schwarz JA, Krupp DA, Weis VM (1999). Late larval development and onset of symbiosis in the scleractinian coral Fungia scutaria. The Biological Bulletin 196(1): 70-79. Sebens KP, Witting J, Helmuth B (1997). Effects of water flow and branch spacing on particle capture by the reef coral Madracis mirabilis (Duchassaing and Michelotti). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 211: 1-28. Sebens KP, Vandersall KS, Savina LA, Graham KR (1996). Zooplankton capture by two scleractinian corals, Madracis mirabilis and Montastrea cavernosa, in a field enclosure. Marine Biology 127: 303-317. 165 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Shafir S, Abady S, Rinkevich B (2009). Improved sustainable maintenance for midwater coral nursery by the application of an anti-fouling agent. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 368: 124-128. Shafir S, Edwards A, Rinkevich B, Bongiorni L, Levy G, Shaish L (2010). Constructing and managing nurseries for asexual rearing of corals. In: Edwards AJ (ed). Reef Rehabilitation Manual. Coral Reef Targeted Research & Capacity Building for Management Program, St. Lucia, Australia. Pp 49-72. Shafir S, Van Rijn J, Rinkevich B (2006). Steps in the construction of underwater coral nursery, an essential component in reef restoration acts. Marine Biology 149(3): 679-687. Shafir, S., B. Rinkevich, 2008. Mariculture of coral colonies for the public aquarium sector. In: Leewis RJ, Janse M (eds). Advances in Coral Husbandry in Public Aquariums. Public Aquarium Husbandry Series, vol. 2. Burgersʼ Zoo, Arnhem, the Netherlands. Pp. 315-318. Shaish L, Levy G, Gomez E, Rinkevich B (2008). Fixed and suspended coral nurseries in the Philippines: establishing the first step in the “gardening concept” of reef restoration. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 358(1): 8697. Shaish L, Levy G, Katzir G, Rinkevich B (2010). Employing a highly fragmented, weedy coral species in reef restoration. Ecological Engineering 36(10): 1424-1432. Sharp KH, Ritchie KB, Schupp PJ, Ritson-Williams R, Paul VJ (2010). Bacterial acquisition in juveniles of several broadcast spawning coral species. PLoS ONE 5(5): e10898. Shearer TL, Porto I, Zubillaga AL (2009). Restoration of coral populations in light of genetic diversity estimates. Coral Reefs 28(3): 727-733. Shumway SE (1990). A review on the effects of algal blooms on shellfish and aquaculture. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 21(2): 65-104. Siebeck UE, Marshall NJ, Klüter A, Hoegh-Guldberg O (2006). Monitoring coral bleaching using a colour reference card. Coral Reefs 25: 453–460. Sleeman JC, Boggs GS, Radford BC, Kendrick GA (2005). Using agent‐based models to aid reef restoration: Enhancing coral cover and topographic complexity through the spatial arrangement of coral transplants. Restoration Ecology 13(4): 685-694. Smith JE, Shaw M, Edwards RA, Obura D, Pantos O, Sala E, Sandin SA, Smriga S, Hatay M, Rohwer FL (2006). Indirect effects of algae on coral: algae‐mediated, microbe‐induced coral mortality. Ecology letters 9(7): 835-845. Soong K, Chen T-A (2003). Coral transplantation: regeneration and growth of Acropora fragments in a nursery. Restoration Ecology 11(1): 62-71. Sorokin YI (1973). On the feeding of some scleractinian corals with bacteria and dissolved organic matter. Limnology and Oceanography 18(3): 380-385. Spielman D, Brook BW, Briscoe DA, Frankham R (2004). Does inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity decrease disease resistance? Conservation Genetics 5: 439– 448. 166 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Steinberg PD (1988). Effects of quantitative and qualitative variation in phenolic compounds on feeding in three species of marine invertebrate herbivores. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 120: 221-237. Steinberg PD, Paul VJ (1990). Fish feeding and chemical defenses of tropical brown algae in Western Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 58: 253-259. Steneck RS, Watling L (1982). Feeding capabilities and limitation of herbivorous molluscs: a functional group approach. Marine Biology 68: 299-319. Stoddart JA (1983). Asexual production of planulae in the coral Pocillopora damicornis. Marine Biology 76: 279–284. Tanner JE (1995). Competition between scleractinian corals and macroalgae: An experimental investigation of coral growth, survival and reproduction. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 190: 151-168. Tebben J, Tapiolas DM, Motti CA, Abrego D, Negri AP, Blackall LL, Steinberg PD, Harder T (2011). Induction of larval metamorphosis of the coral Acropora millepora by tetrabromopyrrole isolated from a Pseudoalteromonas bacterium. PloS one 6(4): e19082. Toh TC, Chou LM (2013). Aggregated settlement of Pocillopora damicornis planulae facilitates coral wound healing. Bulletin of Marine Science 89(2): 583-584. Toh TC, Guest J, Chou LM (2012) Coral larval rearing in Singapore: Observations on spawning timing, larval development and settlement of two common scleractinian coral species. In: Tan KS (ed.) Contributions to Marine Science. National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore. Pp 81-87 Toh TC, Ng CSL, Chou LM (2013a). Enhancing resilience of coral reefs through active restoration: Concepts and challenges. In: Proceedings of the The Asian Conference on Sustainability, Energy and the Environment 2013 pp. 528-545. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Guest J, Chou LM (2013b). Grazers improve the health of scleractinian coral juveniles in ex situ mariculture. Aquaculture 414-415: 288-293. Toh TC, Peh JWK, Chou LM (2013c). Early onset of zooplanktivory in equatorial reef coral recruits. Marine Biodiversity 43(3): 177-178. Toh TC, Peh JWK, Chou LM (2013d). Heterotrophy in recruits of the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis. Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology 46(5): 313-320. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Toh KB, Peh JWK, Chou LM (2013e). Augmenting the posttransplantation growth and survivorship of juvenile scleractinian corals via nutritional enhancement. PLoSONE 9(6): e98529 Tomaiuolo M, Hansen TF, Levitan DR (2007). A theoretical investigation of sympatric evolution of temporal reproductive isolation as illustrated by marine broadcast spawners. Evolution 61(11): 2584-2595. Treignier C, Grover R, Tolosa I, Ferrier-Pagès C (2008). Effect of light and feeding on the fatty acid and sterol composition of zooxanthellae and host tissue isolated from 167 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. the scleractinian coral: Turbinaria reniformis. Limnology and Oceanography. 53: 2702–2710. Tribollet A, Golubic S (2011). Reef bioerosion: agents and processes. In: Dubinsky Z, Stambler N (eds). Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition. Springer, Netherlands. Pp. 435-449. Tsuchiya M, Nishihira M, Poung-in S, Choohabandit S (2009). Feeding behavior of the urchin-eating urchin Salmacis sphaeroides. Galaxea JCRS 11: 149-153. Underwood AJ, Clarke KR (2005). Solving some statistical problems in analyses of experiments on choices of food and on associations with habitat. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 318: 227-237. Vadas RL (1977). Preferential feeding: an optimization strategy in sea urchins. Ecological Monographs 47: 337-371. Van Moorsel GWNM (1985). Disturbance and growth of juvenile corals (Agaricia humilis and Agaricia agaricites, Scleractinia) in natural habitats on the reef of Curacao. Marine Ecology Progress Series 24: 99-112. Van Oppen MJH, Gates RD (2006). Conservation genetics and the resilience of reefbuilding corals. Molecular Ecology 15: 3863–3883. Venera-Ponton DE, Diaz-Pulido G, McCook LJ, Rangel-Campo A (2011). Macroalgae reduce growth of juvenile corals but protect them from parrotfish damage. Marine Ecology Progress Series 421: 109-115. Venkatesan V (2010). Marine ornamental molluscs. In: National Training Programme on Marine Ornamental Fish Culture, Mandapam CMFRI. Pp. 27-32. Vermeij MJ, Sandin SA (2008). Density-dependent settlement and mortality structure the earliest life phases of a coral population. Ecology 89(7): 1994-2004. Vermeij MJA, Smith JE, Smith CM, Thurber RV, Sandin SA (2009). Survival and settlement success of coral planulae: independent and synergistic effects of macroalgae and microbes. Oecologia 159(2): 325-336. Veron JEN (2000). Corals of the World. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland. Vicentuan KC , Guest JR, Baria MVB, Cabaitan PC, Dizon RM, Villanueva RD, Aliño PM, Gomez ED, Edwards AJ, Heyward AJ (2008). Multi-species spawning of corals in north-western Philippines. Coral Reefs 27 (1): 83. Viera MP, Goméz Pinchetti JL, Courtois de Vicose G, Bilbao A, Suárez S, Harouna RJ, Izquierdo MS (2005). Suitability of three red macroalgae as a feed for the abalone Haliotis tuberculata coccinea Reeve. Aquaculture 248: 75-82. Villanueva RD, Baria MVB, dela Cruz DW (2012). Growth and survivorship of juvenile corals outplanted to degraded reef areas in Bolinao-Anda Reef Complex, Philippines. Marine Biology Research 8(9): 877-884. Villanueva RD, Edwards AJ, Bell JD (2010). Enhancement of grazing gastropod populations as a coral reef restoration tool: predation effects and related applied implications. Restoration Ecology 18(6): 803-809. 168 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Villanueva RD, Yap HT, Montaño MNE (2005). Survivorship of coral juveniles in a fish farm environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(5): 580-589. Wabnitz C, Taylor M, Green E, Razak T (2003). From ocean to aquarium - the global trade in marine ornamental species. World Conservation Monitoring Centre. World Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK. 64 pp. Wallace CC (1985). Reproduction, recruitment and fragmentation in nine sympatric species of the coral genus Acropora. Marine Biology 88: 21–233. Ward S (1992). Evidence for broadcast spawning as well as brooding in the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis. Marine Biology 112(4): 641-646. Williams RB (1972). Chemical control of feeding behaviour in the sea anemone Diadumene luciae (Verrill). Comparative Biochemistry Physiology 41A: 361-371. Wood R (1993). Nutrients, predation and the history of reef-building. Palaios: 526543. Yap HT, Alino PM, Gomez ED (1992). Trends in growth and mortality of three coral species (Anthozoa: Scleractinia), including effects of transplantation. Marine Ecology Progress Series 83: 91–101. Yap HT, Alvarez RM, Custodio III HM, Dizon RM (1998). Physiological and ecological aspects of coral transplantation. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 229: 69–84. Yap HT, Gomez ED (1985). Growth of Acropora pulchra. III. Preliminary observations on the effects of transplantation and sediment on the growth and survival of transplants. Marine Biology 87: 203–209. 169 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. APPENDICES Appendix A: Supplementary data Table S5.1. Detailed cost estimates of producing 288 plugs with live Pocillopora damicornis juveniles under four ex situ feeding regimes (0, 600, 1800, 3600 nauplii/L) for 24 weeks, followed by the transplantation of 128 coral plugs and subsequent monitoring for 24 weeks. Personnel involved in the study corresponded to skill levels and in Edwards et al. (2010), adopting local hiring rates in the National University of Singapore (NUS). The costs for SCUBA gear hire, air tank and boat were estimated based on local commercial rates. The monthly rental rate for aquaria facilities (18 m ) in the Tropical Marine Science Insitute, St Johns Island was US$22.35/m . Mean survival rates across the treatments were used for the calculation of cost effectiveness at the end of each phase. All published rates are correct as of September 2013, and all costs were estimated in Singapore Dollars (S$) prior to conversion to US$ at the rate of S$ 1.26 = US$ 1. * One skill level and one level personnel were involved in this activity. 170 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Appendix B: List of manuscripts published from this dissertation Ng CSL*, Toh TC*, Toh KB, Guest JR, Chou LM (2013). Dietary habits of grazers influence their suitability as biological controls of fouling macroalgae in ex situ mariculture. Aquaculture Research DOI: 10.1111/are12128. * These authors contributed equally to this work Toh TC, Ng CSL, Chou LM (In preparation for submission to Ocean and Coastal Management). Coral Reef Restoration: Framework for assessment, management and evaluation. Toh TC, Baria MVB, Guest JR, Gomez ED, Edwards AJ, Chou LM (In preparation for submission to Coral Reefs). Rearing sexually propagated Faviid corals for reef restoration. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Peh JWK, Toh KB, Chou LM (2014). Augmenting posttransplantation growth and survivorship of scleractinian coral juveniles via nutrition enhancement. PLoSONE 9(6): e98529. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Chou LM (2013a). Enhancing coral reef resilience through ecological restoration: Concepts and Challenges. In: Proceedings of The Asian Conference on Sustainability, Energy and the Environment 2013 pp. 528-545. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Guest JR, Chou LM (2013b). Grazers improve health of juvenile scleractinian corals in ex situ mariculture. Aquaculture 414-415: 288-293. Toh TC, Peh JWK and Chou LM (2013c). Early onset of zooplanktivory in equatorial reef coral recruits. Marine Biodiversity 43(3):177-178. Toh TC, Peh JWK, Chou LM (2013d). Heterotrophy in recruits of the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis. Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology 46(5): 313-320. Toh TC, Guest JR, Chou LM (2012). Coral larval rearing in Singapore: Observations on spawning timing, larval development and settlement of two common scleractinian coral species. In Tan (Ed.) 2012, Contributions to Marine Science, National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore. Pp. 81-87. 171 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Appendix C: Other manuscripts published within the candidature Chong KY, Chua AHM, Neo ML, Ng JJD, Yaakub SM, Toh TC, Wee KS, Yong D (2013). Impacts of Development on Biodiversity of Singapore. In Appleton (Ed.) Values in Sustainable Development. Routledge, New York, USA. Pp. 286-298. Chavanich S, Gomez ED, Chou LM, Goh BPL, Tan LT, Tun KPP, Toh TC, Cabaitan P, Guest JR, Omori M, Thongtham N, Chankong A, Viyakarn V, Zhu W (2014). Coral reef restoration techniques in the Western Pacific Region. UNESCO-IOC WESTPAC, Bangkok, Thailand. pp. Ng CSL, Toh TC, Toh KB, Tun KPP, Chou LM (2014). High density aggregations of cucumariids (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) on a Singapore sedimented reef. Marine Biodiversity DOI: 10.1007/s12526-0140228-1 Ng CSL, Toh TC, Chou LM (2013). Current status of reef restoration efforts in Singapore. In: Proceedings of The Asian Conference on Sustainability, Energy and the Environment 2013 pp. 546-558. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Chou LM (In Prep). Economics of coral reef restoration. For: UNESCO/IOC WESTPAC, Bangkok, Thailand. Toh TC, Chou LM (2013). Aggregated settlement of Pocillopora damicornis planulae facilitates coral wound healing. Bulletin of Marine Science 89(2): 583-584. 172 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Appendix D: List of conferences attended within the candidature Toh TC, Ng CSL, Peh JWK, Toh KB, Chou LM (2014). Augmenting posttransplantation growth and survivorship of scleractinian coral juveniles via Nutrition Enhancement. 3rd Asia Pacific Coral Reef Symposium, Kenting, Taiwan. Toh TC, Chou LM (2014). Rearing sexually propagated corals for reef restoration: Challenges in marginal environments. Asian Conference on Sustainability, Energy and the Environment 2014, Osaka, Japan. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Toh KB, Guest JR, Chou LM (2014). Inclusion of biological controls of fouling macroalgae in ex situ coral mariculture. SingaporePhilippines Marine Science Symposium, Bohol, Philippines. Toh TC, Ng CSL, Chou LM (2013). Enhancing resilience of coral reefs through active restoration: Concepts and challenges. Asian Conference on Sustainability, Energy and the Environment 2013, Osaka, Japan. Toh TC, Chou LM (2013). Coral reef restoration: Framework for assessment, management and evaluation 9th International Conference on Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, Hiroshima, Japan Toh TC, Ng CSL, Chou LM (2012). Dietary habits of grazers influence fouling macroalgal communities in ex situ mariculture. 17th Biological Sciences Graduate Congress, Bangkok, Thailand. Toh TC, Guest JR, Chou LM (2012). The use of sexually propagated scleractinian coral larvae for reef restoration in a changing environment. 13th Frontier Science Symposium, Taipei, Taiwan Toh TC, Chou LM (2012). Coral reef restoration: Criteria for method selection and monitoring. Workshop on Marine Ecological Environment and Monitoring Techniques in the South China Sea, Xiamen, China. Toh TC, Maria MV, Guest JR, Chou LM (2012). Rearing sexually propagated massive corals for reef rehabilitation: feasibility and cost effectiveness. 12th International Coral Reef Symposium, Cairns, Australia. Toh TC, Maria MV, Guest JR, Chou LM (2011). Rearing sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration: Success and cost estimates. 16th Biological Sciences Graduate Congress, Singapore. Toh TC, Maria MV, Guest JR, Chou LM (2011). Rearing sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration: Success and cost estimates. Philippines Association of Marine Science Symposium, Tagaytay, Philippines. 173 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Toh TC, Guest JR, Chou LM (2010). Title of presentation: Optimization of ex situ scleractinian coral larval rearing techniques for coral reef rehabilitation. 15th Biological Sciences Graduate Congress, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Toh TC, Guest JR, Chou LM (2010). Optimization of ex situ scleractinian coral larval rearing techniques for coral reef rehabilitation. 2nd Asia Pacific Coral Reef Symposium, Phuket, Thailand. 174 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Appendix E: Press release PUBLIC RELEASE DATE: 4-Jun-2014 [ Print | E-mail ] Share [ Close Window ] Contact: Kayla Graham onepress@plos.org PLOS Feeding increases coral transplant survival Juvenile corals fed prior to transplantation to new reef more successful Feeding juvenile corals prior to transplantation into a new reef may increase their survival, according to a study published June 4, 2014 in the open-access journal PLOS ONE by Tai Chong Toh from the National University of Singapore and colleagues. The global decline of coral reefs and the loss of associated ecological services have necessitated immediate intervention measures to try to reverse their further deterioration. Scientists have attempted to recolonize damaged reefs by transplanting juvenile corals, but the survival of young corals on the reef remained low. To test if feeding juvenile corals in order to reach a larger size would improve posttransplantation survivorship, coral recruits were fed four groups different amounts of food (3600, 1800, 600 and nauplii/L) twice a week for 24 weeks in an ex situ nursery. The authors found that fed coral recruits grew significantly faster and larger in the lab than unfed corals. Juvenile corals supplied with the highest density of food (3600 nauplii/L) increased by more than 74 times their initial size. Once these coral were transplanted, the fed ones had significantly higher survival rates than unfed ones. The authors suggest that nutritional enhancement can augment coral growth and posttransplantation survival, and is an economically viable option that can be used to supplement existing coral transplant procedures and enhance reef restoration outcomes. Mr. Toh added, "The results have underlined the feasibility of feeding juvenile corals as a supplementary measure to enhance coral transplant survival on the reef, and this could be applied to both aquaculture and restoration efforts." IMAGE: Pocillopora damicornis juveniles in the (control), 600, 1800 and 3600 nauplii/L treatment groups (a, c, e, g) after the 24-week ex situ feeding regime, and (b, d, f, h) 24 weeks . Click here for more information. ### Citation: Toh TC, Ng CSL, Peh JWK, Toh KB, Chou LM (2014) Augmenting the PostTransplantation Growth and Survivorship of Juvenile Scleractinian Corals via Nutritional Enhancement. PLoS ONE 9(6): e98529. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098529 Financial Disclosure: Funding for the research was provided by Wildlife Reserves Singapore Conservation Fund awarded to TCT. TCT was supported by the National University of Singapore Research Scholarship and the SingHaiyi Scholarship. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing Interest Statement: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. PLEASE LINK TO THE SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE IN ONLINE VERSIONS OF YOUR REPORT (URL goes 175 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. Appendix F: List of awards and funding secured within the candidature August 2014 - NUS Department of Biological Science Best Graduate Researcher Award. June 2014 - 3rd Asia Pacific Coral Reef Symposium 2nd Prize for Best Student Oral Presentation Competetion. February 2014 - 3rd Asia Pacific Coral Reef Symposium travel bursary (valued at USD$1000). January 2014 - 3rd Asia Pacific Coral Reef Symposium student award (valued at USD$250). April 2012 to December 2013 - Wildlife Reserves Singapore Conservation Fund (valued at S$26 888). Research project title: Effects of feeding on coral post-transplantation survivorship. December 2013 - NUS Department of Biological Sciences SingHaiyi Scholarship. January 2013 - 9th International Conference on Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability Graduate Scholar Award (valued at USD$550) November 2012 - NUS Faculty of Science Outstanding Part-time Teaching Assistant Award. April 2012 - NUS Department of Biological Science Graduate Researcher Travel Award (valued at S$1000). December 2011 - 12th International Society for Reef Studies (ISRS) Student Award (valued at AUD$660). December 2011 - 16th Biological Sciences Graduate Congress 1st runner up for Best Oral Presentation January 2010 - NUS Research Scholarship. 176 [...]... to the reef in which fed corals had higher growth and survival rates than the unfed controls Taken together, this dissertation has provided key empirical evidence supporting the use of sexually propagated corals as source materials for transplantation to damaged reefs and has improved the feasibilty of this technique for reef restoration x Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals. .. 2010) 24 Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration 1.3 The need for further research in propagating sexually- derived scleractinian corals The ability to generate large amounts of genetically diverse propagules via sexual propagation has been instrumental in promoting its use as a source material for reef restoration The successful development of this technique... cost-effectiveness of this technique ix Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration One major impediment to the growth and survival of coral juveniles is the proliferation of fouling macroalgae By examining the dietary habits of two grazers: the sea urchin Salmacis sphaeroides and the gastropod Trochus maculatus, the results revealed that the feeding habits of the biological... 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration SUMMARY Increasing anthropogenic pressures coupled with global climate change have resulted in rapid degradation of coral reefs worldwide, necessitating the implementation of active measures to hasten the recovery process Amongst the techniques developed for reef restoration, recent advancement has explored the use of sexually. .. use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for transplantation to the reef, by capitalizing on the high fecundity of corals to produce large numbers of genetically diverse propagules Hence, the main objectives of this study were to assess and improve the feasibility of using sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration In this dissertation, pragmatic approaches for the ex situ collection... by the high financial costs incurred due to the long culture time and the scientific expertise required Further investigations are therefore imperative to optimize the methods required for the culture of sexually- propagated corals and to improve postsettlement growth and survival This will improve the feasibility of adopting this technique for reef restoration 26 Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated. .. rehabilitative efforts in the long run (Shearer et al 2009) and can potentially depress the level of coral reef heterogeneity required to sustain a functional habitat (Nyström & Folke 2001) 32 Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration 1.5 Aims and objectives The main aim of this Ph.D dissertation research was to improve the feasibility of using sexually propagated scleractinian. .. juvenile coral mariculture 4 Determine the effects of nutritional enhancement on juvenile corals in ex situ mariculture and after transplantation to the reef 33 Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration 1.6 Thesis structure and overview of chapters Most of the chapters in this thesis have either been published or have been submitted for review: with Chapters 1, 4... nauplii/L) for 24 weeks, followed by the transplantation of 128 coral plugs and subsequent monitoring for 24 weeks xi Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration Table 5.2 Estimated cost per unit volumetric growth of the Pocillopora damicornis colonies after the ex situ feeding (24 weeks, n = 288) and transplantation phase (24 weeks, n = 128) xii Toh TC 2014 The use of. .. Energy and the Environment 2013 pp 528-545 2 Part of this chapter is currently in preparation for submission as Toh TC, Ng CSL, Chou LM Coral reef restoration: Conceptual framework for assessment, management and evaluation 18 Toh TC 2014 The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration resulted in an unprecedented worldwide decline of coral reefs and an overall depression of reef . AM Deleted: 53 Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. vii CHAPTER 3. TRANSPLANTING SEXUALLY PROPAGATED CORALS FOR REEF RESTORATION 57 3.1. INTRODUCTION. feasibilty of this technique for reef restoration. Toh TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. xi LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Timing of propagule. TC 2014. The use of sexually propagated scleractinian corals for reef restoration. i The corals have not given up, so neither should we” - Professor