© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing The Textile Institute is a unique organisation in textiles, clothing and footwear. Incorporated in England by a Royal Charter granted in 1925, the Institute has individual and corporate members in over 90 countries. The aim of the Institute is to facilitate learning, recognise achievement, reward excellence and disseminate information within the global textiles, clothing and footwear industries. Historically, The Textile Institute has published books of interest to its members and the textile industry. To maintain this policy, the Institute has entered into partnership with Woodhead Publishing Limited to ensure that Institute members and the textile industry continue to have access to high calibre titles on textile science and technology. Most Woodhead titles on textiles are now published in collaboration with The Textile Institute. Through this arrangement, the Institute provides an Editorial Board which advises Woodhead on appropriate titles for future publication and suggests possible editors and authors for these books. Each book published under this arrangement carries the Institute’s logo. Woodhead books published in collaboration with The Textile Institute are offered to Textile Institute members at a substantial discount. These books, together with those published by The Textile Institute that are still in print, are offered on the Woodhead website at: www.woodheadpublishing.com. Textile Institute books still in print are also available directly from the Institute’s website at: www.textileinstitutebooks.com. A list of Woodhead books on textile science and technology, most of which have been published in collaboration with The Textile Institute, can be found towards the end of the contents pages. © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles: Number 132 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles Edited by Patricia A. Annis Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited in association with The Textile Institute Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com www.woodheadpublishingonline.com Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com First published 2012, Woodhead Publishing Limited © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012. 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Library of Congress Control Number: 2012942047 ISBN 978-0-85709-087-4 (print) ISBN 978-0-85709-764-4 (online) ISSN 2042-0803 Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles (print) ISSN 2042-0811 Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles (online) The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. Typeset by Ann Buchan (Typesetters), Middlesex, UK Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, UK v © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Contents Contributor contact details xi Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles xiii Introduction xxi Part I Aspects of textile durability 1 The influence of fabric construction and fibre type on textile durability: woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics 3 D. PETRULIS, Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Woven, knitted and nonwoven fabric structures 4 1.3 Fibre and yarn properties that affect fabric durability 9 1.4 Durability of woven, knitted and nonwoven fabric structures 14 1.5 Durability of technical textiles: medical and breathable textiles 22 1.6 Future trends 24 1.7 Sources of further information and advice 26 1.8 Acknowledgement 26 1.9 References 26 2 Strength properties of fabrics: understanding, testing and enhancing fabric strength 31 J. N. CHAKRABORTY, National Institute of Technology, India 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Principles of fabric strength and its influence on durability 34 2.3 Methods for testing fabric strength 40 vi Contents © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 2.4 Factors affecting fabric strength 45 2.5 Approaches to enhance fabric strength 50 2.6 Examples of durable textiles 53 2.7 Future trends 55 2.8 Sources of further information and advice 56 2.9 References 56 3 Dimensional stability of fabrics: resistance to shrinkage and other dimensional changes 59 S. F. NG,C.L.HUI and C. IP, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Types of shrinkage 60 3.3 Treatments to maximise dimensional stability in fabrics 62 3.4 Case study: minimising shrinkage in knitted fabrics 65 3.5 Future trends 68 3.6 References 68 4 Durable press treatments to improve the durability and wrinkle resistance of cotton and other fabrics 70 W. XU and X. WANG, Wuhan Textile University, China 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 Development of durable press reagents 72 4.3 Properties affected by durable press treatments and other methods to improve durability 75 4.4 Recent developments and future trends 78 4.5 References 79 5 Colour fastness 82 J. VALLDEPERAS-MORELL and F. CARRILLO-NAVARRETE, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain 5.1 Introduction 82 5.2 Principles of colour fastness 83 5.3 Colour fastness and dye–fibre system mechanism 87 5.4 Testing colour fastness 91 5.5 Applications and examples of colour fastness tests 95 5.6 Future trends 100 5.7 Sources of further information and advice 101 5.8 References 102 Contents vii © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 6 Effects of light exposure on textile durability 104 V. R UBEZIENE, S. VARNAITE, J. BALTUSNIKAITE and I. PADLECKIENE, SRI Center for Physical Sciences and Technology Textile Institute, Lithuania 6.1 Introduction 104 6.2 The influence of sunlight on natural fibres 105 6.3 The influence of sunlight on synthetic and high performance textiles 108 6.4 The process of photochemical destruction of textile materials 112 6.5 Assessing the durability of textiles to light exposure 115 6.6 Methods for improving the durability of textiles exposed to light 117 6.7 Future trends 121 6.8 References 121 7 Testing textile durability 126 M. BIDE, University of Rhode Island, USA 7.1 Introduction 126 7.2 Durability in textiles 127 7.3 Textile test methods 128 7.4 Testing strength and abrasion resistance 133 7.5 Testing for color loss in use 135 7.6 Testing the effects of laundering on fabric properties 137 7.7 Conclusions 141 7.8 References 141 Part II Durability of particular types of textiles 8 Durable antimicrobial textiles: types, finishes and applications 145 V. P. D HENDE, I. R. HARDIN and J. LOCKLIN, University of Georgia, USA 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 Microbial degradation of natural fibers 146 8.3 Microbial degradation of synthetic fibers 149 8.4 Antimicrobial treatments for textiles 151 viii Contents © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 8.5 Applications of antimicrobial finishes: the example of medical textiles 164 8.6 Future trends and conclusions 164 8.7 Sources of further information and advice 165 8.8 References 165 9 Durability of protective clothing 174 A. SHAW, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, USA 9.1 Introduction 174 9.2 Testing the durability of protective clothing 176 9.3 Other factors that can affect the durability of protective clothing 179 9.4 Future trends and conclusions 181 9.5 References 182 10 Durability of historic textiles 184 P. G ARSIDE, British Library, UK 10.1 Introduction 184 10.2 Main durability issues that affect historic textiles 185 10.3 Durability of different fibres and fabrics 188 10.4 Physical context, environment and storage conditions 192 10.5 Conservation of historic textiles 194 10.6 Case studies of historic textiles 195 10.7 Conclusion 200 10.8 References 201 11 Silk durability and degradation 205 N. LUXFORD, University College London, UK 11.1 Introduction 205 11.2 Key issues for silk durability 206 11.3 Deterioration of silk 210 11.4 Methods to improve the durability of silk 214 11.5 The impact of treatments to improve the durability of silk 219 11.6 Future trends 223 11.7 Sources of further information and advice 224 11.8 References 225 Contents ix © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 12 Durable geotextiles 233 H Y. JEON, Inha University, Republic of Korea 12.1 Introduction 233 12.2 Durability of nonwoven geotextiles in chemical and waste leachate solutions 234 12.3 Protection performance of nonwoven geotextiles in waste landfill 240 12.4 Weatherability of woven geotextiles for soft ground improvement 249 12.5 Durability of nonwoven geotextiles in simulated seawater solution 255 12.6 Conclusions 260 12.7 References 260 Index 263 [...]... (count) of the constituent yarns (warp and weft), the warp and weft sets and the weave These factors and the fabric manufacturing conditions (tension control parameters, etc.), taken together with other properties of the yarns, affect the parameters of grey fabric (i.e fabric in the loom state) construction These fabric construction parameters include cloth densities in the warp and weft directions, the. .. (Saville, 2000) The greater the breaking strength and the lower the bending stiffness of the fibres, the more likely they are to be pulled out of the fabric structure Hunter (2009b) believes that stronger and higher-elongation fibres generally lead to a greater degree of pilling Other studies deal with the interaction between types of polymer and the durability of textile fibres or yarns Thomson and Traill... structures and construction indices The properties of fibres and yarns and fabric construction indices that affect fabric durability are given Basic data and the most recent information on the durability of woven fabrics, knitted fabrics and nonwovens are provided At the end of this chapter, the durability of advanced examples of textile structures and the future trends of durable textile structures are... environment.1 The characteristics and performance of a textile are determined by its basic structural components, i.e fiber, yarn, fabric structure, finishing treatments, and the interaction of these components with each other Failure of one or more of these components will adversely affect the durability of a textile material The amount and degree of use are determined by the type of textile in question and. .. crimp of the warp and weft, various indices of cover factor, the fabric area density (mass per unit area) and the thickness of the cloth The sources for woven fabric construction are studies by Hearle et al (1969), Zurek and Kopias (1983), Hu (2004), Chen and Hearle (2010) and Vidal-Salle and Boisse (2010) The construction of knitted structures is characterised by the shape and size of loops, the linear... the linear density of the constituent yarns and the type of tricot structure The values of the loop width and height, the loop shape factor and other parameters, are used to analyse the loop geometry Other important indices of knitted fabric construction are the cover factor (tightness), stitch density (i.e wale density, course density and the total number of loops in a measured area of knitted fabric),... characteristic of many types of outdoor textiles and is a critical requirement for some protective fabrics Chapter 6 discusses the detrimental effects of light on textiles and how resistance to photo degradation can be improved Chapter 7 concludes Part I of the book with an overview of the many types of test methods used to measure and predict the durability of textile materials The durability of particular... eliminating the weakest direction and the extremely low resistance to deformation The isotropy of mechanical properties, especially of shear resistance, is the main quality of triaxial fabrics Asayesh and Jeddi (2010) studied the modelling of creep behaviour in plain woven fabrics The study focused on the use of the yarn creep property and the construction–mechanical parameters of the fabric Samples of different... in dimension, appearance and color Thus, understanding and improving textile durability is a complex endeavor The approach taken in this book is to discuss the durability of textile materials in two parts In Part I, the many aspects of textile science that contribute to textile durability are discussed Part II is devoted to case studies of the durability of particular types of textiles Test methods used... studied the flexural endurance of several fibres The results of the study are not strictly comparable since the stresses developed in the fibres vary with their diameter, but the superiority of wool and polyamide and the poor performance of cellulose acetate, casein and glass fibre are notable A study made by Hicks and Scroggie (1948) found that the abrasion resistance of yarns increased in the following . 2012 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 The Textile Institute and Woodhead Publishing The Textile Institute is a unique organisation in textiles, . found towards the end of the contents pages. © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012 Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles: Number 132 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles Edited. Alagirusamy and V. K. Kothari 132 Understanding and improving the durability of textiles Edited by P. A. Annis 133 Smart textiles for protection Edited by R. Chapman 134 Functional nanofibers and applications Edited