Tài liệu An Encyclopaedia of Language tài liệu, giáo án, bài giảng , luận văn, luận án, đồ án, bài tập lớn về tất cả các...
[...]... for many speakers of English, particularly in the south of England, an approximant [ɹ] The ‘y’ and ‘w’ sounds ([j] and [w]) in yes and wet can be analysed as approximants; they can also be analysed as vowels —see section 9 above, under Defining Vowels and Consonants This illustrates an important point: certainly in acoustic, but also to an extent in articulatory terms, the category of approximant overlaps... is called an EJECTIVE In many Northern and Scottish accents of English, an ejective realisation of word-final voiceless stops in certain contexts is not uncommon In many African and North American languages, ejectives are phonologically contrastive with plosive sounds If the larynx is lowered, rather than raised, the stop sound will be an IMPLOSIVE AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF LANGUAGE 11 The back of the tongue... of the ‘r’, ‘s’ and ‘t’ in the word first AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF LANGUAGE 9 (9) PALATAL The hard palate is one of the articulators; the other is normally the front of the tongue The ‘y’ of yes [j] can be described as a palatal approximant—equally it can be described as a vowel sound Many speakers use a palatal fricative [] for the ‘h’ at the beginning of Hugh In other languages, e.g French and Italian,... shape and size of the hard palate from a plaster cast A more detailed anatomical description of the organs of speech can be found in Hardcastle 1976 X-ray studies of the organs of speech of different individuals show quite clearly that there can be noticeable differences—in the size of the tongue, the soft palate and the hard palate, for example—yet regardless of genetic type, all physically normal human... larynx), the [dz] of bids and the [ṱ θ] of eighth (4) NASAL The air is directed into the nasal cavities as a result of the soft palate being lowered away from the back wall of the pharynx In addition, there must be a total obstruction at some point in the mouth Examples in English are the initial consonants [m] and [n] of man and net and the final consonant [ŋ] of hang (Some speakers of English have... French and Italian, other palatal manners of articulation can be found: cf the ‘gne’ [ɲ] of Boulogne and the ‘gl’ [ʎ] of figli (10) VELAR The soft palate (or velum) is one of the articulators The other is usually the back of the tongue Examples in English are the initial stop consonants [k] and [g] in catch and get and the nasal consonant [ŋ] in hang The pronunciation of the Scots word loch contains (at... PREASPIRATED Many speakers of Northern Scottish would postaspirate the [k] of cat and preaspirate the [t] The duration of this interval (VOT or VOICE ONSET TIME) is critical in certain circumstances for the perception of the phonological distinction of ‘voiced’ and ‘voiceless’ It should be emphasized that different languages (and even accents of the same language) may contain patterns of stop releases... nervous and muscular mechanisms of speech The term GENERAL PHONETICS refers to a set of principles and techniques for the description of speech that can be applied to any language; it should be distinguished from a more restricted type of phonetics concerned with those principles and techniques which are required for a phonetic statement of a specific language Hence, for example, the phonetics of English... is the arrangement within the mouth and pharynx of particular articulators: a constant forward setting of the tip and blade of the tongue and raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate will lend a certain ‘effeminate’ quality to a male speaker’s voice; raising and backing of the tongue so that the centre of gravity is higher and further back in the mouth is characteristic of many Northern... former has been termed a SYSTEMATIC transcription and the latter an IMPRESSIONISTIC transcription In most cases, impressionistic transcriptions will be allophonic, and phonemic transcriptions will be systematic Allophonic transcriptions, on the other hand, may be either systematic or impressionistic Any transcription used in the task of transcribing speech in an unknown language is by definition impressionistic: . PROVINCE OF LANGUAGE 10. Language and mind: psycholinguistics Jean Aitchison 186 11. Language in the brain: neurolinguistics Ruth Lesser 205 12. The breakdown of language: language pathology and. sociolinguistics, semantics and language contact, as well as in invented languages and the legends of non-human speech. Geoffrey Leech has been Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at. child language, and on the characterisation of language impairment. Until 1985 he was Associate Editor of the Journal of Child Language, and he has lectured widely in Britain and abroad on language acquisition