Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing Series Editor Professor D.T. Pham Intelligent Systems Laboratory WDA Centre of Enterprise in Manufacturing Engineering University of Wales Cardiff PO Box 688 Newport Road Cardiff CF2 3ET UK Other titles in this series Assembly Line Design B. Rekiek and A. Delchambre Advances in Design H.A. ElMaraghy and W.H. ElMaraghy (Eds.) Effective Resource Management in Manufacturing Systems: Optimization Algorithms in Production Planning M. Caramia and P. Dell ’Olmo Condition Monitoring and Control for Intelligent Manufacturing L. Wang and R.X. Gao (Eds.) Optimal Production Planning for PCB Assembly W. Ho and P. Ji Trends in Supply Chain Design and Management: Technologies and Methodologies H. Jung, F. F. Chen and B. Jeong (Eds.) Process Planning and Scheduling for Distributed Manufacturing L. Wang and W. Shen (Eds.) Collaborative Product Design and Manufacturing Methodologies and Applications W.D. Li, S.K. Ong, A.Y.C. Nee and C.s McMahon (Eds.) Decision Making in the Manufacturing Environment R. Venkata Rao Reverse Engineering: An Industrial Perspective V. Raja and K.J. Fernandes (Eds.) Frontiers in Computing Technologies for Manufacturing Applications Y. Shimizu, Z. Zhong and R. Batres Automated Nanohandling by Microrobots S. Fatikow A Distributed Coordination Approac h to Reconfigurable Pr ocess Control N.N. Chokshi and D.C. McFarlane ERP Systems and Organisational Change B. Grabot, A. Mayère and I. Bazet (Eds.) ANEMONA V. Botti and A. Giret Theory and Design of CNC Systems S H. Suh, S K. Kang, D H. Chung and I. Stroud Machining Dynamics K. Cheng Hoda A. ElMaraghy Editor Changeable and Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems 123 Hoda A. ElMaraghy, PhD, PEng, FSME, FCSME Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS) Center University of Windsor 204 Odette Building 401 Sunset Avenue W indsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4 Canada ISBN: 978-1-84882-066-1 e-ISBN: 978-1-84882-067-8 DOI 10.1007/978-1-84882-067-8 Springer Series in Advanced Manufacturing ISSN 1860-5168 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2008940430 © 2009 Springer-Verlag London Limited Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publish- ers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher makes no re presentation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. Cover design: eStudioCalamar S.L., Girona, Spain Printed on acid-free paper 987654321 springer.com Preface “The only thing we know about the future is that it will be different.” Peter Druc ker (1909–2005) Change has b ecome a constant in today’s manufacturing environment.While change is inevitable, it is important to take ad vantage of it and make it happen efficiently through good designs and by developing effective change enablers. The advantages of change ability are well known, and have been demonstrated by many examples as early as the invention of the movable ty pe printing machines. Globalization, unpredictable markets, increased products customization and the quest for competitive advantages are but a few of the many challenges facing man- ufacturing enterprises now and in the future. Frequent changes in products, pro- duction technologies and manufacturing systems are evident today along with their significant implementation cost. One key strategy for success is to satisfy the mar- ket need for products variations and customization, utilizing the new technologies, while reducing the resulting variations in their manufacturing and associated cost. This trend is on the rise in view of the paradigm shifts witnessed in manufacturing systems and their increased flexibility and responsiveness to cope with the evolution of both products and systems. A host of external and internal change drivers exist that affect the manufac- turing enterprises at various levels from strategic planning for re-positioning the business, down to the actual production facilities to achieve a high degree of adapt- ability. The drivers relate to business strategy modification, market volatility and products/production variations. The changing manufacturing environment, charac- terized b y aggressive competition on a global scale, scarce resour ces an d rap id changes in process technology, requires careful attention in order to prolong the life of manufacturing systems by making them easily adaptable and facilitating the integration of new technologies and new functions. Changes can most often be an- ticipated but some go beyond the design range. This requires providing innovative change enablers and adaptation mechanisms to achieve modularity, scalability and compatibility. Wh ile changes may not always be anticipated , the behavior of their enablers should be pre-planned for all scenarios to ensure cost effective adaptabil- ity. v vi Preface Changeability is defined as the characteristics to economically accomplish early and foresighted adjustments of the factory’s structures and processes on all levels, in response to change impulses. Several manufacturing systems paradigms have emerged as a result of these changes including agile, adaptable, flexible and reconfigurable manufacturing. The ability to cope with change is the common denominator among all these paradigms, each of which presents a set of technological solutions to enable changes to occur efficiently and profitably. Flexible manufacturing for example changes the system behavior without changing its configuration, while reconfigurable manufacturing would change the system behavior by changing its configuration. There are two types of change enablers: hard or physical enablers and soft or log- ical enablers. The “physical/hard” change enablers include the physical attributes that facilitate change. These characteristics ar e not only limited to the machinery but they also apply to the factories infrastructures, physical plant and buildings. Hardware changes also require major changes at the “logical/soft” enablers level, such as the software systems used to control individual machines, complete cells, and systems as well as to process plan individual operations and to plan and control the whole production. The logical enabling technologies extend beyond the factory walls to the strategic planning levels, logistics and supply chains. In addition, manu- facturing changes are not limited to the technical systems; they include the business organization and employees that should also be planned and managed effectively. The role of changeability enablers can be well illustrated, as mentioned, by the example of the invention of the movable type printing machine. In the early days, books were either copied out by hand on scrolls and paper or printed from hand- carved wooden blocks, each block is used to print a whole p age, a part of a page or even individual letters. This took a long time, and even a short book could take months to complete. The woodwork was extremely time-consuming, the carved let- ters or blocks were very fragile and the susceptibility of wood to ink gave such blocks a limited lifespan. Moreover, the same hand-carved letters did not look the same. Johannes Gutenberg (1397–1468) is generally credited with the invention of practical movable type. He made metal moulds, by the use of dies, into which h e could pour hot liquid metal, in order to produce separate letters having the same shape as those written by hand. These letters were consistent, more readable and more durable than wooden blocks. They could be arranged and re-arranged many times to create different pages from the same set o f letters. The Koreans (in 1234, over 200 years ahead of Gutenberg’s feat) and the Chinese (between 1041 to 1048) have independently invented movable type. However, it was not until Gutenberg in- troduced around 1450 the u se of the enabling printing press technology (used in his times by the wine industry) to press the arranged type letters against paper that this invention took off. The press enabled sharp impressions to be made on both sides of a sheet of paper and allowed many repetitions as well as letters re-use. Movable print is a perfect example of early applications of standardization, mod- ularity, compatibility, inter-changeability, scalability, flexibility and reconfigurabil- ity. Regardless of earlier introductions of the movable print, it was Gutenberg’scom- Preface vii bination of the printing press; movable type, paper and ink that helped the invention evolve into an in novative and practical process. By combining these elements into a production system, he made the rapid printing of written materials feasible, which lead to an information explosion in Renaissance Europe. The print invention is re- garded by many as the invention of the millennium, thanks to Gutenberg, who pro- vided the change ability and technological enablers to make it a success, which lead to mass printing practices that changed our world. In this book, the technological enablers of changeability are particularly empha- sized. Many important perspectives on change in manufacturing and its different facets are provided. The book presents the new concept of Changeability as an um- brella framework that encompasses many paradigms such as agility, adaptability, flexibility and reconfigurability, which are in turn enablers of change. It establishes the relationship among these paradigms and presents a hierarchical classification that puts them in context at all levels of a manufacturing enterprise. It provides the definitions and classification of key terms in this new field. The book places great emphasis on the required change enablers. It contains original contributions and re- sults from senior international experts, experienced practitioners and accomplished researchers in the field of manufacturing. It presents cutting edge technologies, the latest thinking and research results as well as futu re directions to help manufacturers stay competitive. In addition, most chapters contain either industrial applications or case studies to clearly demonstrate the applicability of these important concepts and their impact. The book is organized in 5 parts and 22 chapters by authors from Canada, Eu- rope, Japan and Asia. It offers balanced and comprehensive treatment of the subjects as well as in depth analysis of many related issues. Part I introduces manufacturing changeability, its definitions, characteristics, enabler s and strategies, presents mod- els and enablers for changing and evolving products and their systems, and discusses the concept of focused flexibility in production systems. Part II deals with the phys- ical technological change enablers for machine tools and robots configuration and re-configuration and control, including new unified dynamic and control models, and highlights the important, but less discussed, changeable and reconfigurable as- sembly systems. Part III focuses on the logical change enablers. It presents new unified dynamic and control models for reconfigurable robots as well as reconfig- urable control systems. It introduces novel methods for reconfiguring process plans, new perspectives on adaptive as well as change ready production and manufacturing planning and control systems, and models for capacity planning and its complexity. Part IV discusses the topic of managing and justifying change in manufacturing including the effect of changeability on the design of products and systems, the use and programming of CNC machin e tools, quality and maintenance strategies for reconfigurable and changeable manufacturing and the economic and strategic jus- tification of these systems. Part V sheds light on some important future directions such as the cognitive factory, the migration manufacturing new concept for automo- tive body production and an architectural view of changeable factory buildings. viii Preface The book will serve as a comprehensive reference in this subject for industrial professionals, managers, engineers, specialists, consultants, researchers and aca- demics in manufacturing, industrial and mechanical engineering; and general read- ers who are scientifically bent and interested to learn about the new and emerging manufacturing paradigms and their potential impact on the work p lace and future jobs. It can also be used as a primary or supplementary textbook for both post- graduate and senior under-graduate courses in Manufacturing Paradigms, Advanced Manufacturing Systems, Flexible/Reconfigurable Manufacturing, Integrated Manu- facturing, and Management o f Technology. I hope you will enjoy reading this book, and would like to leave you with a final thought best expressed by the following interesting quote: “I do not know whether it becomes better if it changes. But it must change if it should become better.” German Philosopher, Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (1742–1799) Windsor, Ontario, Canada Hoda A. ElMaraghy July 2008 Acknowledgments The contributions of all authors and their cooperation throughout the preparation of their m anuscripts have been instrumental in shaping this book and are sincerely acknowledged. The important work of many colleagues in the Working Group on Changeability of the International Academy of Production Engineering Research (CIRP), lead by Professor Hans-Peter Wiendahl, provided the inspiration and im- petus for this book. Several of these international experts have contributed valuable chapters in the book. The research support I received from the Canada Research Chairs program since 2002 has made it possible for me to conduct a comprehensive research program in the field of manufacturing systems. It enabled me to supervise and train many re- searchers including Post Doctoral fellows, Ph.D. candidates, Master’s students and research engineers, and disseminate the resulting research outcomes in the last six years in 100 referred journal and conference papers. Sample outputs of this research appear in 9 co-authored chapters in the book. Many insightful discussions, input and critique from members of my research group, too many to list here, have been very constructive, and for which I am grateful. The expert assistance of Miss Zaina Batal, the Administrative and Research As- sistant at the Intelligent Manufacturin g Systems (IMS) Center at th e University of Windsor, in the compilation, checking, verification and coordination of all contri- butions and helping me complete this project in a timely manner is greatly appreci- ated. Finally, the support and guidance of the Springer editorial staff, Mr. Anthony Doyle and Mr. Simon Rees, have been very useful throughout the book proposal and manuscript preparation stages. Windsor, Ontario, Canada Hoda A. ElMaraghy July 2008 ix Contents Part I Definitions and Strategies 1 Changeability – An Introduction H. ElMaraghy and H P. Wiendahl 3 1.1 Motivation 3 1.2 EvolutionofFactories 7 1.3 Deriving the Objects of Changeability 8 1.4 ElementsofChangeableManufacturing 10 1.5 FactoryLevels 11 1.6 Changeability Classes . . . 12 1.7 Changeability Objectives 13 1.7.1 ManufacturingLevel 14 1.7.2 AssemblyLevel 14 1.7.3 FactoryLevel 15 1.8 Changeability Enablers . . 15 1.8.1 ManufacturingLevel 16 1.8.2 AssemblyLevel 17 1.8.3 FactoryLevel 17 1.8.4 ReconfigurableProcessPlanningLevel 18 1.8.5 Production Planning and Control Level . . 19 1.9 Changeability Process . . . 19 1.10 Conclusion 22 References 23 2 Changing and Evolving Products and Systems – Models and Enablers H.A. ElMaraghy 25 2.1 Introduction and Motivation . . . 26 2.2 The Hierarchy of Parts and Products Variants . . . 27 2.3 Evolving and Dynamic Parts and Products Families . . . 32 xi [...]... Hannover, Germany H .A ElMaraghy (ed .), Changeable and Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems, © Springer 2009 3 4 H ElMaraghy and H. -P Wiendahl Several manufacturing systems paradigms have appeared as a result over the years in view of these drivers and against a back drop of volatility in market demands, changing customer’s preferences and need for more products differentiation and customization In addition,... Department of Mechanical Engineering ITS-Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia Zaeh, M.F., Prof Dr.-Ing Head Institute for Machine Tools and Industrial Management (iwb) Technical University of Munich Boltzmannstraße 15 85748 Garching, Germany xxix Part I Definitions and Strategies Chapter 1 Changeability – An Introduction H ElMaraghy1 and H. -P Wiendahl2 Abstract Manufacturing has been experiencing dynamically changing... performance measurement system has to be utilized in order to check the impact of the implemented changeability measures with respect to the output 10 H ElMaraghy and H. -P Wiendahl performance of the factory Typical performance indicators are delivery time, due date performance, turn around rate, inventory, days of supply and overhead cost 1.4 Elements of Changeable Manufacturing The challenge here is how... define the objects that have to be changeable and their appropriate degree of changeability Figure 1.4 summarizes the main steps to reach this goal (see also (Shi, 200 3) and (Dashchenko, 200 6)) The impulse for a change is triggered by change drivers, whose first category is the demand volatility measured by volume fluctuation over time Variety is the scope of the products’ variants, both in basic models as... changing environment that presents industrialists and academics with formidable challenges to adapt to these changes effectively and economically while maintaining a high level of responsiveness, agility and competitiveness Advances in manufacturing technologies, equipment, systems and organizational strategies are helping manufacturers meet these challenges The ability to change and effectively manage... to handle such a broad topic and apply it to the real production world From the introductory paragraphs, it became obvious that the scope of changeability has to be widened from the manufacturing system that makes various work pieces to encompass the whole factory that produces different products in various variants It should be noted that the terms “flexibility and reconfiguration” are generally specific... and the exploding number of product models and variants, also increase the complexity of production processes Therefore, the operation of global supply chains becomes a reality for an increasing number of manufacturing companies (Wiendahl, 200 6) This development leads to another fundamental change in the role of manufacturing; in the past, product development and order handling were regarded as primary... certain factory levels Therefore, changeability has been proposed as an umbrella concept that encompasses many aspects of change on many levels within the manufacturing enterprise (Wiendahl et al., 200 7) Changeability in this context is defined as the characteristics to accomplish early and foresighted adjustments of the factory’s structures and processes on all levels, due to change impulses, economically... the past, a steady production volume increase was observed after the release of a product, followed by quite long and stable periods then a ramp down At present, production volumes climb much faster to the first peak, then go down and reach a second peak after further promotion activities A face-lift of the product often 6 H ElMaraghy and H. -P Wiendahl follows shortly thereafter, and then a sudden reduction... General Manager Mori Seiki Co Ltd 362 Idono-cho Yamato-Koriyama City, Nara 639-1183, Japan Hedrick, R., MA.Sc Software Specialist, CAM Multi-Tasking MasterCam Canada Inc LaSalle, ON N9J 3H6 , Canada Herle, S., S l.Ing Lecturer Faculty of Automation and Computer Science Department of Automation Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania Ismail., M., M.Sc., MBA Ph.D Candidate Intelligent Manufacturing Systems . Systems and Organisational Change B. Grabot, A. Mayère and I. Bazet (Eds. ) ANEMONA V. Botti and A. Giret Theory and Design of CNC Systems S H. Suh, S K. Kang, D H. Chung and I. Stroud Machining Dynamics K Stroud Machining Dynamics K. Cheng Hoda A. ElMaraghy Editor Changeable and Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems 123 Hoda A. ElMaraghy, PhD, PEng, FSME, FCSME Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS) Center University. log- ical enablers. The “physical/hard” change enablers include the physical attributes that facilitate change. These characteristics ar e not only limited to the machinery but they also apply to the