Measuring and Managing Federal Financial Risk A National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report Measuring and Managing Federal Financial Risk Edited by Deborah Lucas The University of Chicago Press Chicago and London At the time this work was completed, Deborah Lucas was the Donald C Clark HSBC Professor of Consumer Finance at the Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University She is currently Associate Director for Financial Analysis at the Congressional Budget Office; on leave from the Sloan School of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where she is professor of finance; and a research associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 2010 by the National Bureau of Economic Research All rights reserved Published 2010 Printed in the United States of America 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 ISBN-13: 978-0-226-49658-0 (cloth) ISBN-10: 0-226-49658-9 (cloth) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Measuring and managing federal financial risk / edited by Deborah Lucas p cm — (National Bureau of Economic Research conference report) ISBN-13: 978-0-226-49658-0 (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-226-49658-9 (hardcover : alk paper) Financial risk—United States—Congresses Finance, Public—United States—Congresses I Lucas, Deborah II Series: National Bureau of Economic Research conference report HJ257.3.M43 2010 352.40973—dc22 2009034562 o The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences— Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992 National Bureau of Economic Research Officers John S Clarkeson, chairman Kathleen B Cooper, vice-chairman James M Poterba, president and chief executive officer Robert Mednick, treasurer Kelly Horak, controller and assistant corporate secretary Alterra Milone, corporate secretary Gerardine Johnson, assistant 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anyone after publication, any disputes about such matters, and how they were handled Publications of the NBER issued for informational purposes concerning the work of the Bureau, or issued to inform the public of the activities at the Bureau, including but not limited to the NBER Digest and Reporter, shall be consistent with the object stated in paragraph They shall contain a specific disclaimer noting that they have not passed through the review procedures required in this resolution The Executive Committee of the Board is charged with the review of all such publications from time to time NBER working papers and manuscripts distributed on the Bureau’s web site are not deemed to be publications for the purpose of this resolution, but they shall be consistent with the object stated in paragraph Working papers shall contain a specific disclaimer noting that they have not passed through the review procedures required in this resolution The NBER’s web site shall contain a similar disclaimer The President shall establish an internal review process to ensure that the working papers and the web site not contain policy recommendations, and shall report annually to the Board on this process and any concerns raised in connection with it Unless otherwise determined by the Board or exempted by the terms of paragraphs and 7, a copy of this resolution shall be printed in each NBER publication as described in paragraph above Contents Preface ix Introduction Deborah Lucas 1 Bringing Financial Literacy to Washington Peter R Fisher Measuring and Managing Federal Financial Risk: A View from the Hill Donald B Marron The Cost of Risk to the Government and Its Implications for Federal Budgeting Deborah Lucas and Marvin Phaup Comment: Henning Bohn Federal Financial Exposure to Natural Catastrophe Risk J David Cummins, Michael Suher, and George Zanjani Comment: Greg Niehaus Housing Policy, Mortgage Policy, and the Federal Housing Administration Dwight M Jaffee and John M Quigley Comment: Susan M Wachter 13 21 29 61 97 vii viii Contents Valuing Government Guarantees: Fannie and Freddie Revisited Deborah Lucas and Robert McDonald Comment: Alan J Marcus Guaranteed versus Direct Lending: The Case of Student Loans Deborah Lucas and Damien Moore Comment: Janice C Eberly Market Valuation of Accrued Social Security Benefits John Geanakoplos and Stephen P Zeldes Environment and Energy: Catastrophic Liabilities from Nuclear Power Plants Geoffrey Heal and Howard Kunreuther Comment: William Pizer Contributors Author Index Subject Index 131 163 213 235 261 263 267 Preface The papers and commentaries that appear in this volume were prepared for a conference held at the Kellogg School of Management in February 2007 The project was funded through the generous support of the Zell Center for Risk Research, and cosponsored by the Zell Center for Risk Research and the National Bureau of Economic Research The conference brought together a diverse group of academics and researchers in the areas of finance, economics, public policy, and accounting, and a distinguished group of federal policymakers and budget practitioners The aim of the project was to encourage new research directed at improving the measurement and management of federal financial costs and risks, and to foster discussion about the prospects for, and impediments to, integrating the tools of financial economics into federal accounting practices The discussion of these issues was greatly enhanced by the formal but unpublished presentations made by Tom Allen, Daniel Crippen, Douglas Elliott, Bill Hoagland, Howell Jackson, Katherine Schipper, and Kent Smetters Special thanks are due to Robert Korajczyk and Deborah Brauer for Zell Center support, to the staff of the finance department at Kellogg for help with the conference, and to the many people at the Congressional Budget Office who have shaped my understanding of these issues over the years Any opinions expressed in this volume are those of the respective authors and not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research or the Zell Center for Risk Research ix Environment and Energy: Catastrophic Liabilities 257 price: The status and role of insurance against natural disasters in the United States, ed H Kunreuther and R J Roth, Sr., 67–96 Washington, DC: J Henry Press Strauss, A 2005 Terrorism third party liability insurance for commercial aviation, Federal intervention in the wake of September 11 University of Pennsylvania, the Wharton School, Center for Risk Management and Decision Processes, June Swiss Re 2002 Terrorism—dealing with the new spectre Focus report, February Zurich: Swiss Re ——— 2009 Natural catastrophes and man-made disasters in 2008 Sigma no Zurich: Swiss Re Wald, M 2008 After 35-year lull, nuclear power may be in early stages of revival New York Times, October 24 Wharton Risk Center 2005 Insurability concepts and insurance programs for extreme events In TRIA and beyond: Terrorism risk financing in the US, 29–42 University of Pennsylvania, the Wharton School Williams, J., and C A King 2006 2006 annual hurricane study: Shake, rattle and roar Oldwick, NJ: A.M Best Company, Inc., June Comment William Pizer Key decisions in public policy often come down to efforts to weigh the costs and benefits of various alternatives In order for such efforts to be meaningful, it is important to include all major sources of costs and benefits— otherwise, what may appear to be a reasonable choice can turn out to be quite the opposite when a full accounting occurs The question would then seem to be, what are the key categories of costs and benefits? This could be the primary focus of Heal and Kunreuther, who turn their attention to a broad category of such costs and benefits—environmental assets and liabilities—in order to see if there are any lessons for current policymakers Their chapter breaks down into two parts: first, a review of environmental assets and accounting; and second, a review of environmental liabilities and insurance, with a particular emphasis on nuclear power Each part offers lessons for improving public policy decisions The first section reviews a number of examples where environmental assets have or have not been valued The Catskills provide significant value to New York City in terms of their ability to cleanse and stabilize the flow of water to New York Forests offer value in terms of sequestered carbon dioxide that otherwise contributes to global climate change Oil, gas, coal, and other mineral deposits have very clear market value Soil provides agricultural productivity And the climate system, to date, has provided relatively stable climate and weather patterns that have allowed regions to develop and William Pizer is a senior fellow at Resources for the Future 258 Geoffrey Heal and Howard Kunreuther specialize—such as Florida’s balmy weather or the Rockies’ extensive ski resorts Among these, only the Catskills watershed and mineral resources are examples where natural assets have been recognized, valued, and addressed by economic decisions Elsewhere, public policy has failed to value these assets with, over time, likely adverse economic consequences The second section shifts to liabilities Some, like the Superfund program and nuclear plant liabilities, are relatively well defined Others, like the costs of hurricanes and terrorist acts that are not privately insured, are much more opaque A variety of different approaches have evolved to deal with these liabilities, typically involving some notion of shared public-private risk, as they not satisfy the conditions for pure private insurability The nuclear liability program, designed to cover the costs of a nuclear accident and defined by the Price-Anderson Act, is characterized by about $10 billion in pooled private liability Yet, as the authors show, the potential liability may be ten to one hundred times that—liability that rests with the federal government Because of the nature of the private insurance, both its size and structure, Heal and Kunreuther argue that plant operators have insufficient incentive to pursue safer operations In particular, they advocate a system of third-party inspections coupled with insurance premiums linked to inspection results In this way, Heal and Kunreuther offer some very specific advice: account for environmental assets and design insurance schemes to properly incentivize behavior Consider public schemes when liabilities not satisfy conditions for insurability Yet while that advice could be the primary focus of the chapter, it is not The first line of the abstract states “[we] argue that the degradation of natural capital can lead to social risks which ultimately will end up to some degree as the responsibility of the Federal government.” A later statement drives home the point regarding Hurricane Katrina: “the public expects the Federal Government to step in and offer restitution in situations such as Katrina.” This is a very important point: while the government may or may not seek to take action to preserve natural assets, to avoid liabilities, or to develop explicit insurance programs, it will always have liability In this way, many public policy choices that may seem to be about action or inaction—for example, regarding climate change—are really about action now versus action later The same can be said for natural disaster risk, terrorism, or encouraging nuclear power The latter is a particularly interesting case, as nuclear power itself represents a fundamental risk-risk tradeoff—the risk of a nuclear accident versus the risk of climate change (which will be greatly increased without nuclear power) Here, we have choices both about how we will manage the nuclear risk and how we will balance it— through more or less effective public insurance subsidies—against climate change risk Climate change, thus viewed by Heal and Kunreuther, remains a cata- Environment and Energy: Catastrophic Liabilities 259 strophic risk born by the Federal government that should be met with both suitable mitigation and appropriate insurance tools The ambiguity of risk in this case—concerning both the likelihood and consequence of adverse events—is simply a reason private insurance against climate change will not arise However, there is another view about the ambiguity of risk in this case Recent work by Weitzman (2009), and consequent criticism by Nordhaus (2009), take the notion of catastrophic risk a step further—arguing that in extreme cases catastrophic risk can actually throw into question the entire apparatus of cost-benefit analysis Weitzman makes the point that conventional cost-benefit analysis relies on some notion that increasingly improbable and adverse events can, at some point, be neglected Otherwise, our analysis becomes dominated by efforts to estimate the likelihood and magnitude of increasingly rare and super-catastrophic events—efforts that are highly speculative and eventually somewhat meaningless Weitzman argues that this is precisely the case of global climate change, owing to the unprecedented level and rate of change in greenhouse gas concentrations, uncertainty about the potential of significant positive feedbacks, and no understanding of what a 10 or 20 degree temperature change really means Nordhaus, meanwhile, argues that we can and should our best to estimate the likelihood and consequence of various climate change outcomes and use that estimate to inform decisionmaking That is, he assumes the probability of increasingly rare events fades more rapidly than the consequences of those events expand Weitzman is trying to make an extreme point—that in the case of climate change, conventional cost-benefit analysis is overwhelmed by the catastrophic risk and it is unbounded, with the policy implication that we should virtually anything to contain that risk This reminds one of a high school debating tactic in the 1980s—the “nuclear option”—where each team would attempt to tie whatever side of an issue they were arguing against to an increased risk of nuclear war Such an outcome would be catastrophic, and therefore must be avoided But how does one know how much is enough? A weaker version of Weitzman’s point is one where the cost-benefit is overwhelmed by the catastrophic risk, but is not unbounded In Heal and Kunreuther’s analysis of a worst-case nuclear accident, for example, damages could be on the order of a $1 trillion (what they refer to as “almost unthinkable costs”) Such a risk might be enough to overwhelm the cost-benefit analysis of a $1 billion nuclear power plant, but it is not unbounded In some people’s minds, this is precisely the calculus—nuclear power is not worth it Others are okay with nuclear power, perhaps owing to an analyst’s calculations that put the expected value much lower, efforts to mitigate that risk through various measures, or a notion that this unknowable risk on the nuclear accident side has an equilibrating unknowable risk on the other side—perhaps the likely environmental consequences from climate change if nuclear power is off the table 260 Geoffrey Heal and Howard Kunreuther All of this should be a bit humbling, particularly as regards climate change but also more generally for cost-benefit analysis with ambiguous risk Cost-benefit analysis, and particularly analyses involving catastrophic risk, should not be viewed as a formulaic way to make decisions It is a valuable part of the decision process—maybe the most valuable part But, in the end, values and judgment play an extremely important role References Nordhaus, W D 2009 An analysis of the dismal theorem Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper no 1686 Yale University Weitzman, M L 2009 On modeling and interpreting the economics of catastrophic climate change Review of Economics and Statistics 91 (1): 1–19 Contributors Henning Bohn Department of Economics, NH 2127 University of California at Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, CA 93106 Geoffrey Heal Graduate School of Business 616 Uris Hall Columbia University New York, NY 10027 J David Cummins Temple University 617 Alter Hall 1801 Liacouras Walk Philadelphia, PA 19122 Dwight M Jaffee Haas School of Business University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720-1900 Janice C Eberly Department of Finance Kellogg School of Management Northwestern University 2001 Sheridan Road Evanston, IL 60208 Peter R Fisher BlackRock, Inc 40 East 52nd Street, 5th Floor New York, NY 10022 John Geanakoplos Economics Department 30 Hillhouse Avenue Yale University New Haven, CT 06520 Howard Kunreuther The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA 19104-6366 Deborah Lucas Kellogg Graduate School of Management Northwestern University 2001 Sheridan Road Evanston, IL 60208 Alan J Marcus Carroll School of Management Boston College Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 261 262 Contributors Donald B Marron 5108 Wilson Lane Bethesda, MD 20814 Robert McDonald Kellogg Graduate School of Management Northwestern University 2001 Sheridan Road Evanston, IL 60208 Damien Moore Congressional Budget Office Ford House Office Building, 4th Floor Second and D Streets, SW Washington, DC 20515-6925 Greg Niehaus Moore School of Business University of South Carolina Columbia, SC 29208 Marvin Phaup Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public Administration The George Washington University 805 21st Street, NW Washington, DC 20052 William Pizer Resources for the Future 1616 P Street, NW Washington, DC 20036 John M Quigley Department of Economics Evans Hall #3880 University of California Berkeley, CA 94720-3880 Michael Suher Department of Economics Box B Brown University Providence, RI 02912 Susan M Wachter The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA 19104-6366 George Zanjani J Mack Robinson College of Business Department of Risk Management and Insurance Georgia State University P.O Box 4036 Atlanta, GA 30302-4036 Stephen P Zeldes Graduate School of Business Columbia University 3022 Broadway New York, NY 10027-6902 Author Index Aaron, H J., 105 Abraham, J M., 129n4 An, X., 115 Arrow, K., 29, 31, 32 Barbier, E B., 236n2 Barr, M S., 128n2 Bazelon, C., 31n1 Bea, K., 64 Bell, F C., 224 Benzoni, L., 205, 222, 223n11 Biggs, A., 51 Blinder, A., 104n4 Blocker, A., 216, 217n2 Bohn, H., 35n3, 56, 57 Bohn, J., 135 Bostic, R., 115 Bourne, J K., Jr., 238n12 Bram, J., 66n8 Burdick, C A., 51 Burgess, G., 104n4 Carneiro, P., 205 Chite, R M., 70n11 Clark, K M., 75n18 Collin-Dufresne, P., 143, 205, 222, 223n11 Cox, J C., 223 Crosbie, P., 135 Cummins, J D., 65, 81 Debreu, G., 29, 31 De Fraja, G., 168n5 Dembeck, J., 65n4 Demsetz, R., 132 Diamond, P., 31, 52 Dlugolecki, A., 237n8 Dreze, J., 32 Dunham, W B., Jr., 65n4 Dynarksi, S., 168n5 Edlin, A S., 168n5 Emanuel, K., 238n9, 239n14 Fama, E F., 33 Feldman, R., 132n2 Fiegener, M., 66n7 Flannery, M., 104n4 Frame, W S., 133 Freeman, P., 243n22 French, K R., 33 Gahagan, K., 249, 249n34 Gale, W., 35, 168n5 Geanakoplos, J., 52, 215n1, 219, 219n4, 220, 220n5, 221, 221n7 Goldstein, R S., 143, 205, 222, 223n11 Goss, S., 219 Gramlich, E., 164 Green, R., 105n5, 125n1, 129n4 Hanushek, E A., 168n5 Hartwig, R., 62n2 Heal, G M., 236n2, 236n3, 237n6, 248, 248n31 263 264 Author Index Heaton, J., 33 Heckman, J J., 205 Hermalin, B., 104 Heyes, A., 247, 247n28 Hirshleifer, J., 31 Hogarth, R., 244, 244n24 Holtz-Eakins, D., 89 Hubbard, R G., 132n2 Moore, D., 180 Morck, R., 157 Morgan, D P., 114 Moss, D A., 61, 62n1, 63 Murphy, E., 111n11 Murray, J., 67, 70n11 Myers, S C., 157 Nordhaus, W D., 259 Jackson, H., 220n5 Jaffee, D., 101, 104, 115, 133 Jenkins, W O., Jr., 65 Jin, L., 157 Johnson, T., 236n1 Jorgenson, D W., 31 Kamihachi, J., 104n4 Kaplow, L., 35 Keane, M P., 168n5 King, C A., 246, 246n27 Klugman, S A., 80n27 Kotlikoff, W L J., 216, 217n2 Kunreuther, H., 61, 237n6, 238n13, 241n18, 243n22, 244, 244n24, 245n25, 247, 248, 248n31, 249n35, 251n41, 252n44, 255n45 Lachance, E M., 51 Lecomte, E., 249, 249n34 Leland, H E., 143 Lewis, C M., 81 Lind, R., 31, 32 Lindsay, B R., 70n11 Lintner, J., 32 Litan, R., 243n22, 245n26 Lochbuam, D., 240n15, 240n16, 247n28 Lott, N., 67n10 Lucas, D., 33, 37, 132, 135, 144, 145n8, 146, 149, 180, 223 Marcus, A., 145n8 McDonald, R., 132, 135, 144, 145n8, 146, 149 Merton, R C., 135, 144 Meszaros, J., 66n7 Metzenbaum, S., 252n44 Michel-Kerjan, E., 237n7, 241n18, 249n35, 255n45, 23813 Miller, L., 61 Miller, M H., 32, 34, 237n4 Miller, M L., 224 Mitchell, O., 51, 219 Modigliani, F., 32, 34 Orr, J., 66n8 Orszag, J M., 132 Orszag, P., 132 Panjer, H H., 80n27 Passmore, W., 104n4, 131, 132, 155 Pasterick, E., 248, 248n33 Pauly, M., 251n41 Pavlov, A., 129n4 Phaup, M., 37 Phillips, R D., 81 Piskorski, T., 113n12 Quigley, J M., 101, 103, 104, 106n7, 109n9, 113, 115, 119n16 Rapaport, C., 66n8 Roll, R., 33n2 Ross, S A., 216, 217n2, 223 Ross, T., 67n10 Roth, R J., Jr., 250n36 Rubenstein, M., 223 Saidenberg, M., 132 Sandmo, A., 32 Schmeidler, P., 252n44 Schultz, J., 219 Sediler, R S., 135 Shafir, E., 128n2 Shaked, I., 145n8 Sharpe, W F., 32, 135 Sherlund, S M., 104n4 Smetters, K., 31n1, 51 Stiglitz, J., 35, 132 Strahan, P., 132 Strauss, A., 250n38 Tchistyi, A., 113n12 Upton, C W., 237n4 Vandell, K D., 106n7 Author Index Wachter, S., 105n5, 125n1, 128n3, 129n4, 1294n Wade, A., 219 Wald, M., 241n17 Weicher, J., 115, 116 Weiss, A., 35 Weitzman, M L., 259 White, L J., 133 Williams, J., 246, 246n27 265 Willmot, G E., 80n27 Winters, P D., 90n33 Yeung, B., 157 Yu, W., 157 Zeldes, S P., 214n4, 215, 219, 220, 220n5, 221, 221n7, 223 Subject Index Agricultural disasters, 70 Airline Transportation Stabilization Board, 17 Applied Insurance Research (AIR) model, 74–77 California Earthquake Authority (CEA), 249–50 Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), 33, 33n2 Catastrophic liabilities, introduction, 235–36 Catastrophic risks, 4–5; data for, 66–74; estimated annual losses for, 85–89; Federal Government’s exposure to, 63–65; introduction to, 61–63; methodology for, 80–81; projected liabilities for, 85–89; results for, 81–85 Depletion, 11 Deposit insurance, 50–51, 131 Deposit obligations, 131 Derivative pricing, 45 Direct programs, 8–9 Disaster relief, 63–64 Disaster Relief Act (1950), 64 Disaster relief expenditures, 5; federal aid ratios, 71f; summary of, 72t; total federal spending for, 73f Disasters, sample of major, 68–69f Earthquake insurance, 249–50 Environmental liabilities, 238–39 Equity value, 135 Fannie Mae, 7, 102, 131; background, 133–35 Farm credit system, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) inversion method, 80–81 Federal Aviation Administration third-party liability insurance program, 250 Federal budgeting: for insurance programs, 39; for investments in private securities, 39; for loans and loan guarantees, 38; for risk, 40–43; rules of, Federal budgeting accounting, 37–40 Federal credit programs, 8–9 Federal Credit Reform Act (FCRA, 1990), 24, 26–27, 38 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) reform, 14 Federal Direct Loan Program, 8, 163 See also Federal Family Educational Loan (FFEL) Program; Student loans Federal Direct Student Loan (FDSL), 49 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 235 Federal Family Educational Loan (FFEL) Program, 8, 49, 163 See also Federal Direct Loan Program; Student loans Federal financial activities, measuring, Federal financial obligations, 2; rules for accounting for, Federal Government, financial statements of, 23 267 268 Subject Index Federal Home Loan Banks, Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 5, Federal Housing Administration (FHA) insurance and guarantee programs, 6–7; failures in contract innovation and in underwriting and, 116–17; Great Depression origins of, 104–6; longterm causes of declining market shares of, 107–8; postwar housing market and, 106–7; recent collapse of, 108–17 Federal housing policy, 5–6 Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA), 102 Financial literacy, 13–19 Financial management, 1–2 Financial risk: addressing, 24–26; as budgetary cost, 40–43; early debate on, 31–32; economic case for, 32–35; incomplete markets and, 35–37 Flood insurance, 248 Florida Hurricane Catastrophe Fund (FHCF), 249 Freddie Mac, 7, 102, 131; background, 133–35 Future generations, current market transactions and, 36 Ginnie Mae, 102 Government sponsored enterprises (GSEs), 1, 7, 102–4, 132 Guaranteed programs, 8–9 Guarantee value: calibration and results for, 145–52; modeling, 135–45 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation, 105 Housing: direct federal expenditures on, 98–99; federal policy for, 97–98; federal tax code and, 99–102; mortgage credit and, 102–4 Housing subsidies, Hurricane insurance, 248–49 Incomplete markets, 35–37 Investments, in private securities, 51–52 Loan guarantees, 46–48; budgeting for, 38 Loans, 46–48; budgeting for, 38 Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) Program, 100 Market incompleteness, 35–37 Market prices, 2–3, 43; use of, 3–4 Market risk, 34; approaches for incorporating, 43–45; cost of, Modigliani-Miller theorem, 34 Mutual Mortgage Insurance (MMI) program, 48–49, 105 National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), 248 National Housing Act (1934), 105 National Railroad Retirement Investment Trust (NRRIT), 39 National Student Loan Database System (NSLDS), 197–98 Natural capital, as asset, 236–38 Nuclear accident insurance, 241–42 Nuclear liabilities, 239–41 Nuclear power plant accidents, as insurable risk, 242–46 Nuclear power plants, 11 Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation (PBGC), 14, 15, 22–23, 50 Personal Annuitized Average Wages (PAAWs), 217; market value of accrued, 227–30; prices of, 221–25; quantity of outstanding, 225–27; translating accrued benefits into, 219–21 Predatory lending, 114–15 Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act (P-A Act), 10–11, 236, 241–42; as insurance program, 246–48; modifying, 248–54 Private securities, investments in, 51–52 Property Claims Services (PCS) data for catastrophic losses, 77–80 Public Housing Act (1937), Railroad Retirement Act, 39–40 Railroad retirement system, 39 Single-family insurance programs, 117–19; options for, 119–23 Small Business Administration (SBA) 7(a) loans, 49–50 Social Security benefits: introduction, 213– 17; market valuation and, 217–19 Social Security obligations, 9–10 Stafford Emergency Assistance Relief Act (1988), 5, 64 Stafford loans, 166–67 See also Student loans State prices, 29 Subject Index Student loans, 49; budget estimates for, 170–74; decomposition of guaranteed lender costs for, 195; estimating economic costs and cost differentials for, 174–81; estimating federal program costs for, 181–95; introduction, 163–65; overview of, 165–70 See also Federal Direct Loan Program; Federal Family Educational Loan (FFEL) Program Subprime lending, 111–14 269 Tax Reform Act (1986), 100 Terrorism insurance, 250–52 Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), 26 Veterans Administration (VA), 5–6, Veterans Administration (VA) insurance and guarantee programs, 6–7; Great Depression origins of, 104–6; longterm causes of declining market shares of, 107–8; postwar housing market and, 106–7; recent collapse of, 108–17 ... 10 ISBN-13: 97 8-0 -2 2 6-4 965 8-0 (cloth) ISBN-10: 0-2 2 6-4 965 8-9 (cloth) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Measuring and 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