JONES AND BARTLETT COMPUTER SCIENCE TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! RICHARD C. DETMER Middle Tennessee State University TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! Copyright © 2001 by Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. Cover Image © Stone/Peter Poulides Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Detmer, Richard C. Introduction to 80x86 Assembly Language and Computer Architecture / Richard Detmer. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-7637-1773-8 1. Computer architecture. 2. Assembler language (Computer program language) I. Title. QA76.9.A73 D48 2001 004.2’2—dc21 00-069028 All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or uti- lized in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. Senior Acquisitions Editor: Michael Stranz Development and Product Manager: Amy Rose Production Assistant: Tara McCormick Production Coordination: Trillium Project Management Composition: Northeast Compositors, Inc. Copyeditor: Sarah Corey Text Design: Dartmouth Publishing, Inc. Cover Design: Kristin Ohlin Printing and Binding: Courier Westford Cover printing: John Pow Company This book was typeset in Quark 4.1 on a Macintosh G4. The font families used were Serifa, Frutiger, and Courier. The first printing was printed on 50# Decision 94 Opaque. Printed in the United States of America 05 04 03 02 01 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 World Headquarters Jones and Bartlett Publishers 40 Tall Pine Drive Sudbury, MA 01776 978-443-5000 info@jbpub.com www.jbpub.com Jones and Bartlett Publishers Canada 2406 Nikanna Road Mississauga, ON L5C 2W6 CANADA Jones and Bartlett Publishers International Barb House, Barb Mews London W6 7PA UK TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! Dedicated to my mother, Emma Langenhop Detmer Baldwin Toombs and my uncle, Carl E. Langenhop both of whom encouraged me to become a scholar. TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! PREFACE A computer can be viewed from many different levels. Many people are interested only in using applications such as word processing or games. A computer programmer, how- ever, often sees the computer as an instrument to create new applications software. A high-level language programmer’s image of the computer is provided by the language compiler, which gives the impression that the computer stores object types like inte- ger, real, and array of char in named memory locations, calculates values of expres- sions, calls procedures, executes while loops, and so forth. However, an actual computer works at even lower levels. This book emphasizes the architectural level, that is, the level defined by the machine instructions that the processor can execute. Assembly-language instructions translate directly into machine- language instructions, so that when you write an assembly-language program, you gain an understanding of how the computer works at the machine-language level. Although this book emphasizes the assembly-language/machine-language level of computer operations, it also looks at other levels. For instance, it describes how high- level language concepts such as if statements are realized at the machine level. It dis- cusses some of the functions of the operating system. It briefly describes the logic gates that are used at the hardware level. It also looks at how assembly language is translated into machine language. To program effectively at any level, programmers must understand certain fun- damental principles at the machine level. These apply to most computer architectures. Introduction to 80x86 Assembly Language and Computer Architecture teaches these fundamental concepts: • memory addressing, CPU registers and their uses • representation of data in a computer in numeric formats and as character strings • instructions to operate on 2’s complement integers • instructions to operate on individual bits • instructions to handle strings of characters TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! • instructions for branching and looping • coding of procedures: transfer of control, parameter passing, local variables, and preserving the environment for the calling program The primary architecture covered is the Intel 80x86 CPU family used in many personal computers. However, almost every chapter includes information about other architectures, or about different computer levels. Programming in assembly language and studying related concepts in Introduction to 80x86 Assembly Language and Com- puter Architecture prepares the student to program effectively in any programming lan- guage, to pursue advanced studies in computer design and architecture, or to learn more about system details for specific computers. Text Organization and Content Much of the material in this book is based on my previous book, Fundamentals of Assembly Language Programming Using the IBM PC and Compatibles. While teaching this material through the years, I have increasingly come to the conclusion that an assembly language course is the best place to introduce computer architecture to most students. This book reflects a stronger emphasis on architecture than on programming. It also concentrates on general concepts as opposed to the details of a particular com- puter system. The minimal prerequisite for my assembly language class is a good understand- ing of a structured high-level language. Chapters 3 through 6 and Chapter 8 form the core of my one-semester course. I normally cover Chapters 1–8 thoroughly, Chapter 9 quickly, and then choose topics from Chapters 10–12 depending on time and resources available. For instance, I sometimes introduce floating-point operations via in-line assembly statements in a C++ program. Style and Pedagogy The text primarily teaches by example. A complete assembly-language program is pre- sented very early, in Chapter 3, and its components are carefully examined at a level that the student is able to understand. Subsequent chapters include many examples of assem- bly language code along with appropriate explanations of new or difficult concepts. The text uses numerous figures and examples. Many series of “before” and “after” examples are given for instructions. Examples are included that illustrate the use of a debugger. These examples give the student a stronger sense of what is happening inside the computer. Exercises appear at the end of each section. Short-answer exercises reinforce understanding of the material just covered, and programming exercises offer an opportu- nity to apply the material to assembly-language programs. vi Preface TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! Software Environment The “standard” 80x86 assembler is Microsoft’s Macro Assembler (MASM), version 6.11. Although this assembler can produce code for 32-bit flat memory model programming appropriate to a Windows 95, Windows NT, or other 32-bit Microsoft operating system environment, the linker and debugger that come with this software package are not suitable for use in such an environment. This book comes with a CD containing the assembler program from MASM (ML), a more recent Microsoft linker, the 32-bit full- screen debugger WinDbg (also from Microsoft), and necessary supporting files. This software package provides a good environment for producing and debugging console applications. The CD included with the book also contains a package designed to simplify input/output for the student, so that the emphasis remains on architecture rather than operating system details. This I/O package is used extensively through most of the book. Finally, the CD contains source code for each program that appears as a figure in the book. Instructor’s Support Supplementary materials for this book include an Instructor’s Guide that contains some teaching tips and solutions to many exercises. In addition, the author can be contacted at rdetmer@mtsu.edu with questions or comments. Acknowledgments I would like to thank my students who suffered through preliminary versions of this text, often getting materials that were duplicated “just in time.” These students were very good at catching errors. I also want to thank Hong Shi Yuan, who used a preliminary ver- sion of this text in his assembly language class and who offered valuable feedback. Many thanks to the following people who took the time to review the manu- script: Dennis Bouvier, University of Houston–Clear Lake; Barry Fagin, US Air Force Academy; Glynis Hamel, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; Dennis Fairclough, Utah Val- ley State College; Thomas Higginbotham, Southeastern Louisiana University; Clifford Nadler, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. My wife, Carol, deserves credit for her understanding during the many hours that I ignored her and word-processed at my computer. Richard C. Detmer Preface vii TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! CONTENTS Preface v Chapter 1 Representing Data in a Computer 1 1.1 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers 2 1.2 Character Codes 6 1.3 2’s Complement Representation for Signed Integers 9 1.4 Addition and Subtraction of 2’s Complement Numbers 15 1.5 Other Systems for Representing Numbers 21 Chapter Summary 25 Chapter 2 Parts of a Computer System 27 2.1 PC Hardware: Memory 28 2.2 PC Hardware: The CPU 30 2.3 PC Hardware: Input/Output Devices 36 2.4 PC Software 37 PC Software: The Operating System 37 PC Software: Text Editors 38 PC Software: Language Translators and the Linker 38 Chapter Summary 39 Chapter 3 Elements of Assembly Language 41 3.1 Assembly Language Statements 42 3.2 A Complete Example 45 3.3 How to Assemble, Link, and Run a Program 53 3.4 The Assembler Listing File 60 3.5 Constant Operands 68 3.6 Instruction Operands 73 TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! [...]... hexadecimal, and binary systems It is worthwhile to memorize this table or to be able to construct it very quickly You have seen above how to convert binary or hexadecimal numbers to decimal How can you convert numbers from decimal to hex? From decimal to binary? From binary to hex? From hex to binary? We’ll show how to do these conversions manually, but often the easiest way is to use a calculator that... going to the beginning of the new line To display a message and move to the beginning of a new line, it is necessary to send the message characters plus CR and LF characters to the screen or printer This may be annoying sometimes as you program in assembly language, but you will also have the option to not use CR and/ or LF when you want to leave the cursor on a line after prompting for input, or to piece... used to store signed integers in computers is that addition and subtraction operations can be easily and efficiently implemented in computer hardware This section discusses addition and subtraction of 2’s complement numbers and introduces the concepts of carry and overflow that will be needed later To add two 2’s complement numbers, simply add them as if they were unsigned binary numbers The 80x86 architecture. .. integers 1.4 how to write an assembly language program that directly controls execution of the computer s native instructions Addition and subtraction of 2’s complement numbers 1.5 puter hardware and software Chapter 3 illustrates Other systems for representing numbers TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! 2 Representing Data in a Computer 1.1 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers A computer uses... Committee of the IEEE Computer Society and approved by the IEEE Standards Board and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) It is one of the floating point formats used in Intel 80x86 processors First, 78.375 must be converted to binary In binary, the positions to the right of the binary point (it is not appropriate to say decimal point for the “.” in a binary number) correspond to negative powers... 301 9.1 Two-Pass and One-Pass Assembly 302 9.2 80x86 Instruction Coding 307 9.3 Macro Definition and Expansion 319 9.4 Conditional Assembly 326 9.5 Macros in IO.H 333 Chapter Summary 337 Chapter 10 Floating-Point Arithmetic 339 10.1 80x86 Floating-Point Architecture 340 10.2 Programming with Floating-Point Instructions 10.3 Floating-Point Emulation 374 10.4 Floating-Point and In-line Assembly 384 Chapter... number system is used with some computer systems Octal numbers are written using digits 0 through 7 Most calculators that do hex arithmetic also handle octal values It is easy to convert a binary number to octal by writing the octal equivalent for each group of three bits, or to convert from octal to binary by replacing each octal digit by three bits To convert from decimal to octal, one can use an algorithm... pressed When it is sent to an ASCII display, it causes the cursor to move to the beginning of the current line without going down to a new line When carriage return is sent to an ASCII printer (at least one of older design), it causes the print head to move to the beginning of the line The line feed code 0A16 causes an ASCII display to move the cursor straight down, or a printer to roll the paper up one... are just to make it more readable Note that the rightmost TEAM LinG - Live, Informative, Non-cost and Genuine! 3 4 Representing Data in a Computer hex digit 2 was converted to 0010, including leading zeros While it’s not necessary to convert the leading 3 to 0011, the conversion would have been correct since leading zeros do not change the value of a binary number To convert binary numbers to hexadecimal... binary number into groups of four bits, starting from the right, and substitute the corresponding hex digit for each group of four bits For example, 1011011101001101111 = 101 1011 1010 0110 1111 = 5BA6F You have seen how to convert a binary number to an equivalent decimal number However, instead of converting a long binary number directly to decimal, it is faster to convert it to hex, and then convert . These apply to most computer architectures. Introduction to 80x86 Assembly Language and Computer Architecture teaches these fundamental concepts: • memory addressing, CPU registers and their uses •. computer levels. Programming in assembly language and studying related concepts in Introduction to 80x86 Assembly Language and Com- puter Architecture prepares the student to program effectively in. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. Cover Image © Stone/Peter Poulides Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Detmer, Richard C. Introduction to 80x86 Assembly Language and Computer Architecture