FHSST Authors The Free High School Science Texts: Textbooks for High School Students Studying the Sciences Mathematics Grade 11 Version 0.5 September 9, 2010 ii iii Copyright 2007 “Free High School Science Texts” Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front- Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”. STOP!!!! Did you notice the FREEDOMS we’ve granted you? Our copyright license is different! 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Thousands of hours went into making them and they are a gift to everyone in the education community. iv v FHSST Core Team Mark Horner ; Samuel Halliday ; Sarah Blyth ; Rory Adams ; Spencer Wheaton FHSST Editors Jaynie Padayachee ; Joanne Boulle ; Diana Mulcahy ; Annette Nell ; Ren´e Toerien ; Donovan Whitfield FHSST Contributors Sarah Abel ; Dr. Rory Adams ; Andrea Africa ; Ben Anhalt ; Prashant Arora ; Raymond Barbour ; Richard Baxter ; Tara Beckerling ; Tim van Beek ; Jennifer de Beyer ; Dr. Sarah Blyth ; Sebastian Bodenstein ; Martin Bongers ; Stephan Brandt ; Craig Brown ; Graeme Broster ; Deanne de Bude ; Richard Case ; Fanny Cherblanc ; Dr. Christine Chung ; Brett Cocks ; Andrew Craig ; Tim Crombie ; Dan Crytser ; Dr. Anne Dabrowski ; Laura Daniels ; Sean Dobbs ; Esmi Dreyer ; Matthew Duddy ; Fernando Durrell ; Dr . Dan Dwyer ; Frans van Eeden ; Alex Ellis ; Tom Ellis ; Giovanni Franzoni ; Ingrid von Glehn ; Tamara von Glehn ; Lindsay Glese ne r ; Kevin Godby ; Dr. Vanessa Godfrey ; Dr. Johan Gonzalez ; Hemant Gopal ; Dr. S te ph a ni e Gould ; Umeshree Govender ; Heather Gray ; Lynn Greeff ; Dr. Tom Gutierrez ; Brooke H aa g ; Kate Hadley ; Dr. Sam Halliday ; Ashee na Hanuman ; Dr Melanie Dymond Harper ; Dr. Nicholas Harrison ; Nei l Hart ; Nicholas Hatcher ; Dr. William P. 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We intend to work with all who are willing to help make this a continuously evolving resource! www.fhsst.org vi Contents 1 Introduction to Book 1 1.1 The Language of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I Grade 11 3 2 Exponents - Grade 11 5 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2 Laws of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2.1 Exponential Law 7: a m n = n √ a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.3 Exponentials in the Real-World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.4 End of chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3 Surds - Grade 11 9 3.1 Surd Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.1.1 Surd Law 1: n √ a n √ b = n √ ab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.1.2 Surd Law 2: n a b = n √ a n √ b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.1.3 Surd Law 3: n √ a m = a m n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.1.4 Like and Unlike Surds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.1.5 Simplest Surd form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.1.6 Rationalising Denominators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.2 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4 Error Margins - Grade 11 15 5 Quadratic Sequences - Grade 11 19 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 5.2 What is a quadratic sequence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 5.3 End of chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 6 Finance - Grade 11 25 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6.2 Depreciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6.3 Simple Depreciation (it really is simple!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6.4 Compound Depreciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 6.5 Present Values or Future Values of an Investment or Loan . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 vii CONTENTS CONTENTS 6.5.1 Now or Later . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 6.6 Finding i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 6.7 Finding n - Trial and Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.8 Nominal and Effective Interest Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.8.1 The General Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 6.8.2 De-coding the Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 6.9 Formulae Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 6.9.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 6.9.2 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 6.10 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 7 Solving Quadratic Equations - Grade 11 41 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 7.2 Solution by Factorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 7.3 Solution by Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 7.4 Solution by the Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 7.5 Finding an equation when you know its roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7.6 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 8 Solving Quadratic Inequaliti es - Grade 11 55 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 8.2 Quadratic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 8.3 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 9 Solving Simul taneous Equations - Grade 11 61 9.1 Graphical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 9.2 Algebraic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 10 Mathematical Models - Grade 11 67 10.1 Real-World Applications: Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 10.2 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 11 Quadratic Functions and Graphs - Grade 11 75 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 11.2 Functions of the Form y = a(x + p) 2 + q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 11.2.1 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 11.2.2 Intercepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 11.2.3 Turning Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 11.2.4 Axes of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 11.2.5 Sketching Graphs of the Form f(x) = a(x + p) 2 + q . . . . . . . . . . . 79 11.2.6 Writing an equation of a shifted parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 11.3 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 viii CONTENTS CONTENTS 12 Hyperbolic Functions and Graphs - Grade 11 83 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 12.2 Functions of the Form y = a x+p + q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 12.2.1 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 12.2.2 Intercepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 12.2.3 Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 12.2.4 Sketching Graphs of the Form f(x) = a x+p + q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 12.3 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 13 Exponential Functions and G raphs - Grade 11 89 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 13.2 Functions of the Form y = ab (x+p) + q for b > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 13.2.1 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 13.2.2 Intercepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 13.2.3 Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 13.2.4 Sketching Graphs of the Form f(x) = ab (x+p) + q . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 13.3 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 14 Gradient at a Point - Grade 11 95 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 14.2 Average Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 14.3 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 15 Linear Programming - Grade 11 99 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 15.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 15.2.1 Decision Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 15.2.2 Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 15.2.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 15.2.4 Feasible Region and Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 15.2.5 The Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 15.3 Example of a Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 15.4 Method of Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 15.5 Skills you will need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 15.5.1 Writing Constraint Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 15.5.2 Writing the Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 15.5.3 Solving the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 15.6 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 16 Geometry - G rade 11 111 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 16.2 Right Pyramids, Right Cones and Sp h er es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 16.3 Similarity of Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 ix CONTENTS CONTENTS 16.4 Triangle Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.4.1 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.5 Co-ordinate Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 16.5.1 Equation of a Line between Two Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 16.5.2 Equation of a Line through One Point and Parallel or Perpendicular to Another Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 16.5.3 Inclination of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 16.6 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 16.6.1 Rotation of a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 16.6.2 Enlargement of a Polygon 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 17 Trigonometry - Grade 11 135 17.1 History of Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 17.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 17.2.1 Functions of the form y = sin(kθ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 17.2.2 Functions of the form y = cos(kθ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 17.2.3 Functions of the form y = tan(kθ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 17.2.4 Functions of the form y = sin(θ + p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 17.2.5 Functions of the form y = cos(θ + p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 17.2.6 Functions of the form y = tan(θ + p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 17.3 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 17.3.1 Deriving Values of Trigonometric Functions for 30 ◦ , 45 ◦ and 60 ◦ . . . . . 143 17.3.2 Alternate Definition for tan θ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 17.3.3 A Trigonometric Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 17.3.4 Reduction Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 17.4 Solving Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 17.4.1 Graphical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 17.4.2 Algebraic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 17.4.3 Solution using CAST diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 17.4.4 General Solution Using Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 17.4.5 Linear Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 17.4.6 Quadratic and Higher Order Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 161 17.4.7 More Complex Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 17.5 Sine and Cosine Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 17.5.1 The Sine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 17.5.2 The Cosine Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 17.5.3 The Area Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 17.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 18 Statistics - Grade 1 1 173 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 18.2 Standard Deviation and Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 18.2.1 Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 x [...]... There are also rules that explain how the numbers should be used together with the signs to make up equations that express some meaning 1 1.1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BOOK 2 Part I Grade 11 3 Chapter 2 Exponents - Grade 11 2.1 Introduction In Grade 10 we studied exponential numbers and learnt that there were six laws that made working with exponential numbers easier There is one law that we did not study... index-form with a prime base = 3 (24 x4 ) 4 Step 2 : Apply exponential laws 3 3 = 24× 4 x4× 4 = = 23 x3 8x3 6 CHAPTER 2 EXPONENTS - GRADE 11 2.3 Exercise: Applying laws Use all the laws to: 1 Simplify: 1 2 (a) (x0 ) + 5x0 − (0,25)−0,5 + 8 3 (c) 1 (b) s 2 ÷ s 3 7 12m 9 11 8m− 9 2 (d) (64m6 ) 3 2 Re-write the following expression as a power of x: x 2.3 x √ x x x Exponentials in the Real-World In Grade 10... the values that have of the square root sign = 2 62 × 3 under the surd to the outside √ √ 7 3+6 3 Step 3 : The exact same surds can be treated as ”like terms” and may be added = √ 13 3 11 3.1 3.1.6 CHAPTER 3 SURDS - GRADE 11 Rationalising Denominators It is useful to work with fractions, which have rational denominators instead of surd denominators It is possible to rewrite any fraction, which has a surd... 18÷ 72 √ 8 √ 16√ ( 20÷ 12) 3.2 CHAPTER 3 SURDS - GRADE 11 5 Expand and simplify: (2 + 6 Expand and simplify: (2 + 7 Expand and simplify: (1 + √ √ 2 2) 2)(1 + √ 8) √ √ √ 3)(1 + 8 + 3) 8 Rationalise the denominator: y−4 √ y−2 9 Rationalise the denominator: 2x − 20 √ √ y − 10 10 Prove (without the use of a calculator) that: 8 +5 3 5 − 3 13 1 = 6 2 2 3 11 Simplify, without use of a calculator: √ √ 98 − 8... expressions as much as possible before rounding-off answers This maintains the accuracy of your answer Worked Example 11: Simplification and Accuracy √ √ Question: Calculate 3 54 + 3 16 Write the answer to three decimal places Answer Step 1 : Simplify the expression 15 CHAPTER 4 ERROR MARGINS - GRADE 11 √ √ 3 3 54 + 16 = = = = √ √ 3 3 27 · 2 + 8 · 2 √ √ √ √ 3 3 3 3 27 · 2 + 8 · 2 √ √ 3 3 3 2+2 2 √ 3 5 2 Step... If it is necessary to approximate a number in the middle of a calculation, then it is often good enough to approximate to a few decimal places 17 CHAPTER 4 ERROR MARGINS - GRADE 11 18 Chapter 5 Quadratic Sequences - Grade 11 5.1 Introduction In Grade 10, you learned about arithmetic sequences, where the difference between consecutive terms was constant In this chapter we learn about quadratic sequences... differences between each consecutive term differ by the same amount, called a common second difference For example, 1; 2; 4; 7; 11; (5.1) is a quadratic sequence Let us see why If we take the difference between consecutive terms, then: a2 − a1 a3 − a2 a4 − a3 a5 − a4 =2−1 =4−2 =1 =2 =7−4 =3 = 11 − 7 = 4 We then work out the second differences, which is simply obtained by taking the difference between the consecutive... B) − (3A + B) 2A 21 (5.7) 5.2 CHAPTER 5 QUADRATIC SEQUENCES - GRADE 11 ⇒A= Therefore, from (5.7), B =d− D 2 (5.8) 3 ·D 2 (5.9) From (5.4), C = a1 − (A + B) = a1 − D 3 −d+ ·D 2 2 ∴ C = a1 + D − d (5.10) Finally, the general equation for the nth -term of a quadratic sequence is given by an = D 2 3 · n + (d − D) · n + (a1 − d + D) 2 2 (5 .11) Worked Example 15: Using a set of equations Question: Study the... as far as possible, showing all steps: 3 3 × √ 5 5 Answer Step 1 : Find the common root √ √ 15 35 × 53 = 15 = = 15 Step 2 : Use surd law 1 = √ 35 53 √ 243 × 125 √ 15 30375 15 10 CHAPTER 3 SURDS - GRADE 11 3.1.5 3.1 Simplest Surd form In most cases, when working with surds, answers are given in simplest surd form For example, √ √ 50 = 25 × 2 √ √ = 25 × 2 √ = 5 2 √ √ 5 2 is the simplest surd form of 50... 18.2.2 Standard Deviation 175 18.2.3 Interpretation and Application 177 18.2.4 Relationship between Standard Deviation and the Mean 178 18.3 Graphical Representation of Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 178 18.3.1 Five Number Summary 178 18.3.2 Box and Whisker Diagrams 179 18.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . 107 16 Geometry - G rade 11 111 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 16.2 Right Pyramids, Right Cones and Sp h er. . . . 75 11. 2.1 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 11. 2.2 Intercepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 11. 2.3 Turning. . . . . 78 11. 2.4 Axes of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 11. 2.5 Sketching Graphs of the Form f(x) = a(x + p) 2 + q . . . . . . . . . . . 79 11. 2.6 Writing