mcsa mcse exam 70-296 study guide phần 7 potx

272_70-296_08b.qxd 472 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 472 Chapter • Securing a Windows 2003 Network hardware we control It could also involve the planning necessary to perform updates to newer technologies or to react to the minimization of the risk involved with vulnerabilities that have been discovered or a change to a newer version of an application because of the perceived benefits of that application I We must have an awareness of how the change is to be accomplished.This includes planning the use of installation or deployment teams and the planning that is involved to minimize the possibility of update failures or configuration conflicts that could delay the implementation or disrupt the operation of the system we’re charged with maintaining I We must have an awareness of what the problem we’re evaluating consists of.This includes the necessary gathering of information and discussions about the type of change that is to be performed during the change management process I We must have an awareness of the management team’s mindset prior to beginning the change management process Change management discussions will be ineffective in their implementation if they are not supported by the management team Change and configuration management also consists of learning a number of skill sets that might not have been as necessary in prior environments For instance, there are groups of skills that could be necessary for the person working with change management to acquire or polish.These could include the following: I System skills, including a working knowledge of everything involved in the network and company operations that could affect the change management implementation or planning I Business skills, including the knowledge of company financial condition, overhead costs, and projected availability of funds to implement the changes indicated through the change and configuration analysis process I People skills, which need to be developed to a high level to encourage participation in the change management process to more effectively implement the desired level of change I Analytical skills, needed to accurately diagnose and predict the need for proactive changes, and to effectively diagnose and resolve reactive changes to conditions as they occur I Political skills, needed to work through the various control levels of any organization to promote the implementation of needed change It is important to realize that as much as many people dislike this area, it is often the most important of the skill sets to develop to accomplish the goals of a change management and implementation program Change management skills have become a necessary part of the administrator’s skill set These skills will help keep your environment secure and up to date In the next section, we www.syngress.com 272_70-296_08b.qxd 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 473 Securing a Windows 2003 Network • Chapter begin to look at implementing some of the changes that we might make after the change management process has resulted in decisions about the need and methods to implement the change EXAM 70-296 OBJECTIVE 5.4 Updating the Infrastructure Earlier in the chapter, we discussed the need to install all relevant service packs, updates, and hotfixes to your base server installations and to keep them current as you assigned new roles to them.The process of keeping your servers and workstations up to date has to start somewhere—by identifying the updates you need for each of them Updates typically come in two different varieties: service packs and hotfixes (Hotfixes are sometimes known by a variety of other names, such as security hotfix, security fix, or update.) The bottom line is that there are two major types of updates you need to worry about, differentiated by both size and scope In the next section we look at the difference between service packs and hotfixes After we’ve gotten a good understanding of them and where we can look to find them, we move on to identifying and procuring required updates Types of Updates As mentioned, you need to apply two basic types of updates to your network computers over time: service packs and hotfixes Both can be found at the Windows Update Web site, located at http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/ Updates often have very different purposes, reliability levels, and application methods and tools Service Packs Service packs are large executables that Microsoft issues periodically (usually every to 15 months) to keep the product current and correct problems and known issues Often service packs include new utilities and tools that can extend a computer’s functionality For example,Windows 2000 Service Pack includes the ability to remove shortcuts to Microsoft middleware products (Windows and MSN Messenger, Outlook Express, and the like) from your computer, if desired Service packs also include updated drivers and files that have been developed for the product after its initial release.Windows 2000 service packs are all-inclusive and self-executing and typically contain all fixes and previous service packs that have been issued for the product NOTE Although the topic is beyond the scope of this exam, you might be wondering just why Microsoft would willingly allow you to remove shortcuts to its middleware products This action is a result of the settlement of the Microsoft antitrust lawsuit with the U.S Department of Justice You can read more about the settlement terms on Microsoft’s Press Pass Web site at www.microsoft.com/presspass/ trial/nov02/11-12FinalJudgment.asp www.syngress.com 473 272_70-296_08b.qxd 474 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 474 Chapter • Securing a Windows 2003 Network Perhaps one of the greatest improvements in Windows 2000,Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003 service packs is that you can slipstream them into the original installation source and create integrated installation media that can be used to install an updated version of the operating system on later new installations without the need to subsequently apply the latest service pack.These updated installation sources can be placed back onto a CD-ROM for a single-instance installation method or can be used for any form of remote installation, including Windows 2000 or Windows Server 2003 Remote Installation Services, or for disk cloning through use of a third-party application Although can you get service packs from the Windows Update Web site, the best location to get them for later installation or distribution on your network is directly from the Microsoft Service Packs page at http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=fh;ENUS;sp From there you will be able to download the service pack without having to install it immediately, as you would if you were using Windows Update Hotfixes Hotfixes, also known as security fixes, security patches, patches, or quick-fix engineering, are small, single-purpose executable files that have been developed to correct a specific critical problem or flaw in a product for which timing is critical Hotfixes not typically undergo the same level of testing as service packs to ensure that they are stable and compatible and not cause further critical issues Some hotfixes are not made available to the general public and must be obtained directly from Microsoft Product Support (PSS) Others can be found and downloaded from various sources, such as Windows Update, at http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/ or the TechNet Security page located at www.microsoft.com/technet/security/default.asp Hotfixes can be used to correct both client-side and server-side issues Recently, a fairly even division of client and server hotfixes have been issued as new flaws and weaknesses have been discovered Perhaps one of the most famous server-side issues that received a hotfix was the Code Red exploitation of the Index service MS02-018 was issued to correct this problem and stop the propagation of the Code Red worm.You can rely on Windows Update to inform you of missing hotfixes, but you can also use the HFNetChk tool included with the Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer (MBSA) tool to perform this function for you.The benefit of using HFNetChk is that when it is run against an entire network with a script, it quickly returns the status of all networked Windows Server 2003 computers, thus allowing you to determine the computers that require particular hotfixes EXAM WARNING As you read this text and through the rest of this chapter, remember the differences between a service pack and a hotfix in terms of what they are designed to do, how they are obtained, and how they are installed On the exam, you shouldn’t expect to be asked directly what a service pack or hotfix is, but your understanding of each will be tested in other, more covert, ways www.syngress.com 272_70-296_08b.qxd 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 475 Securing a Windows 2003 Network • Chapter Configuring & Implementing… Get Those Hotfixes! Because service packs are only issued once in a long while, hotfixes will be your primary means of correcting vulnerabilities and flaws in Windows You need to make it a regular practice—at least weekly—to check your computers for missing updates Once you have identified the missing updates, you need to acquire and test them as quickly as you can, but not so quickly that you miss something critical that could cause you new problems down the road After testing has been completed to your satisfaction, you should take steps to deploy updates as quickly as possible Sometimes keeping your computers safe from attacks and other vulnerabilities comes down to just a matter of days—perhaps even less For example, when the Code Red worm struck, it was able to compromise over 250,000 vulnerable systems in less than nine hours Locating, testing, and deploying required updates as soon as they become available can go great lengths toward keeping your network secure and protected In the case of the Code Red worm, the vulnerability was known and the fix had been available for some time before the “need” to update and apply fixes and patches was shown to administrators Deploying and Managing Updates Identifying the updates that your computers need might seem like the toughest part of this task; however, that’s not the case Deploying updates, which includes testing them thoroughly before deployment, is in most cases the most time-consuming and problematic part of the update process After you have thoroughly tested the updates in a safe environment, usually a lab or an isolated section of the network, you then face the task of actually getting them deployed to the computers that require them.You have a few options available to you when it comes to deployment time, ranging from creating update-integrated installation media, using Group Policy and Remote Installation Service to install updates for you, using other products such as Systems Management Server, or even using scripting Of course, all of this assumes that you have actually gone out and gotten the updates you need.You can go about getting the required updates in a variety of ways, some easier than others How you get the updates you need depends on the method you plan to use to deploy them.The method you use to deploy updates depends on several issues, such as whether the computers are new or existing, the physical location of the computers to be updated, and the number of computers to be updated The most common deployment methods for new computers include slipstreaming and scripting For existing computers,Windows Update, Software Update Services, Automatic Update, Systems Management Server, scripting, and Group Policy are the more common methods Of these, Automatic Updates (which has recently replaced the now defunct www.syngress.com 475 272_70-296_08b.qxd 476 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 476 Chapter • Securing a Windows 2003 Network Critical Notification Service) and Windows Update only apply to the specific computer that they are running on; the rest of the methods can be used to apply fixes and updates to multiple computers The Software Update Service, a relatively new service that replaces Windows Corporate Update, can be found at www.microsoft.com/windows2000/windowsupdate/ sus/default.asp; however, it only works with Windows 2000,Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003 computers and is not an intelligent updater when it comes to applying patches Systems Management Server (SMS) has been around for quite some time and is due for a new version release in the near future SMS can be used to deploy all sorts of fixes and updates to all versions of Windows computers Scripting can also apply fixes and updates to all versions of Windows computers and is perhaps the best choice when you have a large number of computers requiring the same updates.The same holds true for Group Policy software installation Of course, there is always good old-fashioned “sneaker-net,” which could utilize collected fixes on transportable media and interactive installations at the machines If you need to manually download fixes and patches, you can get them from the following locations: I For downloading service packs, your best bet is to go straight to the Service Pack homepage located at http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=fh;EN-US;sp I For hotfixes and other updates, you have several viable options: You can go directly to the Q article that is listed with the fix Q articles can be found at http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=KB;ENUS;Qxxxxxx, where xxxxxx is the six-digit Q article number (Note: Microsoft has been changing the numbering of the Q articles to numbers only to provide similar numbering in the company’s worldwide operations Searches may find the information either with or without the Q in the search terms.) You can look up the specific Security Bulletin that is mentioned at www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/MSyy-bbb.asp, where yy is the year and bbb is the bulletin number within that year You can visit the Windows Catalog, which replaced the Windows Corporate Update Web site, at http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/catalog By working through the options and selecting your operating system and type of downloads you are looking for, you can find almost all updates, patches, and hotfixes in one location Analyzing Your Computers Armed with your basic understanding of the types of updates that are available for Windows 2000,Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003, the first step you need to undertake to get your computers up to date (and thus more secure) is to determine their current www.syngress.com 272_70-296_08b.qxd 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 477 Securing a Windows 2003 Network • Chapter state Analyzing your computers can be a very simple task or a difficult one, depending on the size and complexity of your network If you are responsible for only five computers and they are all located in the same place, your job will be very easy If you are responsible for several hundred (or thousand) computers spread out over several geographically distant locations, your job is not going to be so easy.The method you choose to analyze your computers will thus depend largely on these factors: I How many computers are you responsible for updating? I Where are your computers located? I What type of network connectivity you have between locations? I Do you have knowledgeable help available to you at all your locations? Let’s take a look at some of the methods available to analyze your computers, both manually and via automated methods Visiting Windows Update The Windows Update Web site can be a great asset to you if the number of computers to be managed is relatively low—perhaps five or fewer Since Windows Update requires you to physically be in front of each computer in order to analyze and download the required updates, this method can be both time and bandwidth intensive.Windows Update, however, could be your best option if the number of computers to be updated is few or if a group of computers are not connected to the company network and thus cannot be analyzed via any other method Using Windows Update to analyze a computer for required updates is extremely simple, as outlined in Exercise 8.06 EXERCISE 8.06 DETERMINING THE NEED FOR UPDATING USING WINDOWS UPDATE Click Start | All Programs Windows Update to open an Internet Explorer window pointed to Windows Update You can also enter http://windowsupdate.microsoft.com/ into your browser address bar The Internet Explorer window shown in Figure 8.63 will appear If you are asked to download and install anything from Microsoft, accept the download; this is a critical part of the process www.syngress.com 477 272_70-296_08b.qxd 478 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 478 Chapter • Securing a Windows 2003 Network Figure 8.63 The Windows Update Web Site Click Scan for updates to start the analysis of your computer After the analysis has completed, you will see the window shown in Figure 8.64 Figure 8.64 Selecting Required Updates You can navigate through the three categories of updates to determine the updates that Windows Update has found your computer needs The categories are arranged from most important to least important in regard to computer security and safety; this is why drivers are at the bottom of the list Another useful tool to help you determine what you have previously applied using Windows Update is the View installation option Clicking View installation history changes the display to that shown in Figure 8.65 (Your installed items will likely be different from those shown here.) www.syngress.com 272_70-296_08b.qxd 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 479 Securing a Windows 2003 Network • Chapter Figure 8.65 Checking Previously Installed Updates That’s all there is to analyzing your computer with Windows Update Later in this chapter we examine the rest of the steps to use Windows Update to select and install updates onto the local computer The Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer The Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer (MBSA) is a GUI-based tool that Microsoft developed to detect common security misconfiguration and weaknesses.The MBSA tool can also be used from the command line if desired.The current version of MBSA, version 1.1, can be run on a Windows 2000,Windows XP, or Windows Server 2003 computer; it scans for missing hotfixes, weaknesses, and vulnerabilities in the following Microsoft products: I Windows 2000 Professional, Server, and Advanced Server I Windows XP Professional I Windows NT Workstation 4.0, Server 4.0, and Enterprise Edition Server 4.0 I SQL Server 7.0 I SQL Server 2000 Standard, Enterprise, and Conferencing Server I Internet Information Server 4.0 I Internet Information Services 5.0 I Internet Explorer 5.01 and later I Office 2000 I Office 2002 (XP) www.syngress.com 479 272_70-296_08b.qxd 480 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 480 Chapter • Securing a Windows 2003 Network MBSA uses a modified version of the HFNetChk tool to scan for missing hotfixes, service packs, and other updates At the completion of the scan, an individual XML output report is created for each computer that has been scanned.This report can be viewed immediately after the completion of the scan or later.When MBSA is executed from the GUI, reports are placed in the SecurityScans folder, which is located in the profile of the user who ran the scan For example, if a user named Andrea ran the scan, she could expect to find scan reports located at C:\Documents and Settings\Andrea\SecurityScans or wherever her profile path is pointed.You can use the /f switch to change the location of the output file when you’re running the MBSA tool from the command line In Exercise 8.07, we examine how to use the MBSA tool from the GUI to examine a local computer and determine its current status In Exercise 8.08 we perform the same task, this time from the command line Using the MBSA tool as part of a script or batch file, you could schedule a regular scan of all your network computers and then examine the results after the scan has completed.You should consider performing a scan such as this one at least once per week as your specific situation dictates The basic syntax of the MBSA tool from the command line is: msbacli.exe [/c domainname\computername] [-i ipaddress] [-d domainname] [-r range] [/n IIS] [/n OS] [/n password] [/n SQL] [/n hotfix] [/o %domain% - %computername% (%date%)] [/e] [/l] [/ls] [/lr report name] [/ld report name] [/qp] [/qe] [/qr] [/q] [/f] Table 8.4 details the function of each mbsacli.exe switch Table 8.4 The mbsacli.exe Switches Switch Explanation /c domainname\computername -i ipaddress Performs a scan on the selected computer Specifies the IP address of the computer to be scanned If not specified, the default is the local computer Specifies the domain name to be scanned All eligible computers in the domain will be scanned Specifies the inclusive IP address range that is to be scanned in the format start_IP-end_IP— for example, 192.168.0.100-192.168.0.199 Specifies that IIS checks are to be skipped The /n options can be added together, such as /n IIS+OS+SQL -d domainname -r range /n IIS Continued www.syngress.com 272_70-296_08b.qxd 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 481 Securing a Windows 2003 Network • Chapter Table 8.4 The mbsacli.exe Switches Switch Explanation /n OS Specifies that operating system checks are to be skipped Specifies that password checks are to be skipped Specifies that SQL checks are to be skipped Specifies that hotfix checks are to be skipped Lists errors from the latest scan Lists all reports available for viewing Lists all reports from the latest scan Displays an overview of the specified report name Displays a detailed version of the specified report name Specifies that the progress of the scan is not to be shown Specifies that the error list is not to be shown Specifies that the report list is not to be shown Specifies that the progress of the scan, the error list, or the report list are not to be shown Specifies that output is to be redirected to a file /n password /n SQL /n hotfix /e /l /ls /lr report name /ld report name /qp /qe /qr /q /f EXAM WARNING As with the HFNetChk tool discussed later in the chapter, taking some time to become familiar with the switches that can be used with the command-line version of MBSA could help you on exam day You might be given one or more answers that require you to know whether or not a particular switch will achieve the desired result Exercise 8.07 presents the process to perform a single local computer scan with MBSA from the GUI www.syngress.com 481 272_70-296_09.qxd 542 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 542 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network If the attacker spoofs as the default gateway or a specific host on the network, all machines trying to get to the network or the spoofed machine will connect to the attacker’s machine instead of the gateway or host to which they intended to connect If the attacker is clever, he will only use this information to identify passwords and other necessary information and route the rest of the traffic to the intended recipients If he does this, the end users will have no idea that this man in the middle has intercepted their communications and compromised their passwords and information Another clever attack can be accomplished through the use of rogue APs If the attacker is able to put together an AP with enough strength, the end users might not be able to tell which AP is the authorized one that they should be using In fact, most will not even know that another AP is available Using this technique, the attacker is able to receive authentication requests and information from the end workstation regarding the secret key and where users are attempting to connect These rogue APs can also be used to attempt to break into more tightly configured wireless APs Utilizing tools such as AirSnort and WEPCrack requires a large amount of data to be able to decrypt the secret key An intruder sitting in a car in front of your house or office is noticeable and thus will generally not have time to finish acquiring enough information to break the key However, if the attacker installs a tiny, easily hidden machine in an inconspicuous location, this machine could sit there long enough to break the key and possibly act as an external AP into the wireless network it has hacked Once an attacker has identified a network for attack and spoofed his MAC address to become a valid member of the network, the attacker can gain further information that is not available through simple sniffing If the network being attacked is using SSH to access the hosts, just stealing a password might be easier than attempting to break into the host using an available exploit By simply ARP-spoofing the connection with the AP to be that of the host from which the attacker wants to steal the passwords, the attacker can cause all wireless users who are attempting to SSH into the host to connect to the rogue machine instead.When these users attempt to sign on with their passwords, the attacker is then able to, first, receive their passwords and second, pass on the connection to the real end destination If the attacker does not perform the second step, it increases the likelihood that the attack will be noticed because users will begin to complain that they are unable to connect to the host Jamming Attacks The last type of attack is the jamming attack.This is a fairly simple attack to pull off and can be done using readily available, off-the-shelf RF testing tools (although they were not necessarily designed to perform this function).Whereas hackers who want to get information from your network would use other passive and active types of attacks to accomplish their goals, attackers who just want to disrupt your network communications or even shut down a wireless network can jam you without ever being seen Jamming a WLAN is similar in many ways to targeting a network with a DoS attack.The difference is that in the case of the wireless network, one person with an overpowering RF signal can carry out the attack www.syngress.com 272_70-296_09.qxd 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 543 Planning Security for a Wireless Network • Chapter This attack can be carried out using any number of products, but the easiest is with a highpower RF signal generator, readily available from various vendors The jamming attack is sometimes the most difficult type of attack to prevent, since the attacker does not need to gain access to your network.The attacker can sit in your parking lot or even further away, depending on the power output of the jamming device.You might be able to readily determine the fact that you are being jammed, but you could find yourself hard pressed to solve the problem Indications of a jamming attack include clients’ sudden inability to connect to APs where there was not a problem previously The problem will be evident across all or most of your clients (the ones within the range of the RF jamming device) even though your APs are operating properly Jamming attacks are sometimes used as the prelude to further attacks One possible example includes jamming the wireless network, thereby forcing clients to lose their connections with authorized APs During this time, one or more rogue APs can be made available, operating at a higher power than the authorized APs.When the jamming attack is stopped, the clients will tend to associate back to the AP that is presenting the strongest signal Now the attacker “owns” all network clients that are attached to his rogue APs.The attack continues from there In some cases, RF jamming is not always intentional and could be the result of other innocuous sources such as a nearby communications tower or another WLAN that is operating in the same frequency range Baby monitors, cordless telephones, microwave ovens, and many other consumer products can also be sources of interference You can take some comfort in knowing that although a jamming attack is easy and inexpensive to pull off, it is not the preferred means of attack.The only real victory with a jamming attack for most hackers is temporarily taking your wireless network offline Fundamentals of Wireless Security Wireless technologies are inherently more vulnerable to attack due to the nature of the network transmissions.Wireless network transmissions are not physically constrained within the confines of a building or its surroundings; thus an attacker has ready access to the information in the wireless networks As wireless network technologies have emerged, they have become the focus of analysis by security researchers and hackers, who have realized that wireless networks can be insecure and often can be exploited as a gateway into the relatively secure wired networks beyond them Understanding and Using the Wireless Equivalent Privacy Protocol The IEEE 802.11 standard covers the communication between WLAN components RF poses challenges to privacy in that it travels through and around physical objects Due to the nature of 802.11 WLANs, the IEEE working group implemented a mechanism to protect the privacy of individual transmissions.The intent was to mirror the privacy found on the WLAN, and the mechanism became known as the Wired Equivalent Privacy protocol, or WEP www.syngress.com 543 272_70-296_09.qxd 544 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 544 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network Because WEP utilizes a cryptographic security countermeasure for the fulfillment of its stated goal of privacy, it has the added benefit of becoming an authentication mechanism.This benefit is realized through shared-key authentication that allows the encryption and decryption of wireless transmissions Up to four keys can be defined on an AP or a client.These keys can be rotated to add complexity for a higher-security standard in the WLAN policy WEP was never intended to be the absolute authority in wireless security.The IEEE 802.11 standard states that WEP provides for protection from casual eavesdropping Instead, the driving force behind WEP is privacy In cases that require high degrees of security, other mechanisms should be utilized, such as authentication, access control, password protection, and virtual private networks Despite its flaws,WEP still offers some level of security, provided that all its features are used properly.This means taking great care in key management, avoiding default options, and ensuring that adequate encryption is enabled at every opportunity Proposed improvements in the standard should overcome many of the limitations of the original security options and should make WEP more appealing as a security solution Additionally, as WLAN technology gains popularity and users clamor for functionality, both the standards committees and the hardware vendors will offer improvements It is critically important to keep abreast of vendor-related software fixes and changes that improve the overall security posture of a wireless LAN With data security enabled in a closed network, the settings on the client for the SSID and the encryption keys have to match the AP when you’re attempting to associate with the network, or the attempt will fail.The next few sections discuss WEP as it relates to the functionality of the 802.11 standard, including a standard definition of WEP, the privacy created, and the authentication WEP provides some security and privacy in transmissions to prevent curious or casual browsers from viewing the contents of the transmissions between the AP and the clients In order to gain access, an intruder must be more sophisticated and needs to have specific intent to gain access Some of the other benefits of implementing WEP include the following: I All messages have a CRC-32 checksum calculated that provides some degree of integrity I Privacy is maintained via the RC4 encryption.Without possession of the secret key, the message cannot be easily decrypted I WEP is extremely easy to implement All that is required is to set the encryption key on the APs and on each client I WEP provides a very basic level of security for WLAN applications I WEP keys are user definable and unlimited.WEP keys can, and should, be changed often www.syngress.com 272_70-296_09.qxd 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 545 Planning Security for a Wireless Network • Chapter Creating Privacy with WEP WEP provides for several implementations: no encryption, 64-bit encryption, and 128-bit encryption Clearly, no encryption means no privacy.When WEP is set to no encryption, transmissions are sent in cleartext, and they can be viewed by any wireless sniffing application that has access to the RF signal propagated in the WLAN (unless some other encryption mechanism, such as IPSec, is used) In the case of the 64- and 128-bit varieties (just as with password length), the greater the number of characters (bits), the stronger the encryption.The initial configuration of the AP includes the setup of the shared key.This shared key can be in the form of either alphanumeric or hexadecimal strings and must be matched on the client WEP uses the RC4 encryption algorithm, a stream cipher developed by Ron Rivest of RSA Security (www.rsasecurity.com) Both the sender and receiver use the stream cipher to create identical pseudorandom strings from a known shared key.The process entails having the sender logically XOR the plaintext transmission with the stream cipher to produce the ciphertext.The receiver takes the shared key and identical stream and reverses the process to gain the plaintext transmission The Boolean logic involved in the WEP process can become extremely complex and is not something that most wireless network users, administrators included, will ever get into The discussion is presented here only for the sake of briefly explaining how WEP functions, which helps to understand how it can be cracked with the right tools and the right amount of time.The steps in the process are as follows: The plaintext message is run through an integrity check algorithm (the 802.11 standard specifies the use of CRC-32) to produce an integrity check value (ICV) The ICV is appended to the end of the original plaintext message A random 24-bit initialization vector (IV) is generated and prepended to (added to the beginning of) the secret key, which is then input to the RC4 Key Scheduling Algorithm (KSA) to generate a seed value for the WEP pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) The WEP PRNG outputs the encrypting cipher stream This cipher stream is then XOR’ed with the plaintext/ICV message to produce the WEP ciphertext The ciphertext is then prepended with the IV (in plaintext), encapsulated, and transmitted A new IV is used for each frame to prevent the key’s reuse weakening the encryption This means that for each string generated, a different value is used for the RC4 key Although this is a secure policy in itself, its implementation in WEP is flawed because of due to the nature of the 24-bit space.The space is so small with respect to the potential set of IVs that in a short period of time, all keys are reused.When this happens, two different messages are encrypted with the same IV and key, and the two messages can be XOR’ed www.syngress.com 545 272_70-296_09.qxd 546 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 546 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network with each other using specially crafted WEP cracking tools to cancel out the key stream, allowing an attacker who knows the contents of one message to easily figure out the contents of the other Unfortunately, this weakness is the same for both the 40- and 128-bit encryption levels because both use the 24-bit IV To protect against some rudimentary attacks that insert known text into the stream to attempt to reveal the key stream,WEP incorporates a checksum in each frame Any frame not found to be valid through the checksum is discarded EXERCISE 9.02 ENABLING PRIVACY WITH WEP WEP is far from perfect, but it should be used to at least make things more difficult for the would-be intruder WEP is disabled by default in Windows Server 2003 In Exercise 9.02, we enable WEP for use with an available network: Click Start | Control Panel | Network Connections Double-click the desired Wireless Connection Click the Advanced button Select the Wireless Networks tab Ensure that Use Windows to configure my wireless network settings is checked Select an SSID from the list of available networks to highlight it Click the Configure button On the Association tab, ensure that the SSID is correct Select the Data Encryption (WEP enabled) check box 10 Click OK twice to close the open dialog boxes 11 Double-click the desired Wireless Connection 12 Enter the network key that your APs are using in the Network Key box 13 Enter the network key again in the Confirm Network Key box 14 Click OK to accept the changes www.syngress.com 272_70-296_09.qxd 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 547 Planning Security for a Wireless Network • Chapter Head of the Class… Authentication with WEP There are two authentication methods in the 802.11 standard: I Open authentication I Shared-key authentication Open authentication is most precisely described as device-oriented authentication and can be considered a null authentication; all requests are granted Without WEP, open authentication leaves the WLAN wide open to any client who knows the SSID With WEP enabled, the WEP secret key becomes the indirect authenticator The shared-key authentication process shown in Figure 9.6 is a four-step process that begins when the AP receives the validated request for association After the AP receives the request, a series of management frames is transmitted between the stations to produce the authentication This includes the use of the cryptographic mechanisms employed by WEP as a validation The four steps break down in the following manner: The requestor (the client) sends a request for association The authenticator (the AP) receives the request and responds by producing a random challenge text and transmitting it back to the requestor The requestor receives the transmission, encrypts the challenge with the secret key, and transmits the encrypted challenge back to the authenticator The authenticator decrypts the challenge text and compares the values against the original If they match, the requestor is authenticated On the other hand, if the requestor does not have the shared key, the cipher stream cannot be reproduced Therefore, the plaintext cannot be discovered, and theoretically, the transmission is secured Figure 9.6 Shared-Key Authentication Authentication Request Authentication Response (Challenge) Wireless Client Client WEP Key : 12345 Authentication Request (Encrypted Challenge) Authentication Response (Success) Wired Network AP WEP Key : 12345 Continued www.syngress.com 547 272_70-296_09.qxd 548 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 548 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network One of the greatest weaknesses in shared-key authentication is the fact that it provides an attacker with enough information to try to crack the WEP secret key The challenge, which is sent from authenticator to requestor, is sent in the clear The requesting client then transmits the same challenge, encrypted using the WEP secret key, back to the authenticator An attacker who captures both of these packets has two pieces to a three-piece puzzle: the cleartext challenge and the encrypted ciphertext of that challenge The algorithm, RC4, is also known All that is missing is the secret key To determine the key, the attacker simply tries a brute-force search of the potential key space using a dictionary attack At each step, the attacker tries to decrypt the encrypted challenge with a dictionary word as the secret key The result is then compared against the authenticator’s challenge If the two match, the attacker has determined the secret key In cryptography, this attack is called a known plaintext attack and is the primary reason that shared-key authentication is considered slightly weaker than open authentication Understanding WEP Vulnerabilities Like any standard or protocol,WEP has some inherent disadvantages.The focus of security is to allow a balance of access and control while juggling the advantages and disadvantages of each implemented countermeasure for security gaps.WEP’s disadvantages include: I The RC4 encryption algorithm is a known stream cipher.This means that it takes a finite key and attempts to make an infinite pseudorandom key stream in order to generate the encryption I Altering the secret must be done across the board All APs and all clients must be changed at the same time I Used on its own,WEP does not provide adequate WLAN security I To be effective,WEP has to be implemented on every client as well as on every AP WEP is part of the 802.11 standard defined for wireless networks in 1999.WEP differs from many other kinds of encryption employed to secure network communication in that it is implemented at MAC sublayer of the Data Link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model Security can be implemented at many layers of the model IPSec, for example, is implemented at the Network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model; PPTP creates a secure end-toend tunnel using the Network layer (GRE) and Transport layer protocols to encapsulate and transport data; HTTP-S and SSH are Application layer (Layer 7) protocols for encrypting data Due to the complexity of the 802.11 MAC and the amount of processing power it requires, the 802.11 standard made 40-bit WEP an optional implementation www.syngress.com 272_70-296_09.qxd 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 549 New & Noteworthy… Planning Security for a Wireless Network • Chapter Vulnerability to Plaintext Attacks Right from the outset, knowledgeable people warned that because of the way WEP was implemented, it was vulnerable In October 2000, Jesse Walker, a member of the 802.11 working group, published his now famous paper, Unsafe at Any Key Size: An Analysis of WEP Encapsulation The paper points out a number of serious shortcomings of WEP and recommends that WEP be redesigned For example, WEP is vulnerable to plaintext attacks because it is implemented at the Data Link layer, meaning that it encrypts IP datagrams Each encrypted frame on a wireless network, therefore, contains a high proportion of well-known TCP/IP information, which can be revealed fairly accurately through traffic analysis, even if the traffic is encrypted If someone is able to compare the ciphertext (the WEP-encrypted data) with the plaintext equivalent (the raw TCP/IP data), he or she has a powerful clue for cracking the encryption used on the network To uncover the key stream used to encrypt the data, all the hacker has to is plug the two values, the plaintext and the ciphertext, into the RC4 algorithm WEP uses There are a number of ways to speed up the process of acquiring both the plaintext and ciphertext versions: by sending spam into the network, by injecting traffic into the network, using social engineering to get a wireless user to send the hacker e-mail, and so on Using IEEE 802.1X Authentication The IEEE 802.1X standard is still relatively new in relation to the IEEE 802.11 standard, and the security research community has only recently begun to seriously evaluate the security of this standard One of the first groups to investigate the security of the 802.1X standard was the Maryland Information Systems Security Lab (MISSL) at the University of Maryland at College Park.This group, led by Dr.William Arbaugh, was the first to release a paper (www.missl.cs.umd.edu/Projects/wireless/1x.pdf) documenting flaws in the IEEE 802.1X standard In this paper, the group noted that 802.1X is susceptible to several attacks, due to the following vulnerabilities: I The lack of the requirement of strong mutual authentication EAP-TLS does provide strong mutual authentication, but it is not required and can be overridden I The vulnerability of the EAP success message to a man-in-the-middle attack I The lack of integrity protection for 802.1X management frames These flaws provide avenues of attack against wireless networks Although the networks are not as vulnerable as they would be without EAP and 802.1X, the “silver bullet” fix designers had hoped for was not provided in the form of 802.1X www.syngress.com 549 272_70-296_09.qxd 550 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 550 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network RC4 Vulnerabilities As suggested in the previous section, another vulnerability of WEP is that it uses a stream cipher called RC4, developed by RSA, to encrypt the data In 1994, an anonymous user posted the RC4 algorithm to a cipherpunk mailing list; the algorithm was subsequently reposted to a number of Usenet newsgroups the next day with the title “RC4 Algorithm Revealed.” Until August 2001, it was thought that the underlying algorithm RC4 uses was well designed and robust; therefore, even though the algorithm was no longer a trade secret, it was still thought to be an acceptable cipher to use Scott Fluhrer, Itsik Mantin, and Adi Shamir, however, demonstrated that a number of keys used in RC4 were weak and vulnerable to compromise.They published their findings in a paper, Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4.The paper designed a theoretical attack that could take advantage of these weak keys Because the algorithm for RC4 is no longer a secret and because a number of weak keys were used in RC4, it is possible to construct software that is designed to break RC4 encryption relatively quickly using the weak keys in RC4 Not surprisingly, a number of open-source tools have appeared that precisely that.Two such popular tools for cracking WEP are AirSnort and WEPCrack Some vendors, such as Agere (which produces the ORiNOCO product line), responded to the weakness in key scheduling by making a modification to the key scheduling in their products to avoid the use of weak keys, making them resistant to attacks based on weak key scheduling.This feature is known as WEPplus; however, not all vendors have responded similarly Planning and Configuring Windows Server 2003 for Wireless Technologies Embedded wireless capability was introduced with the Windows XP desktop operating system, and it has been enhanced and extended to Microsoft’s server line with Windows Server 2003 Many of the new features enhance the security of wireless networking such as the addition of IEEE 802.1X Extensible Authentication Protocol over LAN (EAPOL) for client authentication, Protected Extensible Authentication Protocol (PEAP), and an enhanced Internet Authentication Service (IAS) that simplifies authentication and access control for VPN, dialup, and IEEE 802.1X-based wired or wireless networks.Windows Server 2003 also improved on the operating system’s capacity for network bridging of wired and wireless networks that began with Windows XP Windows Server 2003’s new network-access security capabilities use EAPOL for clients to control access to and protect both wired and wireless networks Because 802.1X provides dynamic key determination, 802.1X encryption is dramatically improved over previous versions of the standard by addressing many of the known issues associated with WEP Organizations can now adopt a security model that ensures all physical access is authenticated and encrypted, based on the 802.1X support in Windows Server 2003 Using www.syngress.com 272_70-296_09.qxd 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 551 Planning Security for a Wireless Network • Chapter 802.1X-based wireless APs or switches, companies can be sure that only trusted systems are allowed to connect and exchange packets with secured networks Microsoft authored PEAP in an IETF Internet draft to give organizations the option of using Windows domain passwords for authenticated and encrypted wireless communication with any IEEE 802.11 and 802.1X AP without having to deploy a certificate infrastructure Using IAS, companies can also grant Internet access to “guest” users through 802.1X authentication or bootstrap a system configuration in an authenticated network Administrators may now quarantine connectivity requests that not submit valid credentials for authentication, isolating the network communications to specific address ranges or a virtual local area network (VLAN), such as the Internet or a bootstrap configuration network segment Network bridging allows administrators to interconnect network segments using computers running Windows Server 2003 In a multisegment network, one or more computers may have multiple network adapters such as a wireless adapter, a dialup adapter, or an Ethernet adapter By bridging these adapters, the segments can connect to each other over the bridge, regardless of how they connect to the network Planning and Implementing Your 4.2 Wireless Network with Windows Server 2003 EXAM 70-296 OBJECTIVE The upside to wireless networking is the freedom of network clients to move about within areas of coverage and its ability to extend the LAN without having to embark on an extensive re-cabling project.The cloud to this silver lining is that planning for a wireless network has many more aspects to it than a traditional wired network.These additional aspects can be grouped into roughly four areas: I Physical layout I Network topology I Network identification I Wireless security Because requirements vary from organization to organization, no single plan or network architecture applies to every wireless network or wireless network segment.The following sections introduce the distinctive aspect of wireless network planning and list questions to consider in your planning It follows that once you’ve completed the planning for the wireless network, you can confidently proceed with setting it up Planning the Physical Layout With a wired network, clients merely need to be within a cable length of a preinstalled network drop to connect For wireless networking, however, wireless clients need only be within range of an AP or each other.The physical layout of APs and network clients is critical, not www.syngress.com 551 272_70-296_09.qxd 552 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 552 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network only for the connection speed and performance of each device’s wireless connection, but to ensure that roaming within the facilities is possible without dropping the connection and that one network does not interfere with another in a neighboring office.These are some of the questions that need to be answered before setting up your wireless equipment: I Will the wireless network be Infrastructure mode or Ad Hoc mode? I Will all the clients be equipped with wireless network adapters, or will there be a mix of wired and wireless clients? I Are all the clients physically located within close proximity of each other? The network’s physical layout is established by installing the actual required hardware components.The essential pieces of equipment for wireless networking are wireless network adapters and an AP, and in a small office with very few networked devices, an Ad Hoc wireless network might be appropriate where only wireless network adapters are required In larger organizations, a number of APs may be required to provide wireless network coverage to all desired areas In a home, where space is at a premium and only basic functionality is required, a combination wireless AP and router would be a good solution All that is required for setting up an Ad Hoc network is a collection of network clients that are physically in range of each other For the purposes of this section, we deal with the generic configuration of wireless networking components so that you can apply these principles regardless of the size of your deployment The physical placement of the wireless router or APs will have the greatest effect on the effective operating distance and speed of the wireless connections For best results, you should consider the following location suggestions when placing APs and wireless routers within your facilities: I Near the center of the area in which your PCs will operate I In an elevated location, such as a high shelf or fastened to a ceiling or the top of a wall I Away from potential sources of interference, such as PCs, microwave ovens, and cordless phones I With the antenna tight and in the upright position I Away from large metal surfaces These spots are appropriate for the location of APs and wireless routers, but you can also apply these principles when troubleshooting wireless client connections For example, the client whose connection drops whenever someone makes microwave popcorn may be located too close to the kitchen www.syngress.com 272_70-296_09.qxd 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 553 Planning Security for a Wireless Network • Chapter Planning the Network Topology A wireless network in Infrastructure mode bears a strong resemblance to a wired network, where all clients connect to a hub or switch and the hubs or switches are connected to each other; however, although the similarity is valid, it is certainly more complex than that Networking all computers in your organization provides the fundamental “plumbing” for communication and collaboration.The network topology you choose will dictate which devices will be able to participate in the corporate network and how securely they will be able to so.These are some of the questions that need to be answered before clients can securely connect to each other: I Will you use a stub network to isolate wireless clients from wired clients? I Will wired and wireless clients co-exist on the same network? I Will you use MAC address filtering to restrict wireless access to APs by MAC address? Once the equipment has been installed and all devices can reliably connect to each other, you face decisions on how to configure your network to facilitate communication and collaboration among your wired and wireless clients In wireless networking, the topology issues pertain more to security of connections than to their performance For example, you can create a stub network to isolate wireless clients from wired clients so that data is transmitted among the wireless clients though an AP and across a network bridge when the wireless clients need to communicate to wired network resources.You can also dictate that wireless clients actually connect to the corporate network from outside the firewall using IPSec and VPN technology Planning for Network Identification Some might think that dealing with the network name, or SSID, is a relatively minor issue, but it can be a critical step in eliminating a predictable characteristic of your network Predictability may be desired if you run an Internet café and you want people to get on your network easily; however, if you are passing corporate data around, you will prefer that only the people who are supposed to be using your network can find and participate on it These are some of the questions that need to be answered to adequately identify your network: I Will you change the default SSID? I Will you use an SSID that is descriptive or one that is generic? I Will you enable or disable SSID broadcasts? I Will you permit wireless clients to configure their own preferred networks, or will you enforce that through Group Policy? www.syngress.com 553 272_70-296_09.qxd 554 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 554 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network As mentioned earlier, network identification is an important issue.The SSID you choose should reflect your wireless clients’ connectivity requirements If you want clients to positively identify your organization, an SSID that uniquely reflects your organization is a good idea; however, you might desire something generic or undecipherable if you prefer to remain anonymous to war drivers and wireless-enabled systems in the offices of neighboring organizations In addition, you need to decide if you want your APs to broadcast the SSID to all clients in range An SSID can be as long as 32 alphanumeric characters, and the value is also case-sensitive The same SSID must be assigned to all wireless devices in your network As mentioned earlier in the chapter, APs ship with a preconfigured default SSID.You are free to leave the default SSID in place; however, it is a good idea to change it, especially if the company in the office next to you bought the same equipment and left the default SSID in place Lists of default SSIDs from wireless equipment manufacturers are readily available on the Internet If you decide to allow APs to broadcast the SSID, they will broadcast the SSID name to all wireless clients within range.The broadcast will enable an AP to be scanned by other wireless clients, making connection to an available network much easier than if the wireless client had to manually enter the SSID.This could be alleviated using Group Policy to define the Preferred Networks for wireless clients who authenticate to Active Directory Many APs have an option to allow or block access from wireless clients who use an Unspecified-SSID A wireless client without a correct SSID will be denied access to the AP if the AP is set to block access for clients using an SSID that is set to ANY or no SSID at all.This is one way to thwart the use of NetStumbler and similar wireless network-scanning utilities Planning for Wireless Security Your decisions on network topology were the first steps to clients being able to securely connect with each other at a low level, but a host of other security measures specifically for wireless networking protect the integrity of data being transmitted over radio waves.These are some of the questions that need to be answered before clients can be able to securely and confidently interact with each other: I Will you use WEP? If yes, will you use 64-bit or 128-bit keys? I Will you use MAC address filtering to restrict wireless access by MAC address? I Will you enable 802.1X authentication? I Will you force wireless clients to use IPSec through a VPN tunnel? I Will you configure wireless client security settings on individual systems, or will you use Group Policy to apply it to all systems? I What will you use to monitor wireless network activity? www.syngress.com 272_70-296_09.qxd 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 555 Planning Security for a Wireless Network • Chapter Implementing Wireless Security 4.2 on a Windows Server 2003 Network EXAM 70-296 OBJECTIVE This chapter covers the exam objective “Plan security for wireless networks.” As broad as that topic might seem, the focus of wireless network security is on measures that can be employed once the wireless connection has been made.The sections that follow describe in detail how wireless clients are managed through Group Policy, how they authenticate, and how network traffic is encrypted and monitored Using Group Policy for Wireless Networks One of the new features of Windows Server 2003 is the integration of wireless network configuration to Group Policy.Wireless Network (IEEE 802.11) Policy can be defined for the entire domain, individual OUs, domain controllers, and individual computer accounts As shown in Figure 9.7, within the Group Policy module of MMC,Wireless Network Policy is located at [Group Policy Target (Domain, Domain Controllers, Organizational Unit)] | Computer Configuration | Windows Settings | Security Settings | Wireless Network (IEEE 802.11) Policies Figure 9.7 Managing Wireless Network Configuration Through Group Policy This might sound ridiculously obvious, but there are no default settings for Wireless Network Policies until you’ve created a Wireless Network Policy by clicking Wireless Network (IEEE 802.11) Policies, right-clicking anywhere in the right pane of the MMC window, and left-clicking Create Wireless Network Policy in the context menu, www.syngress.com 555 272_70-296_09.qxd 556 9/26/03 2:17 PM Page 556 Chapter • Planning Security for a Wireless Network as demonstrated in Figure 9.8.This series of steps launches the Wireless Network Policy wizard to create a Wireless Network Policy with default settings Figure 9.8 Creating a New Wireless Network Policy The Wireless Network Policy Wizard creates a generic policy and prompts you to specify a name for it All other configuration and customization can be performed later, as explained in the Welcome screen shown in Figure 9.9 Figure 9.9 Launching the Wireless Network Policy Wizard www.syngress.com ... B, C, D 14 B D 15 B, C C www.syngress.com 272 _70 -296_ 09.qxd 9/26/03 2:16 PM Page 519 Chapter MCSA/ MCSE 70 -296 Planning Security for a Wireless Network Exam Objectives in this Chapter: 4.2 Plan... the download; this is a critical part of the process www.syngress.com 477 272 _70 -296_ 08b.qxd 478 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 478 Chapter • Securing a Windows 2003 Network Figure 8.63 The Windows Update... www.microsoft.com/presspass/ trial/nov02/11-12FinalJudgment.asp www.syngress.com 473 272 _70 -296_ 08b.qxd 474 9/29/03 4:34 PM Page 474 Chapter • Securing a Windows 2003 Network Perhaps one of the greatest