MIT Guide to Science and Engineering Communication 2ed - J Paradis (MIT 2002) Episode 3 pdf

This page intentionally left blank 4 Organizing and Drafting Documents Outlining as Organization Drafting the Document Tools and Tips for a First Draft Developing Arguments Get Perspective on Your Work o You have a research problem to write up. You’ve spent weeks on the solution. Your colleagues agree that you’ve found the right approach. You’ve thought about your audience. You begin to see on paper what exactly you can—and cannot—claim. Your discoveries are about to assume their soon-to-be-transmitted shapes. Your impulse may now be to sit at your word processor and write your document, from the first page to the last. Chances are that won’t work. You still need to think about organization. You will need an out- line. Outlining is a powerful means of analysis and synthesis, a tool that helps you develop your prose strategy. There is no standard way to outline. All outlining is a process of trial and error. Some people work with crude scratch outlines. Others use formal patterns. Still others use templates from word-processing packages, which can help organize material. No program, however, is a substitute for logical thinking. You can’t outline merely by following a formula. Outlining as Organization The process of outlining partitions your document. You divide your materials under topics, sequence the topics, and then further subdivide them into subordinate ideas. As you arrange topics, you also mold a structure of key points that shapes your work. Outlining effectively iso- lates and sequences the categories of interest. As you explore the rela- tionships among these categories, you define the limits and emphasis of your document. Think of outlining as a stage of the writing process. It can help you in the following ways: . Isolating and arranging topics. As you name some topics and dis- pense with others, you give focus to your document. To develop the parts of an outline, identify keywords that name your categories and re- flect your aims. As you lis t these words and phrases, you can also con- sider subcategories and explore the logic of your source material. For example, an investigator studying how fires damage concrete walls that have been repaired with epoxy might start with a loose listing of topics, as seen in Figure 4.1. This initial topic list or scratch outline partitions the subject. It also helps the writer set priorities and think about con- nections among topics. After more thought, the writer might partition the topics further, as seen in Figure 4.1. This exploratory process eventually leads you to connect the parts of your document logically and to fill in the gaps. Often, however, you have to reconcile this conceptual logic with the standard formats required by journals and funding agencies. These formats, some of which are shown in Figure 4.2, are conventions that assist readers by organizing material in predictable ways. . Integrating a general document design with your specific material.In designing a document, try to integrate a general format with the specifics of your project topics. For example, the case study format seen in Figure 4.2 provides a general conceptual design for the specific topics of a fail- ure mode analysis report, as seen in Figure 4.3. Your general format may be the standard requirement of a funding agency or government specifi- cation. It may also be your own top-down design of a series of cate- gories. As you structure the document, keep integrating the general format with the more detailed topic outline. . Adjusting the scope and sequence of your source material to reflect the needs of your audience. Outlining is a means of data reduction. As you arrange information, eliminate what you do not need. Two common 42 Organizing and Drafting Documents approaches to sequencing information, as seen in Figure 3.2, are logical order and order of importance. Arrangement in logical order is more likely to appeal to experts, whose interests are conceptual; following the order of importance is more likely to appeal to managerial and adminis- trative audiences concerned with costs, personnel, and schedules. . Getting feedback from colleagues and supervisors. One important use of outlining is to promote consensus on goals, coverage, and strategy for documents, whether proposals, articles, or theses. Circulate your working outline for discussion. At the outlining stage, the suggestions of a collaborator or supervisor may save you a lot of time later in the writ- ing process. Changing outlines is much easier than changing drafts. Figure 4.1 Outlining as a process of partitioning your subject by listing topics. Such topic development helps you set priorities and think about connections among topics. Organizing and Drafting Documents 43 Figure 4.2 Some typical document formats. Such structures are top-down design tools that serve to reduce materials into predictable patterns for readers. These formats also represent logical structures appropriate to specific kinds of subjects, methods, and data. Figure 4.3 Converting a general case study format to a specific topic outline. Outlines effec- tively reduce data by partitioning material and creating subject focus and scope. They also show topic sequence and logical organization. In addition, they serve as writing and revising aids, as well as furnish section headings for document design. Organizing and Drafting Documents 45 Drafting the Document Drafting is never the same for any two writers. Methodical writers work from an outline, point by point. Intuitive writers may write entire sec- tions at a time, barely glancing over their outlines. Outline are maps that can keep you on course and remind you of your audience and aim. You may want to add or delete topics as you write. Expanding on an outline in a word processor is one way to create a rough draft. For example, an outline entry such as ‘‘moisture in concrete samples’’ can become an assertion: Because moisture is never entirely absent from concrete, simulated fire exposure studies should factor in a heat absorption capacity for an amount of water 2.5 percent of the total sample weight. With such claim statements, you expand your main arguments out- ward from the outlining stage. Tools and Tips for a First Draft Word-processing programs are effective tools for merging the outlining and drafting processes. You can develop an initial outline, start writing individual sections of it, and then rework material that needs further development. Your outline can be fleshed out and your draft revised in whatever order you feel comfortable with. Some writers type the draft into a word processor; others write it in longhand, have it word- processed, revise on a printout, and have it word-processed again. Here are some tips for drafting: . Review your aim. Try to keep your main writing goals in view and avoid digressing. . Set writing goals. Writers write drafts most successfully in stages. Set an objective for a four- or five-page section and write the section at one sitting, if possible. . Maintain momentum. Keep writing. Don’t insist on achieving fin- ished copy. Don’t worry about where you start. You can begin with the concluding section and end with the introduction; that way, your con- clusions will be focused on your introductory claims. By writing out of document sequence, you can build up writing momentum for more diffi- cult sections. 46 Organizing and Drafting Documents . Revise rigorously in hard copy. Computing encourages wordi ness. If you print out the text, you can get a sense of the whole, and you can jump around quickly as you edit for organization and consistency. . Expect to go through several draft and printout cycles. Use the revi- sion capabilities of computing to review and revise your draft. Don’t put all your time into your first draft. The very first draft, usually called the rough draft, is something you generally don’t show to anyone. Few people other than you will be able to read it intelligently. A rough draft is useful, if messy, because it allows you to organize your document and work out your main arguments. Your next draft may still be crude, but it may be ready for the attention of others. Cycling a draft can help you immensely if it brings constructive criti- cism. Cycling is a requirement in many organizations, but you should follow one firm rule: Don’t submit crude drafts to colleagues or super- visors. Crude drafts often get treated as final drafts. A crude draft may be nearly complete, but you don’t really have a finished draft until you have the following: . An introduction, middle development, and conclusion, so that cover- age and analysis can be examined . Coherent, grammatical language . Accurate spelling . A series of clear, if still rough, graphics . Clean copy, with subject headings, subheadings, and standard margins Be sure you’ve reached this stage before you begin to circulate your copy to those who will judge your work. Readers soon forget the dis- tinction between rough and final copy, and they may associate your per- formance with what they see first. Developing Arguments An argument supports a claim with a convincing set of reasons. You can expect to make arguments in nearly all documents, whether technical reports, refereed journal articles, or memoranda. A writer’s aim is rarely just to inform. You need to identify problems, make claims, and defend them convincingly. Generally, the facts, no matter how effectively you analyze them, will not unequivocally support your claim. Writers need to Organizing and Drafting Documents 47 interpret the facts to show that they mean what the writer thinks they mean. Facts rarely speak for themselves. Readers need to understand the context of the facts. They must be convinced that the facts are accurate and effectively used. Hence, readers need to know exactly what your claim is, what problem you think you are addressing, what you think are the issues of the argument, how you got your evidence, and what you think your evidence means. Your argument can be strengthened or weakened at any of these steps. If your readers can’t figure out what problem you are addressing —this does happen—they will doubt your judgment. If they don’t think you’ve worked out an effective approach to the problem, they will think you are missing the point. If they think that your evidence is weak, they will question your rigor. If they don’t like the way you’ve used your evidence, they will question your reasoning. And if you manage to satisfy your readers on all these points, they may still argue that you came to the wrong conclusions. One way to construct arguments is by linking together: 1. A problem or situation to be remedied 2. A claim or thesis that resolves the problem 3. Background issues that give the particulars of the problem and estab- lish criteria for solving it 4. Evidence that applies the criteria to support the claim or thesis 5. A discussion in which the evidence is weighed and shown to support the claim This general structure (Figure 4.4) is used repeatedly, quite indepen- dently of a writer’s field of specialization, profession, or job definition. These elements of argument do not always have to be explicit, although they usually should be. Moreover, the order and extent of their develop- ment will depend on the kind of audience you are addressing. The more expert the audience, the more detailed your arguments have to be. In the short memorandum shown in Figure 4.4, we see these elements in an argumentative sequence. We see a problem that has a commercial and a technical aspect. The problem definition is narrow, but the argu- ment, in this instance, is merely that a formal project should be under- taken to establish the effectiveness of the proposed solution. 48 Organizing and Drafting Documents Figure 4.4 Argumentative structure in an internal memorandum. This brief recommendation report displays the essential problem identification, followed by the criteria, evi- dence, and conclusion. Organizing and Drafting Documents 49 [...]... qualify the data (Source: Jagota and Dawson 1987 Courtesy of ASME.) geometric forms to Mendeleev’s periodic table to Watson and Crick’s double helix An effective graphic promotes thinking and discussion Graphics as Analysis and Illustration A table, graph, or drawing often begins as an analytical tool to help an investigator think about a subject and evolves into an expository strategy to help convince a... with topics that need to be developed more gradually In the sample below, for example, the prose is compressed and vague The material needs to be sorted and developed with more care Underdeveloped writing (2 sentences) The current photovoltaic industry remains a high-cost industry, whose production of solar cells is labor-intensive and therefore costly, and this limitation makes investors reluctant to. .. underdeveloped and poorly focused passage, as shown in the example below: Underdeveloped writing 3 Experimental procedure 3. 1 Apparatus 3. 1.1 Chopper wheel (Figure 3) : Diameter—approx 1.2 cm Material—cadmium, slit width approx 1 mm No of slits—6 Its purpose is to chop the neutron beam into clusters of particles, whose energy distribution will correspond to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution 3. 1.2 Motor (low-power... The wheel is rotated by a low-power AC motor Your paragraphs should have clear topic sentences The remaining detail should then be subordinated to the main topic These measures will help develop the logical flow and coherence of your material Expanding the Draft in Order to Clarify Your Arguments Sometimes draft material needs to be expanded in order to show steps in logic or to provide clarifying detail... According to recent studies (Clifford 1998), this is a problem for manufacturers, who must decide whether to further intensify their labor for possible short-term profits or to seek government support and to automate Although the paragraph above is comprehensible, the first sentence attempts to make so many different points that it sacrifices focus and specific detail Phrases like ‘‘high-cost industry’’ and. .. content to improve its logic and focus This process will lead naturally into reworking individual sentences and rephrasing for greater impact on your audience You start out trying to make the draft reflect more accurately your aim and writing strategy and you work your way into reviewing the draft for clarity, word choice, and economy As Figure 5.1 suggests, manuscripts are most effectively revised and. .. sentences, and words that need stylistic improvement Good style means economy and clarity It does not seek strict uniformity in prose but does demand vigorous expression Clarity governs these choices throughout the document: Paragraphs At the paragraph level, clarity refers to unity and coherence, normally achieved by keeping sentences on topic and by linking them together with key words and transitions... colleagues and probably your supervisor as well The time it takes to circulate your document so that others have a chance to read it and make suggestions is your time for a breather Many writers put their work on the shelf and move on to something else during this period When they come back to their work to incorporate comments and revise, they have a fresh perspective 5 Revising for Organization and Style... proposal With 24 hours to go before the deadline, the team meets to read the complete document, revise it, and compile the sections Unfortunately for team members, their very worthy project may not be competitive Their aims may be well stated and their plans well outlined, but they’ve made an alltoo-common mistake: They’ve left too little time for revision Revising is part of writing To achieve the high... associated with small-scale production of solar cells have prevented the photovoltaic industry from attracting the investment capital needed to automate manufacturing lines Moreover, large companies in the United States will be unwilling to invest in photovoltaic array production until an annual market of $50 to $100 million is certain (Clifford 1986) In order to meet nearterm demand for solar cells, . begin to see on paper what exactly you can and cannot—claim. Your discoveries are about to assume their soon -to- be-transmitted shapes. Your impulse may now be to sit at your word processor and. ways: . Isolating and arranging topics. As you name some topics and dis- pense with others, you give focus to your document. To develop the parts of an outline, identify keywords that name your categories and. priorities and think about connections among topics. Organizing and Drafting Documents 43 Figure 4.2 Some typical document formats. Such structures are top-down design tools that serve to reduce