Encyclopedia of Smart Materials (Vols 1 and 2) - M. Schwartz (2002) Episode 4 pot

P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 216 COMPOSITES, FUTURE CONCEPTS Structural materials Properties Functional materials Multifunctional materials Intelligent materials Functions Properties Functions Information Simultaneous functions Composite materials Monolithic materials Figure 2. Evolution of the design of materials with macrostruc- ture and microstructure. to domestic appliances and the medical supply industry. The reason for this universal utilization of these new ma- terials is their extensive range of physical properties. Their physical properties could comply precisely with the design specification of a product. In the past, metallurgists were primarily responsible for the development of new mate- rials. Now these new materials are synthesized by eclectic teams of specialists. The trend of employing eclectic teams of specialists was responsible for the explosive development during the lat- ter half of the twentieth century of a plethora of mate- rial classifications too numerous to discuss here. These include the development of a variety of functional mate- rials, such as gallium arsenide or magentostrictive ma- terials where the functional properties are exploited in practice instead of the structural properties as in tradi- tional practice. However, there is one classification worthy of mention because it is important commercially and is cen- tral to chronicling the evolution of a branch of materials science. This class of modern materials is the advanced compo- sites. These engineered materials are synthesized within two distinct phases comprising a load-bearing material housed in a relatively weak protective matrix. The rein- forcement is typically particles, whiskers, or fibers, while the matrix canbepolymeric, ceramic, or metallic materials. A characteristic of these composite materials is that the combination of two or more constituent materials creates a material with engineering properties superior to those of the constituents—albeit at the expense of more challeng- ing fabrication technologies. As an aside, it should be noted that the field of fibrous composite materials technologies is not entirely new. Con- sider the recording in Exodus, chapter 5 of the Bible, of the Israelites manufacturing bricks from a mixture of clay and straw for the pharaoh in Egypt in 450 BC. Over a thou- sand years later, the French used a combination of horse hair and plaster to create ornate ceilings in stately homes. Advanced polymeric composite materials have afforded the engineering community the opportunity to fabri- cate products with the strongest and stiffest parts per unit weight. Furthermore, by appropriately designing the macrostructure of these materials, the engineer can de- velop composites with different properties in different di- rections, or alternatively, different properties in different domains of a structural member. Thus, not only are the geometrical and surface attributes of the part being de- signed, but in addition the material’s macrostructure is being design too. The infusion of these materials into nu- merous industries has been responsible for the creation of many generations of products in the defense, automotive, biomedical, and sporting goods industries, for example. Thus at the dusk of the twentieth century the creation of materials with an engineered macrostructure was the state-of-the-art. In the context of advanced fibrous com- posite materials, materials science had come the full cir- cle. In the beginning, naturally occurring materials were studied by Homo habilis to select the appropriate mineral for the tip of the spear or arrow. Now, one million years later, Homo sapiens sapiens is studying naturally occur- ring fibrous composite materials in order to emulate the placement of fibers for the creation of synthetic composite parts. One of the primary motivations for the growth of this field of scientific endeavor is that naturally occurring fibrous composites are embodied in numerous species of flora and fauna. They are one of the basic building blocks of life. They are an intrinsic design of Nature’s. Clearly, if these biological systems have evolved to these mature states through the millennia, then they are indeed worthy of study and perhaps emulation in an engineering context. This observation provides the underpinning of the subse- quent section: biologically inspired materials. Historically, then, each era during the evolution of hu- mankind was motivated by the insatiable demand for supe- rior weapons and more innovative products. In turn, this demand propelled the maturing of materials science, be- cause the triumvirate of product design comprises materi- als, manufacturing and conceptual design. And of course this quest is very evident to this day. Currently the age of synthetic materials has been driven by the same motives. While plastics shall undoubtedly remain an increasingly dominant component of modern lifestyles, the new mil- lennium shall witness the emergence of a superior class P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 COMPOSITES, FUTURE CONCEPTS 217 of advanced materials. These smart materials, or intelli- gent materials, materials with diverse characteristics that mimic flora and fauna, shall be responsible for historians classifying it as The Age of Smart Materials, because they will dominate the materials selection process when tech- nologists are seeking state-of-the-art materials. BIOLOGICALLY-INSPIRED CREATIVITY IN ENGINEERING Although human genius through various inventions makes instruments corresponding to the same ends. It will never discover an invention more beautiful nor more ready nor more economical than does Nature, because in her inventions nothing is lacking and nothing is superfluous. Leonardo da Vinci (Ms RL 19115v; K/P 114r, Royal Library, Windsor) These profound words penned some 500 years ago by Leonardo, that brilliant painter, sculptor, draftsman, archi- tect and visionary engineer, are the earliest that formally recognize the power of Nature’s creativity in the fields of natural science such as botany, zoology, and entomology. The naturally occurring materials and systems associated with these academic disciplines have developed their pro- perties and characteristics over millions of years through processes of Darwinian evolution. They have been required to survive when subjected to dynamically changing en- vironmental conditions. Indeed, these conditions demand that only the most adaptable and fittest survive. There- fore, these biological systems are truly optimal designs engineered by Mother Nature in response to a set of un- written design specifications. Hence they merit meticulous scrutiny and potential emulation by humankind. Since Charles Darwin’s seminal work in 1859, entitled “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,” the notion of natural selection has remained the central theme of evolutionary biology. Thus the proposition is that all life forms evolved because organisms with traits that promoted reproduction and survival somehow passed on those traits to future generations. Organisms without those traits simply became extinct. They failed to survive. Indeed, this powerful assertion has motivated theories in several disciplines beyond the central theme of materials science. Hence the proposition of learning from biological systems to advance the field of engineering has credence. Evolutionary psychology, for example, proposes that the human mind is not a vacuous medium, but instead com- prises specialized mental protocols that were honed by the solving of problems faced long ago. Sociobiology, on the other hand, employs natural selection and other biologi- cal phenomena to explain the social behavior of animals. This emulation, or mimicking, of biological systems isof- ten called biomimetics. The name is derived from the Greek bios (life) and mimesis (imitation). It can be employed by creative designers to develop solutions to engineering prob- lems through the use of a direct analogy between a natu- rally occurring system and an engineering system. Thus a meticulous and comprehensive study of a living organ- ism can yield invaluable insight into the subtleties of its refined design atributes developed by a lengthy process of evolution and optimization. Already during recent centuries Nature’s creative prowess has been recognized and exploited by many gifted individuals. Consider, for example, Sir George Cayley’s work in 1810 when he was designing a low-drag shape for his fixed wing flying machine. He exploited his know- ledge of ichthyology to propose that the geometry of the wing cross section should mimic the streamlined low-drag cross section of the trout. Sir Marc Isambard Brunel pro- posed the use of caissons to facilitate the underwater con- struction of civil engineering structures by the serendipi- tous observation of a shipworm tunneling in timber. George de Mistral developed the hook-and-loop fastener, such as those manufactured by Velcro USA, Inc, by studying how cocklebur plants tenaciously adhered to his trousers af- ter he had walked through woodland thickets. Of course, there are many others too who have used a direct analogy between a biological system and an engineering system in order to create a new artifact for the betterment of hu- mankind. In the context of the development of advanced materi- als from studies of naturally occurring systems with fibers, such as the stalks of celery or the skin of a banana, the fibrous composites of engineering practice are an obvious consideration. They emulate the fibrous structures of mus- cles or plants. For example, the structure of the humble tree comprises flexible cellulose fibers in a rigid lignin ma- trix. On the other hand, the insect cuticle comprises chitin fibers in a proteinaceous matrix. On a separate level of comparison between materials engineered by humankind and those created by Mother Nature, consider the variety of materials in both clas- sifications. In 1990, it was estimated that the market- place contained about 60,000 different plastics. This con- trasts sharply with the observation that there are only two groups of substances from which almost all skeletal tissues of animals and plants are formed. These groups are the amino-acid-based proteins and polysaccharides that occur together in different proportions in the vast majority of biological materials. Clearly, the apparently limited chem- istry of these naturally occurring materials is compensated for by the tremendous diversity of their microstructure. In addition, the creation and manufacture of these diverse microstructures is accomplished when subjected to a small range of temperature, humidity, and pressure. These lim- ited conditions contrast markedly with the extreme ther- modynamic environments employed to produce plastics. Finally, these processes of design and manufacture occur simultaneously. They occur in unison. Again, this contrasts sharply with the protocols implemented in a large percent- age of industrial enterprises where design departments and manufacturing departments function autonomously. They do not practice simultaneous engineering. SMART MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES: CURRENT NONCOMMERCIAL TECHNOLOGIES Biological systems are extremely complex, and in the con- text of biomimetics, it is therefore only inevitable that an eclectic team of specialists must be assembled to pros- ecute the research if progress is to be assured in the P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 218 COMPOSITES, FUTURE CONCEPTS creation of new materials. Teams of trained professionals are mandatory because biomimetics lies at the boundaries of numerous artificial disciplines that have been created by the academic community in order to study the phe- nomenological problems of life. Thus a team with exper- tise in materials science, biological sciences, biotechnology, nanotechnology, molecular electronics, artificial intelli- gence, data-processing, microprocessors, automatic control theory, manufacturing, applied mathematics, chemistry, physics and the like, is required, along with the associ- ated equipment. The best configuration would be a blend of academics, industrialists, and government employees. The creation of this type of infrastructure is often a chal- lenging undertaking. Thus there is a need for large grants and perhaps centers of excellence. Unfortunately, in many academic institutions the tra- ditional research philosophy is for each professor to seek their own funding. Interdisciplinary collaboration is minimal. Unfortunately, this is an outcome of the academic system where professors are promoted because of their individual accomplishments and natural phenomena are broken down into distinct fields and the artificial interfaces are well defined. This infrastructure hinders potential in- teractions between individuals in adjacent fields. Thus the conventional model is of a single investigator guiding grad- uate students and postdoctoral fellows. Therefore there needs to be a major shift in the current research paradigm if progress in this field is to proceed effectively. However, using the typical single-discipline non-all- embracing philosophy, humankind has indeed created a multitude of macroscopically smart materials that mimic naturally occurring materials. While these material sys- tems are still quite crude relative to Nature’s materials, they do exhibit, at the most advanced level, the behavior of muscles (by using actuators), nerves (by using sensors), and brains (by using control schemes, microprocessors, fuzzy logic, artificial intelligence, etc.) at various levels of sophistication. The diverse structural materials, functional materi- als, and multifunctional materials can be combined in building-block style, as shown in Fig. 3. The materials that mimic naturally occurring materials can have, at the most advanced levels sensors, actuators, information pathways, control schemes, and microprocessors. Some people clas- sify these materials as intelligent materials because they can respond effectively to dynamically changing environ- mental conditions. An intelligent material could comprise a graphite-epoxy fibrous polymeric structural material that houses some embedded fiber optic Mach Zender interferometric strain sensors and conventional surface-mounted electrical resis- tance strain gauge strain sensors. The signals from these sensors could be processed by a microprocessor that em- ploys an appropriate control algorithm to activate an ar- ray of actuators exploiting piezoelectric and shape-memory phenomena to create an optimal performance under vari- able external stimuli. It should be noted that there are naturally several lev- els of complexity in this field. At the lowest level, a mate- rial might feature only sensors to emulate the nerves of a Sensor Sensor Sensor/ actuator Structure Actuator Actuator Structure Microscopic Macroscopic Figure 3. Classification of materials design. biological material: photonic, piezoelectric, or conventional strain gauges, for example, depending on the design speci- fication. Alternatively, the smart material might only fea- ture actuators that are controlled manually to emulate the muscles of a biological material. These actuators include a variety of functional materials that demonstrate the di- verse phenomena associated with piezoelectricity, electro- rheology, magnetorheology, magnetostriction, and elec- trostriction, for example. They are typically excited by an electrical stimulus that changes the geometrical configu- ration, stiffness, or energy dissipation characteristics in a controlled manner. At the highest level, the material might include the brains of a biological system. These complex entities can be imperfectly represented by the exploitation and integration of diverse theories and technologies asso- ciated with neural networks, rule-based systems, a mul- titude of control schemes, signal processing, nanotechno- lgy, and microprocessors, for example. Figure 4 illustrates some of the primary components of thee materials. The last decade has witnessed an explosion of articles on smart materials, and the first book dedicated to the field was published in 1992 by the author. While two jour- nals are dedicated to this field—namely the Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures and the Jour- nal of Smart Materials and Structures—the eclectic na- ture of this field, coupled with the importance of materi- als science in the product realization process, mandates that most academic journals now publish regularly arti- cles on some aspect of the field. The World Wide Web is an obvious source of information on these activities, but the P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 COMPOSITES, FUTURE CONCEPTS 219 Microprocessor-based computational capabilities Real-time control capabilities Smart materials Structural material Network of actuators Network of sensors Figure 4. Ingredients of the premier class of smart materials. professional wishing to enter this rapidly evolving field would be well advised to attend the SPIE’s international symposium on smart materials and structures for an overview of current thinking. SMART MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES: THE FUTURE Predicting the future of a technical field with any certainty is fraught with errors and subsequent embarrassment. Therefore I will refrain from peering to the horizon with binoculars, preferring to view the future without an opti- cal aid. After all, there are numerous records of truly gifted individuals failing to accomplish this task of predicting the evolution of a scientific disciplines or a technological field. For example, the famous British scientist Lord Kelvin, who was president of the Royal Society in 1895, stated that “Heavier than air flying machines are impossible.” Four years later, Charles H. Duell, commissioner of the U.S. Office of Patents, commented that “Everything that can be invented has been invented.” More recently, in 1977, Ken Olsen, the founder of Digital Equipment Corporation, said “There is no reason for any individuals to have a computer in their home.” Thus the evidence is clear. Nevertheless, fu- ture objectives will be explored on the tenet that engineers and scientists should mimic naturally occurring systems as one method of advancing the state-of-the art. The most sophisticated class of smart materials in the foreseeable future will be that which emulates biologi- cal systems. This class of multifunctional materials will possess the capability to select and execute specific func- tions intelligently in order to respond to changes in the local environment. Furthermore, these materials could have the ability to anticipate challenges based on the ability to recognize, analyze, and discriminate. These ca- pabilities should include self-diagnosis, self-repair, self- multiplication, self-degradation, self-learning, and home- ostasis. Table 1. Nature’s Rules for Sustaining Ecosystems Use waste as a resource Diversify and cooperate to fully use the habitat Gather and use energy efficiently Optimize rather than maximize Use material sparingly Don’t foul nests Don’t draw down resources Remain in balance with the biosphere Run on information Shop locally Environmental Design Issues The maturing nexuses between professionals in the bio- logical and engineering communities have been responsi- ble for a deeper appreciation of the awesome prowess of Nature’s creations. This appreciation should be used to es- tablish new operating procedures for the design and manu- facture of the next generation of materials. They canon can be distilled from studies of complex ecosystems that have evolved through the millennia. These winning strategies have been adopted by diverse organisms; therefore, they have been employed by both animals and plants compris- ing diverse organs and parts. This diversity nevertheless does not defer their harmonious functioning together to sustain life and its activities. Indeed, these diverse organ- isms provide a set of rules that are worthy of analysis and potential implementation in engineering practice by hu- mankind. After all, Homo sapiens sapiens is an organism too. They are presented in Table 1. The information in Table 1 has very broad ramifica- tions in terms of environmental design protocols for the engineering profession, in addition to the creation of new classes of smart materials. Health Monitoring of Smart Materials There is a cycle in all ecosystems. Biological systems ex- perience life and death. Thus there is a recycling of the material. Mature trees in a forest absorb nutrients from the soil, but they eventually die and collapse to the forest floor. There they crumble and decompose, providing enrich- ment to the soil. This enrichment provides nourishment for the next generation of trees and, of course, other forms of vegetation too. It appears therefore that materials that emulate this natural cycle could be developed. Indeed, there are already a number of biodegradable materials on the market that decompose after serving their useful purpose. In addition this philosophy has been responsible for new engineering protocols concerning the environment. Thus parts are be- ing recycled, others are being re-manufactured, and there is great concern for reducing the consumption of natural resources. The continuous monitoring of the health of a part or product is one of the many new ideas set for development based on the re-evaluation of practices in the context of naturally occurring systems. The engineering approach P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 220 COMPOSITES, FUTURE CONCEPTS Birth (cure monitoring) Life (use/performance feedback) Death (fatigue/failure monitoring) Figure 5. Health monitoring of Homo sapiens sapiens. requires sensors to be embedded in a material, or attached to the surface of a part, in order to provide information on the behavior of the engineering artifact or its structural integrity. It is called “health monitoring” or the cradle- through-grave” approach. This approach of continually monitoring the status of a part during manufacturing, ser- vice, and failure mimics the spasmodic health-monitoring activities ofHomo sapiens sapiens.Noninvasive techniques are often employed to monitor the health of individuals be- fore appropriate medical action is prescribed. These tech- niques, illustrated in Fig. 5, often begin in the womb and continue throughout life in response to various stimuli and conditions. The analogous engineering situations employ in situ sensors to monitor the behavior of the part during its man- ufacture, the service life, and at failure as shown in Fig. 6. Thus the sensing system would be employed initially to monitor the state of cure of a smart part during the fab- rication process, in an autoclave perhaps. Subsequently, the same system would monitor continuously the health of the part during the service life. For example, dynami- cal stresses could be monitored and compared with limits imposed by the design specification. If limits are exceeded, Death (critical monitoring) Life (health monitoring) Birth (ultrasound) Figure 6. Health monitoring of smart structures. then the operational envelope of the machine could be au- tomatically changed to restore it to the desired domain. Critical parts, subjected to complex fatigue environ- ments, could be monitored for structural integrity and im- pending failure. These would include primary structures of aircraft and large civil engineering structures such as dams, pipelines, and highway bridges. The task of main- taining these structures by maintenance and inspection would be greatly enhanced by this health-monitoring ca- pability. Intelligence in Biological Materials The intelligence to be imbued in a synthetic material developed by humankind should emulate the intelli- gent attributes found in biological systems. These at- tributes do not require human involvement, and they function autonomously, as evidenced by self-learning, self- degradation, and regeneration. Thus the rusting of iron in a humid environment could be considered to be a sim- ple form of self-degradation. Other functions could include the availability to recognize and subsequently discrimi- nate, redundancy, hierarchical control schemes, and the P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 COMPOSITES, FUTURE CONCEPTS 221 election of an appropriate action based on sensory data. Furthermore, a material that has been damaged and is undergoing a process of self-repair would reduce its level of performance in order to survive. Intelligence that should be inherent in future genera- tions of smart materials can comprise several categories that are derived from studies of biological systems. These are highlighted, with some of the consequences, for the va- riety of terms listed below. Crystal Structure. Changes occur in the orientation of crystals, in the atomic configuration, and in the in- teratomic spacings: These changes are responsible phase transformations, and in polymeric materials, the molecular chain can be re-configured from a folded state to an extended state. Molecular Structure. Changes occur in the molecular structure caused by molecular chains breaks, recon- figured intramolecular bonds, three-dimensional in- tramolecular spacings, and antigenic or enzymatic reactions. Macroscopic Structure. Global changes occur in the macroscopic structure after the diffusion and bulk transfer of fluids and ultra-fine powder. Composition. The interaction between a material and the neighboring environment at the interface results in a change in thematerial composition at the surface because of the attendant chemical reactions. Interfaces. Interfacial changes typically pertain to grain boundary phenomena and also reactions at the sur- face of a material resulting from interactions with the adjacent environment. Energy. The interaction between a material and the ad- jacent environment at the interface trigger an energy change or the release of electrons or photons. Ion Transfer. Ions become transformed ion materials and in addition radicals are transferred along poly- mer chains. Charge Transfer. Charge transfer occurs by conductivity in metals and charges are transferred along polymer chains in organic materials. Electronic Structure. The magnetic properties of mate- rials are changed by changes in the orientation of electronic spin vectors. This is the main vocabulary being used as attention shifts to the attributes of biological materials and how they can relate to the development of intelligence in smart ma- terials. The following paragraphs highlight some of the primary attributes of biological systems and their inter- pretation in the context of materials science. Some are il- lustrated in Fig. 7. Mitosis. Self-multiplication, self-breeding, or growth in a biological system involves a cell creating similar cells by mitosis to replicate itself. To mimic these pro- cesses, smart materials will be self-producing with the additional implicit constraint of terminating the process when a prescribed state has been achieved. Intelligence from the human standpoint (social utility) Intelligence inherent in materials (intelligent functions) Human desire toward realization of intelligence Manifestation of intelligence Learning Standby Homeostasis Self-adaptation/ surrounding-adjustment Time-functional responsiveness Fundamental understanding at atomic/molecular levels Materials with built-in software systems Feedback Recognition/ discrimination Information integration Other intelligence Prediction/ notification Self-assembly Self-repair Self- multiplication Self-diagnosis (internal) Redundancy Autolysis Intelligence at the most primitive levels in materials (primitive functions) Figure 7. Intelligent functions inherent in biological materials. This might require changes in their molecular or crystalline structure through the absorption of sub- stances from the neighboring environment or other regions of the material. Self-repair. This biological activity is closely related to the self-multiplication function or growth. It requires the identification of damage and the extent of the damage before the repair process is initiated and the material restored to its state of normality. The state is manifest in materials that undergo changes in crystalline structure and in the interfacial con- ditions at the surface of the material or at grain boundaries. Future classes of smart materials could autonomously regain their original shape through phase transformation, even after the material has suffered permanent deformation from surface im- pact. Autolysis. Biological systems die and decompose when they sustain severe injuries or damage, or they cease to receive nutrition. Smart materials with these at- tributes would decompose upon completion of their P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 222 COMPOSITES, FUTURE CONCEPTS useful life and be assimilated within the environ- ment. Smart materials with this attribute would be able to change their molecular structure or their macrostructure. Redundancy. To enhance survivability, biological sys- tems possess some degree of redundancy in their structures and functions in order to survive. Smart materials with this attribute would feature redun- dant functions that would be dormant under nor- mal conditions. However, as the material structure changes in response to dynamic environmental con- ditions, the microstructure would be reconfigured to maintain equilibrium through the activation of new functions. These functions would trigger a change of the molecular structure of the crystalline structure. For example, a stress-induced transformation might be triggered at the tip of a crack in order to reduce the stress concentration in that region and hinder the crack propagation. Alternatively, parts that de- mand high reliability and are being subjected to very high loads could embody an innovative function that triggers a phase transformation in order to develop higher strength properties. Learning. The ability to learn is fundamental to many aspects of the behavior of biological systems. Learn- ing would be manifest in smart materials through changes in their physical constants, and changes in the molecular or crystalline structure. The associ- ated knowledge-base is associated with some innate attributes; others are acquired through experience and through interactions with the local environment. These may involve inductive logic where general con- clusions are distilled from the observations of an event. Smart materials would benefit from this abil- ity and respond more appropriately to external stim- uli through the recollection of previous experiences. Some of the underpinnings would include sensory abilities, data processing, control schemes, and ac- tuators. Autonomous Diagnosis. Somebiological systems contain a self-diagnosis health-monitoring capability that permits the identification of problems, degradations, malfunctions, and judgmental errors. This is facil- itated by a comparison between the current condi- tions and the past. Classes of smart materials would be able to monitor their own welfare so that the ef- fects of damage on the performance of the material could be ascertained and corrective measures imple- mented. This class of functions would be achieved by molecular structural changes, changes in the crys- talline structure, or changes in the interfacial proper- ties at the surface or the grain boundaries. Typically changes occur in materials that are traditionally used in nonequilibrium states, and their functional properties change when they reach a state of equi- librium. In addition, changes are found in materials that determine autonomously the appropriate time to quickly terminate their functional behavior in re- sponse to the ambient environmental conditions, and in materials that detect degradation before they trig- ger a stress-induced transformation that reveals the damaged state, perhaps using energy. Prediction. Some biological systems can predict the im- mediate future and take appropriate action by ex- ploiting sensory data and by learning from their past experiences. Classes of smart materials designed to emulate these biological systems would need to use a combination of sensors, control algorithms, and knowledge. This is manifest in materials that un- dergo an energy change, a change in their molecu- lar structure, or a change in the crystalline struc- ture. Examples include the change in the crystalline structure associated with a phase change, the trans- fer of electrons precipitated by the re-configuring of the crystalline structure and stress induced transfor- mations. Standby. Smart materials should embody the state of readiness for action displayed by biological systems. This state would probably require several subfunc- tions such as sensing, diagnosis, prediction, learn- ing, and some class of actuators. This responsiveness could be governed by the role of the material and the ability to analyze the dynamically changing exter- nal environmental conditions. It would be manifest by changes in energy, molecular structure, and crys- talline structure. Information Integration. Biological systems generally evolve by storing the integrated experiences of previ- ous generations extending over a great period of time before it is transferred to subsequent generations. Thus the emulation of genes or DNA would provide the basis for the creation of materials with innova- tive functions that integrate and maintain memory banks. Recognition. Organisms frequently possess the ability to recognize and discriminate when evaluating in- formation. Smart materials with this ability would not only embody analytical skills but also some mea- sure of fuzzy logic to interpret the data from sensing functions. Homeostasis. Biological systems are generally sub- jected to dynamically changing environmental con- ditions that cause internal systems and struc- tures to change continually. Such systems survive and maintain stable physiological states by coor- dinated responses that autonomously compensate for these ever-changing external conditions. Innova- tive functions would need to be established to ac- complish these tasks. These functions would require closed-loop feedback systems where sensory informa- tion from both the input and the output states need to be compared. Furthermore, the desired conditions would require the careful orchestration of sensors, processors and actuators. Feedback is manifest in a variety of forms including the transfer of charges, the change in composition, the change in molecular structure, the transfer of radicals and ions, and the change in the crystalline structure. Thus, for example, materials P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 COMPOSITES, INTRINSICALLY SMART STRUCTURES 223 with a transformation temperature would undergo changes when external conditions subject the mate- rial to an elevated temperature. Adaptation. Biological systems adapt to ever-changing environmental conditions through the evolution of their physiological state. These abilities would have great utility in engineering practice.Examples of this class of materials include films of lubricants that as- sume solid or fluidic states depending on the local thermal or dynamic conditions. Others include mate- rials that control their optical properties in response to changes in external stimuli like magnetic fields, electrical fields, or heat. There are probably other biological attributes that are worthy of emulation in the design and manufacture of smart materials that mimic naturally occurring materi- als, but this list provides a beginning. The road ahead will have many positive and negative undulations and many winding turns. The primary provinces will include theo- retical studies, experimental studies, and computational studies, followed by design and manufacture, the creation of primitive functions, assembly and integration of these functions, material characterization, and the development of the supporting technologies. CONCLUDING COMMENTS With the passing of time, the technologies associated with materials are becoming ever more sophisticated. It is un- reasonable to contemplate the receding of this tide of knowledge and complexity because it is motivated by both commercial and military demands for superior materials. Composite materials, based on ideas emulating from nat- urally occurring materials, could be considered the most sophisticated class of materials created by humankind. If this is true, then it is only natural to invoke induction and suggest that biological materials are the basis from which new generations of materials will be developed. COMPOSITES, INTRINSICALLY SMART STRUCTURES D.D.L. CHUNG State University of New York at Buffalo Buffalo, NY INTRODUCTION Smart structures are important because of their use in hazard mitigation, structural vibration control, structural health monitoring, transportation engineering, and ther- mal control. Research on smart structures has emphasized incorporating of various devices in a structure to provide sensing, energy dissipation, actuation, control, or other functions. Research on smart composites has emphasized incorporating of a smart material in a matrix to enhance smartness or durability. Research on smart materials has emphasized the study of materials (e.g., piezoelectric ma- terials) used for making the devices. However, relatively little attention has been given to the development of struc- tural materials (e.g., concrete and composites) that can inherently provide some of the smart functions, so that the need for embedded or attached devices is reduced or eliminated, thereby lowering cost, enhancing durability, increasing the smart volume, and minimizing mechanical property degradation (which is usually caused by embed- ded devices). Smart structures are structures that can sense certain stimuli and respond to the stimuli appropriately, some- what like a human being. Sensing is the most fundamental aspect of a smart structure. A structural composite, which is itself a sensor, is multifunctional. This article focuses on structural composites for smart structures. It addresses cement-matrix and polymer- matrix composites. The smart functions addressed include strain sensing (for structural vibration control and traffic monitoring), damage sensing (both mechanical and ther- mal damage related to structural health monitoring), tem- perature sensing (for thermal control, hazard mitigation, and structural performance control), thermoelectricity (for thermal control and saving energy), and vibration reduc- tion (for structural vibration control). These functional abilities of the structural composites have been shown in the laboratory. Applications in the field are forthcoming. CEMENT-MATRIX COMPOSITES FOR SMART STRUCTURES Cement-matrix composites include concrete (containing coarse and fine aggregates), mortar (containing fine ag- gregate but no coarse aggregate), and cement paste (con- taining no aggregate, whether coarse or fine). Other fillers, called admixtures, can be added to the mix to improve the properties of the composite. Admixtures are discontinuous, so that they can be included in the mix. They can be par- ticles such as silica fume (a fine particulate) and latex (a polymer in the form of a dispersion). They can be short fibers such as polymer, steel, glass, or carbon fibers. They can be liquids such as aqueous methylcellulose solutions, water reducing agents, and defoamers. Admixtures to ren- der the composite smart while maintaining or even im- proving the structural properties are the focus of this section. Background on Cement-Matrix Composites Cement-matrix composites for smart structures include those that contain short carbon fibers (for sensing strain, damage, and temperature and for thermal control), short steel fibers (for sensing temperature and for thermal con- trol), and silica fume (for vibration reduction). This sec- tion provides background on cement-matrix composites and emphasizes the carbon-fiber cement-matrix composite due to its dominance among intrinsically smart cement- matrix composites. Carbon-fiber cement-matrix composites are structural materials that are gaining in importance quite rapidly due P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1: FCH PB091-C2-Drv January 12, 2002 1:0 224 COMPOSITES, INTRINSICALLY SMART STRUCTURES to the decrease in carbon-fiber cost (1) and the increas- ing demand for superior structural and functional proper- ties.These composites contain shortcarbon fibers, typically 5 mm long; the short fibers can be used as an admixture in concrete (whereas continuous fibers cannot be simply added to the concrete mix), and short fibers are less expen- sive than continuous fibers. However, due to the weak bond between carbon fiber and the cement matrix, continuous fibers (2–4) are much more effective than short fibers in re- inforcing concrete. Surface treatment of carbon fiber [e.g., by heating (5) or by using ozone (6,7), silane (8), SiO 2 parti- cles (9), or hot NaOH solution (10)] is useful for improving the bond between fiber and matrix, thereby improving the properties of the composite. Surface treatment by ozone or silane improves the bond due to the enhanced wettability by water. Admixtures such as latex (6,11), methylcellulose (6), and silica fume (12) also improve the bond. The effect of carbon fiber addition on the properties of concrete increases with fiber volume fraction (13), unless the fiber volume fraction is so high that the air void con- tent becomes excessively high (14). (The air void content increases with fiber content and air voids tend to have a negative effect on many properties, such as compressive strength.) In addition, the workability of the mix decreases with fiber content (13). Moreover, the cost increases with fiber content. Therefore, a rather low volume fraction of fibers is desirable. A fiber content as low as 0.2 vol.% is ef- fective (15), although fiber contents exceeding 1 vol.% are more common (16–20). The required fibercontent increases with the particle size of the aggregate, because flexural strength decreases as particle size increases (21). The effective use of carbon fibers in concrete requires dispersing of the fibers in the mix. Dispersion is enhanced by using silica fume (a fine particulate) as an admixture (14,22–24). Typical silica fume content is 15% by weight of cement (14). The silica fume is usually used along with a small amount (0.4% by weight of cement) of methylcellu- lose to help the dispersion of the fibers and the workability of the mix (14). Latex (typically 15–20% by weight of ce- ment) is much less effective than silica fume in helping fiber dispersion, but it enhances the workability, flexural strength, flexural toughness, impact resistance, frost resis- tance, and acid resistance (14,25,26). The ease ofdispersion increases with decreasing fiber length (24). The structural properties improved by carbon fiber addi- tion are increased tensile and flexible strengths, increased tensile ductility and flexural toughness, enhanced im- pact resistance, reduced drying shrinkage, and improved freeze–thaw durability (13–15,17–25,27–38). Tensile and flexural strengths decrease as specimen size increases, so that the size effect becomes larger as the fiber length in- creases (39). Low drying shrinkage is valuable for large structures, for repair (40,41), and in joining bricks in a brick structure (42,43). The functional properties created by carbon fiber addition are strain sensing (7,44–58) (for smart structures), temperature sensing (59–62), damage sensing (44,48,63–65), thermoelectric behavior (60–62), thermal insulation (66–68) (to save energy for buildings), electrical conduction (69–78) (to facilitate cathodic protec- tion of embedded steel and to provide electrical ground- ing or connection), and radio wave reflection/absorption (79–84) (for electromagnetic interference or EMI shield- ing, for lateral guidance in automatic highways, and for television image transmission). In relation to structural properties, carbon fibers com- pete with glass, polymer, and steel fibers (18,27–29,32, 36–38,85). Carbon fibers (isotropic pitch-based) (1,85) are advantageous in their superior ability to increase the ten- sile strength of concrete, even though the tensile strength, modulus, and ductility of isotropic pitch-based carbon fibers are low compared to most other fibers. Carbon fibers are also advantageous in relative chemical inertness (86). PAN-based carbon fibers are also used (17,19,22,33), al- though they are more commonly used as continuous fibers than short fibers. Carbon-coated glass fibers (87,88) and submicron diameter carbon filaments (77–79) are even less commonly used, although the former are attractive for the low cost of glass fibers and the latter are attractive for their high radio wave reflectivity (which results from the skin effect). C-shaped carbon fibers are more effective for strengthening than round carbon fibers (89), but their rel- atively large diameter makes them less attractive. Carbon fibers can be used in concrete together with steel fibers; the addition of short carbon fibers to steel-fiber-reinforced mortar increases the fracture toughness of the interfacial zone between the steel fiber and the cement matrix (90). Carbon fibers can also be used in concrete together with steel bars (91,92) or together with carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer rods (93). Carbon fibers are exceptional in most functional prop- erties, compared to the other fiber types. Carbon fibers are electrically conducting, in contrast to glass and polymer fibers, which are not conducting. Steel fibers are conduct- ing, but their typical diameter (≥60 µm) is much larger than the diameter of a typical carbon fiber (15 µm). The combination of electrical conductivity and small diameter makes carbon fibers superior to the other fiber types in the strain sensing and electrical conduction. However, carbon fibers are inferior to steel fibers for thermoelectric compos- ites, due to the high electron concentration in steel and the low hole concentration in carbon. Although carbon fibers are thermally conducting, the addition of carbon fibers to concrete lowers the thermal conductivity (66), thus allowing applications for thermal insulation. This effect of carbon fiber addition is due to the increase in air void content. The electrical conductivity of carbon fibers is higher than that of the cement matrix by about eight orders of magnitude, whereas the thermal con- ductivity of carbon fibers is higher than that of the cement matrix by only one or two orders of magnitude. As a result, electrical conductivity is increased upon carbon fiber addi- tion despite the increase in air void content, but thermal conductivity is decreased upon fiber addition. The use of pressure after casting (94) and extrusion (95, 96) can result in composites that have superior microstruc- ture and properties. Moreover, extrusion improves the sha- pability (95). Cement-Matrix Composites for Strain Sensing The electrical resistance of strain-sensing concrete (with- out embedded or attached sensors) changes reversibly with [...]... 0. 41 0.82 (7.8 ± 0.5) × 10 4 (4. 8 ± 0 .4) × 10 4 (5.6 ± 0.5) × 10 4 (3.2 ± 0.3) × 10 4 (1. 4 ± 0 .1) × 10 5 (1. 1 ± 0 .1) × 10 5 (1. 5 ± 0 .1) × 10 4 (8.3 ± 0.5) × 10 2 (9.7 ± 0.6) × 10 4 (1. 8 ± 0 .2) × 10 3 − 51. 0 ± 4. 8 −56.8 ± 5.2 − 54. 8 ± 3.9 −66.2 ± 4. 5 48 .1 ± 3.2 −55 .4 ± 5.0 +1. 45 ± 0.09 +2.82 ± 0 .11 +1. 20 ± 0.05 +2 .10 ± 0.08 −53.3 ± 4. 8 −59 .1 ± 5.2 −57 .1 ± 3.9 −68.5 ± 4. 5 −50 .4 ± 3.2 −57.7 ± 5.0 −0.89 ± 0.09 +0 .48 ... Res 30(7), 11 75 11 78 (2000) 10 0 Y Xu and D.D.L Chung, ACI Mater J 97(3), 333– 342 (2000) 10 1 Y Wang and D.D.L Chung, Cem Concr Res 28 (10 ), 13 53– 13 56 (19 98) 10 2 S Wen and D.D.L Chung, Cem Concr Res 30 (2), 327–330 (2000) 10 3 Y Xu and D.D.L Chung, Cem Con Res 29(7), 11 07 11 09 (19 99) 10 4 W.F.A Davies, J Phys., D 7, 12 0 13 0 (19 74) 10 5 W.J Gadja, Report RADC-TR-78 -1 5 8, A059029 19 78 11 4 X Wang and D.D.L Chung,... (333.6) 12 00.0 (17 4. 0) 827 .4 (12 0.0) — 2757.9 (40 0.0) 3650.0 (529 .4) 2068 .4 (300.0) 2.0 (0.29) 1. 4 (0.20) 2.8 (0. 41 ) 1. 0 10 .0 (0 .15 1. 5) 35.0 10 0.0 (5 .1 14 .5) 40 .0–90.0 (5.8 13 .1) 60.0–75.0 (8.7 10 .9) 45 .0–70.0 (6.5 10 .2) 25.0–38.0 (3.6–5.5) 27.6 (4. 0) 34. 5 (5.0) 41 . 4 (6.0) 92.0 (13 .3) 27.6 48 .3 (4. 0–7.0) MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) 2895.8 (42 0.0) 40 00.0 (580 .2) 55.2 (8.0) 39.0 (5.7) Sources: Data after Flinn and. .. Reference (µV/◦ C) P-25a T-300a P-25a + T-300a P-25a + T-300a (crossply) P -1 0 0a P -1 2 0a P -1 0 0 (Na) P -1 0 0 (Br2 ) P -1 0 0 (Br2 ) + P -1 0 0 (Na) P -1 2 0 (Na) P -1 2 0 (Br2 ) P -1 2 0 (Br2 ) + P -1 2 0 (Na) a Pristine (i.e., not intercalated) Absolute Thermoelectric Power (µV/◦ C) +0.8 −5.0 1. 5 −7.3 1. 7 −3.2 48 +43 4. 0 −5.5 −50 + 41 42 +38 44 +36 Thermocouple Sensitivity (µV/◦ C) +5.5 +5 .4 +82 + 74 Temperature difference... Modulus of Mortars with and Without Steel Reinforcement Frequency Property Sample Typea 0.2 Hz 0.5 Hz 1. 0 Hz . Hz Plain a 0. 016 < ;10 4 < ;10 4 < ;10 4 Sand < ;10 4 < ;10 4 < ;10 4 < ;10 4 Sand + silica fume 0.0 21 0 . 14 0. 01 < ;10 4 a No sand, no silica fume. P1: FCH/FYX P2: FCH/FYX QC: FCH/UKS T1:. 0.09 C f (1. 0 a ) + SF b 0.95 (8.3 ± 0.5) × 10 2 +2.82 ± 0 .11 +0 .48 ± 0 .11 +2.82 ± 0 .11 +0 .48 ± 0 .11 C f (0.5 a ) + L c 0. 41 (9.7 ± 0.6) × 10 4 +1. 20 ± 0.05 1. 14 ± 0.05 +1. 20 ± 0.05 1. 14 ± 0.05 C f (1. 0 a ). 0.006 Silica fume (6 .12 ± 0 .15 ) × 10 5 11 .60 ± 0.37 0.035 ± 0.003 0.0 84 ± 0.0 04 Carbon fibers + (1. 73 ± 0.08) × 10 4 8 .15 ± 0. 34 0.390 ± 0. 0 14 0. 41 2 ± 0. 017 silica fume Latex (6.99 ± 0 .12 ) × 10 5 11 .80