219 CHAPTER 18 Aerial Photointerpretation of Hazardous Waste Sites: An Overview Donald Garofalo INTRODUCTION Much interest has been expressed recently by scientists interested in the capabilities and limita- tions of various remote sensors for characterizing hazardous waste and waste disposal sites. Spe- cial attention has been focused on the ability of these sensors to locate and characterize waste and waste site activities at abandoned facilities. As such, sophisticated new radar systems, thermal sen- sors, and other multispectral and hyperspectral scanners are being assessed as potential candidates for addressing the waste discovery and characterization problem. Airborne radars can penetrate sand in hyperarid environments, between 1–6 meters in depth (Sabins, 1987); penetration is minimal in humid soil areas. Thermal sensors can display tempera- ture variations at the surface, sometimes suggestive of subsurface conditions and multispectral and hyperspectral scanners can detect subtle changes in the surface environment which may be sug- gestive of buried features. The historical aerial photograph, however, frequently has resolutions for detecting barrel size or smaller features, and the ability to show site conditions long ago. Thus, the historical aerial photograph, unlike many newer and more sophisticated sensors, is an inexpen- sive source of invaluable information which can be used to locate a waste disposal site and meas- ure accurately the size and dimensions of currently buried or overgrown features and to generally track the history of waste disposal site activity from beginning to end. THE HISTORICAL AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH The historical aerial photograph is the sensor of choice of the Environmental Protection Agency’s Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC), which for the past 25 plus years has been applying this tool for locating potential waste disposal sites and characterizing these sites and associated waste disposal practices. The historical aerial photograph is an ex- tremely powerful remote sensing tool. It is the only remotely sensed data to have recorded events at sites frequently as far back in time as the 1930s. This is of immense value to the Superfund pro- gram which is charged with looking for and evaluating abandoned hazardous waste disposal sites, sites which today may display no evidence at the surface of their former use (Slonecker et al., 1999). The tool is of substantial value in litigation as evidence of the past waste disposal practices of PRPs (Principal Responsible Parties), and has been highly successful at assisting EPA and De- partment of Justice lawyers in winning their cases. In addition, the ability to view the aerial photo stereoscopically (in 3-D) and to measure, using photogrammetry, the heights, depths, volumes, and other dimensions of features and materials currently present, long removed from, or buried at © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing a site has also contributed invaluable evidence in courtroom situations, and has helped to recon- struct pictorially for jurors and judges alike and in an easily understandable format, the activity at a site over time. Finally, the availability of historical aerial photographs from both government and private sources, and the extent of aerial photo coverage of the United States, through various fed- eral agency mapping programs such the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (now Farm Services Agency), and the U.S. Geological Survey, to name only two, have literally ensured that a hazardous waste disposal site located within the conterminous US has been overflown and site conditions documented more than once during the site’s disposal history. This chapter focuses on the value of the historical aerial photograph and the various image analysis and mapping functions which use aerial photos for analyzing hazardous waste disposal sites. THE BASICS OF AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION FOR WASTE SITE CHARACTERIZATION Backlighting and Variable Magnification Using backlighted tables with adjustable illumination, and high-power magnification zoom stereoscopes, aerial photographs are interpreted for site size, drainage patterns, type of fill materi- als, leachate, burial sites, lagoons, impoundments and their contents, and general condition of the site. Locations and descriptions of tanks, drums, open storage areas, evidence of vegetation stress, on-site obstacles, structures, equipment, access routes, and other details may also be obtained through photo analysis. Historical analysis provides the information necessary to obtain a chrono- logical understanding of a site’s development and activities. This information is particularly im- portant for describing and illustrating past activities and conditions at abandoned hazardous waste disposal sites which fall under the jurisdiction of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (aka Superfund) program. Film Transparencies The use of aerial photo transparencies on backlighted variable illumination tables maximizes the available information content of analyzed aerial photographs. Aerial photo transparencies are first generation copies of originally exposed film. Each additional step of film processing, such as producing additional film copies or photographic prints degrades from the original product and re- duces the amount of information contained in the original photo. High-powered magnifying scopes are used to identify subtle, but often significant features on aerial photos which can easily be overlooked if not viewed with the benefit of backlighting and variable magnification. Stereoscopy The importance of stereoscopy in the photointerpretation process cannot be ignored. Stere- oscopy allows the photo analyst to see features on an aerial photograph in three dimensions (3-D). Through stereoscopic parallax (the apparent displacement of the position of a feature in an image caused by a change in the position of observation) a stereoscope may be used to view overlapping aerial photographs to provide a three-dimensional effect of features on the ground (Figure 18.1). When coupled with various measuring devices such as stereo comparators or other digital pho- togrammetric devices highly accurate measurements can be made of the dimensions (height, widths, lengths, depth) of features seen on the aerial photograph. Volumes of materials and volu- 220 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES: AN OVERVIEW 221 Figure 18.1. Acquisition of stereoscopic aerial photographs and stereoscopic parallax. The area of 60% for- ward overlap is shown as the cross-hatched area, and it represents the same ground area photographed along a flightline by two overlapping aerial photos. © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing metric capacities of excavations can be calculated. This same technique is used to make topo- graphic maps which show land surface elevations using contour lines. The Signature Concept A basic part of photointerpretation is the extraction of useful information from an image. Al- though this may be performed by human (manually) or machine (electronically by computer) de- pending on the form of the original data (e.g., as analog, hard copy photos versus digital images, respectively) the photo analysis performed by EPIC in support of EPA’s hazardous waste program is conducted almost exclusively by manual, not machine analysis. Using manual methods, some types of information displayed on aerial photos are obvious to anyone used to reading a map. An example includes large bodies of water. However, the vast bulk of information is not evident to the untrained or inexperienced viewer. The training and experience that makes feature identification possible on aerial photos is based on learning to recognize combinations of imagery characteristics called signatures. A signature is a combination of visible characteristics (such as color, tone, shadow, texture, size, shape, pattern, and association) which permit a specific object or condition to be recognized on an aerial photo- graph. The relative potential of a given signature to enable possible, probable, or positive identifi- cation of an object or condition is the degree of certainty. Possible is a term signifying a degree of certainty of signature identification when only a few characteristics are discernible on a photo or these characteristics are not unique to a signature. Probable, on the other hand, is a term signify- ing a degree of certainty of signature identification when most characteristics, or strong or unique characteristics of a signature are discernible but fall short of positive identification. When interpreting an aerial photograph, the analyst is generally searching for the signature of one or more objects or conditions by viewing aerial photo stereopairs through stereoscopes. An an- alyst relies either on experience or “ground truth” information (corroborative information obtained through other data sources or on-site field visits to the site) in identifying signatures. When work- ing with historical aerial photographs of areas that have changed or are inaccessible, experience becomes critically important. For some forms of photo-interpretation, e.g., to map wetlands vege- tation or forest types, signatures representative of various vegetation types are confirmed by on- site visits and then extrapolated over a much larger area to map vegetation types displaying the same signatures, but not visited on the ground. The signature concept is not an all or none concept since signatures can vary in degree of cer- tainty. Because of this it is essential to clearly distinguish between positive identifications and calls of lesser certainty. Because hazardous waste site characterization by aerial photo interpreta- tion may be used to support civil or criminal litigation, it is important that the degrees of certainty be clearly stated by the photo interpreter. The characteristic signature of a given object or condition can vary with the type of film or im- agery, scale, resolution, and other factors. Therefore, aerial photos vary in suitability depending on the object of the analysis. For example, 55-gallon drums can be positively identified on average quality, 1:6,000 scale aerial photographs. On the other hand, typical 1:20,000 scale aerial photos do not normally allow for positive identification of drums, but may allow for possible or probable identifications to be made. Even smaller scale (higher altitude) imagery is so inappropriate for drum identification that even possible identifications cannot be made. Variability in photo type also affects the interpretability and signatures of objects. Natural color, color infrared, and black and white aerial photos, for example, have no sensitivity for heat detection, while thermal scanner imagery can reveal temperature differences of objects. An experienced photo interpreter is able to use a variety of remote sensing tools and is fully knowledgeable of the capabilities and limitations 222 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES: AN OVERVIEW 223 of these tools for specific applications. Table 18.1 is a listing of the kinds of features, natural re- sources, and site activities which are routinely identified on aerial photographs by skilled image analysts for characterizing waste disposal sites. OVERVIEW Hazardous Waste Site Analyses Hazardous waste disposal site characterization using historical and current aerial photographs comprises a major part of EPIC’s workload. Utilizing the vast archives of aerial photographs of the country maintained by government and private sources, dating back to the 1930s, EPIC’s ana- lysts reconstruct the waste handling and disposal history of a site in order to support site cleanup and regulatory or enforcement efforts. Aerial photographs have proved to be powerful tools in court in the form of evidence and to support expert witness testimony and for facilitating the re- covery of millions of dollars in site cleanup costs and penalties from responsible parties (Garofalo and Wobber, 1974; Erb et al., 1981; Evans and Mata, 1984; Stohr et al., 1987; Mata and Christie, 1991). The information interpreted from an aerial photograph is annotated onto a clear film overlay which identifies and delineates the location of significant ground features and activities. Accom- Table 18.1. Hazardous Waste Disposal Site Features/Activities Routinely Extracted by Image Analysis from Historical Aerial Photographs Access road Berm Building Channelized drainage Chemical storage Cleared area Container Crates/boxes Culvert/bridge Cylindrical object Dark-toned Debris Dike Disposal area Disturbed ground Drainage natural channelized suspected or historical indeterminate flow natural channelized tidally influenced natural channelized Drums Edge of slope Excavation Excavation, pit (extensive) Extraction area Feature boundary Feature outline Fence Fenced site boundary Fill Flow direction Graded area Ground scar Historical boundary Horizontal tank Impoundment Indeterminate drainage Lagoon Landfill Leachate Light-toned Liquid Material Medium-toned Mounded material (extensive) Mounded material (small) Objects Open storage Outfall Pipeline Pit Pond Possible drum area Pressure tank Probably underground drainage Railroad Refuse Revegetated Revetment Site boundary Sludge Solid waste Stacked objects Stain Standing liquid Structure Study area Surface runoff Suspected drainage Tank farm Tank trailer Trench Unfenced site boundary Vegetated Vegetation stress Vehicle Vehicle access Vertical tank Waste disposal area Wastewater treatment plant Wetland © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 224 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18.2. Sample historical site analysis prepared by EPIC. October 19, 1958. No significant activity was evident on the 1946 or 1947 photographs (not shown here). Significant features observed on the 1951 photographs are annotated and discussed in conjunction with the following analysis. The landfill study area consists of two landfills, the Western Landfill and the Eastern Landfill. Both land- fills are south of Wheatfield Road. No significant activity is visible within the portion of the study area north of Wheatfield Road throughout the analysis, and this area will not be discussed further. Each landfill is divided into three portions for the purpose of discussion. The northern, central, and south- ern portions will not be annotated further. Fill areas are annotated in both landfills throughout the analysis, but are not discussed individually. Disposal activities noted within fill areas are annotated and discussed. Drainage at and around the landfill is shown in the Wetland and Drainage analysis (Figure 18.10). Min- imal changes were evident in the overall drainage routes throughout the years of analysis. Minor variations in drainage resulted from the gradual development of the landfill. These transient drainage routes are anno- tated for each year of analysis, but are not discussed unless a significant change is visible. Western Landfill. No significant activity is evident. Eastern Landfill. Northern portion. In 1951, possible refuse (R) was noted in a possible fill area (FA) outside the eastern site boundary. In 1958 the east side has been partially cleared (not annotated). Material (M) is piled in three areas within the clearing. A possible excavation (EX) with dark-tone (DK) liquid (LQ) is noted on the south edge of the clearing. Possible refuse remains evident in the possible fill area outside the eastern site boundary. Central and southern portions. No significant activity is evident. © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES: AN OVERVIEW 225 Figure 18.3. June 17, 1964. Western Landfill. No significant activity is evident. Eastern Landfill. Extensive clearing (not annotated) is underway in the eastern landfill, and brush piles (not annotated) are scattered throughout the clearing. Northern portion. The material and possible excavation with liquid seen in 1958 are no longer visible. Piles of coarse-textured (CT) material, an open storage (OS) area, a building (B) with a parking area, and an empty excavation, possible a catchment basin, are noted in the northern portion of the landfill. A variety of objects and equipment are visible in the open storage area. The open storage area, building and parking area remain active and expand throughout the analysis, and will be annotated but not discussed in detail. The possible refuse seen outside the eastern site boundary in 1958 is no longer visible. Central Portion. Piles of coarse-textured material and a rectangular bermed area are visible. The bermed area appears empty, and its use is not evident. Southern Portion. An impoundment (IM1) and an excavation are visible. IM1, a leachate collection im- poundment, is dry inside and contains a small amount of material. The excavation contains murky liquid. © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 226 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18.4. April 17, 1968. Western Landfill. North portion. A wetland has been cleared (CL); however, there is no evidence of fill activity in this location. Central Portion. Extensive filling has occurred since 1964, an impoundment (IM2), an excavation, grad- ing (GR), and material are evident. A channel leads from the east edge of the landfill into IM2. Murky liq- uid is visible in the channel and in IM2. The excavation is on the southwest side and appears to be empty. Southern portion. No significant activity is evident. Eastern Landfill. Northern portion. The coarse-textured material noted in 1964 is no longer present. A berm and the grading of a fill area are evident in the northern portion. The graded fill area includes the former excavation which was noted in 1964. Central portion. The bermed area and debris (DB) are visible. The bermed area remains empty, and the debris is along the edge of a fill area. Southern portion. IM1, debris, two pits, and two excavations are visible. IM1 contains liquid, the debris is along the edge and sides of a fill area, the northern pit is full of dark-toned liquid, and the southern pit contains a small amount of dark-toned liquid/material. Both excavations contain murky liquid. A drainage channel is visible at the south edge of the site. It receives runoff from slopes south and east of the landfill as well as from on-site. The channel leads west to the natural drainage, which flows north (Figure 18.10). © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES: AN OVERVIEW 227 Figure 18.5. July 18, 1971. Western Landfill. North portion. Vegetation (VEG) is growing where the clearing of a wetland was noted in 1968. Central Portion. Filling has continued since 1968, and the upper surface of the landfill has been graded. IM2 contains dark-toned liquid. Dark-toned liquid is adjacent to the east side of IM2, indicating the possi- bility of a breach or overflow in the impoundment. The western excavation is no longer visible. A dark-toned stain (ST) extends from the top of the landfill downslope to the base, as if caused by a liquid. Southern portion. Extensive filling has occurred since 1968. A clearing is noted along the southeast edge. Eastern Landfill. Northern portion. The fill area with a berm noted in 1968 is vegetation. A shallow exca- vation is noted south of the former fill area. The graded fill area noted in 1968 and part of the parking area around the building are in use for open storage. A large clearing is seen on the west side of the landfill. Central Portion. Vegetation is growing where a fill area with debris was noted in 1968. The bermed area appears inactive and is partially overgrown with vegetation. A clearing is seen on the west side of the landfill. Southern portion. The northern pit seen in 1968 is no longer present; the southern pit is smaller and ap- pears empty. IM1 contains liquid. The debris seen along the edge of a fill area in 1968 is no longer visible, and the top of the fill area has been graded. A small amount of probable debris is evident on top of the fill area. The two excavations remain and contain murky liquid. Tree canopy obscures the drainage channel seen along the south edge of the landfill in 1968. © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing panying text provides a full site description. Figures 18.2 through 18.11 illustrate a standard his- torical site analysis of a hazardous waste disposal site, and show the kinds of information that can be extracted from an analysis of these photos, and changes at the site over time. The historical analysis clearly shows and documents the location of major fill areas which were evident during the life of the landfill. Disposal-related activities identified within the fill areas include debris, ma- terial, refuse, dark-toned liquid in erosion rills, excavations, and pits containing liquid. Between 1964 and 1984 a leachate collection impoundment was present on the site and a second leachate collection impoundment was present from 1968 through 1984. An upgraded leachate collection impoundment was present from 1980 through 1992. Inventories of Potential Hazardous Waste Sites Inventories of potential hazardous waste sites covering large areas and decades in time are a very cost-effective way to discover sites for future investigation. The aerial photographs are sys- tematically searched for specific features or to identify types of sites. Type might include landfills, open dumps, scrap salvage yards, chemical handling and storage facilities, impoundments, or abandoned industrial sites. Identified sites are located on overlays to topographic maps accompa- nied by data sheets describing site conditions. The site conditions are presented chronologically with the period of site activity shown on the map overlay. This approach is helpful to determine the origin of a progressive problem and to identify a hazardous site that is currently hidden by new development. Emergency Response EPIC reacts through quick response capabilities to emergency situations such as hazardous mate- rial releases and natural disasters like hurricanes (Hugo) and earthquakes (San Francisco/Oakland, CA). Aerial photographs are flown, processed and analyzed to provide immediate information to on- site personnel regarding circumstances not easily or safely observed from the ground. Typical prod- ucts for an emergency response include an immediate telephone report to on-site personnel followed by photographs or positive film transparencies with interpretation results annotated on overlays, an- notated topographic maps, and a short letter report describing analysis results. Wetlands Wetlands analyses are performed by EPIC in support of various sections of the Clean Water Act concerning enforcement, permitting, and advance identification. Analysis of historical aerial pho- tographs is often the only means of establishing the prior existence of wetlands on lands that have been dredged or filled, and for calculating wetlands loss acreage necessary for mitigation settle- ments. Aerial photographs also provide information concerning vegetative type, periodicity of flooding, tidal influences, and affected drainage patterns. EPIC image analysts perform various types of wetlands mapping depending on the needs of the requesting EPA headquarters or regional program office. A wetlands/upland boundary delineation is the simplest form of mapping performed (Figure 18.10). The purpose for this delineation is to identify the location of wetlands and to separate wetlands from nonwetlands areas. A detailed wet- lands analysis is performed to identify and classify various wetland types, often using the wet- lands and deepwater habitat classification developed for the Fish and Wildlife Service by Cowardin et al. (1979). Using jurisdictional wetlands delineation procedures and associated field- work, EPIC maps wetlands in support of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act which protects wet- 228 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing [...]... Millback Formation, (2) placing monitoring wells on fracture traces A, B, and C, and (3) determining the degree of solutionization in the Millback Formation © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 236 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18. 10... culvert as shown in the Wetlands and Drainage Analysis (Figure 18. 10) It continues west to the natural drainage, which flows north © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 234 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18. 9a Introduction This fracture... American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 230 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18. 6 April 7, 1981 Significant features seen on the 1980 photograph are annotated and discussed with the following analysis on page 231 © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association;... Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 238 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18. 11 Vegetation stress analysis, September 24, 1992 A color infrared overflight was acquired for the landfill during full leaf-on conditions to facilitate the vegetation... Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 240 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT jected to the Agency’s review; therefore, it does not necessarily reflect the views of the EPA The U.S government has the right to retain a nonexclusive, royalty-free license in and to... Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 232 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18. 7 April 17, 1988 Significant activity observed on the 1983, 1984, and 1987 photographs is discussed, but not annotated in conjunction with the following analysis on page 233 © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter. .. 18. 10 Wetlands and drainage analysis Wetlands (W), open water (OW), uplands (U), and drainage are annotated for the area at and around the landfill using photographs from April 17, 1988 The general direction of drainage flow is north and west through a series of unnamed streams which eventually lead into the north-flowing Main Creek (not shown) The on-site drainage flows through a series of wetlands that... Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES: AN OVERVIEW 239 and aerial photointerpretation for detection of abandoned oil, gas, and water wells; mapping of submerged aquatic vegetation; and land use and drainage mapping Aerial Photo Acquisition... through 1992, and was 0.172 hectare (0.424 acre) in 1988 wetlands, and landforms to produce maps and overlays for landscape characterization and trend analysis (Norton and Slonecker, 1990) Global Positioning Systems Global positioning systems (GPS) technology is used by EPIC primarily to produce accurate latitude/longitude coordinates for sites under investigation, and as a means to evaluate and quantify... characterization of a pilot site using photo-derived information on land use, vegetation, © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing AERIAL PHOTOINTERPRETATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES: AN OVERVIEW 237 Figure 18. 8 Landfill Area Measurements from Photogrammetry . Science; Chapter 14 © American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 236 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Figure 18. 10. Wetlands and drainage analysis. Wetlands (W), open water. materials and volu- 220 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter. protects wet- 228 GIS FOR WATER RESOURCES AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT © 2003 Taylor & Francis Chapters 1, 3, 5 & 6 © American Water Resources Association; Chapter 13 © Elsevier Science; Chapter