7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 5 Pollution Prevention J. Paul Chen National University of Singapore, Singapore Thomas T. Shen Independent Environmental Advisor, Delmar, New York, U.S.A Yung-Tse Hung Cleveland State University Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A. Lawrence K. Wang Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, New York, U.S.A. and Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 5.1 INTRODUCTION We are witnessing the evolution of a fully industrialized world, with global industrial production, global markets, global telecommunication, global transportation, and global prosperity. This prospect brings with it the realization that current patterns of industrialization will not be adequate to sustain environmentally safe growth and therefore needs drastic improvement. What is urgently needed is a total management systems approach to modern civilization by focusing on pollution prevention activities as the first step. In the past, pollution control by media-specific control technologies has improved environmental quality to a certain extent. Generally, however, it not only fails to eliminate pollutants, but waste treatment processes have produced a large amount of sludge and residue that require further treatment prior to disposal so that they will not create secondary pollution. Waste treatment systems require investment in design, installation, operation, and maintenance, but these systems contribute no financial benefit to the industrial production. Pollution control technologies may also transfer pollutants from one environmental medium (air, water, or land) to another, causing potential secondary pollution problems that require further treatment and disposal. Pollution control technologies address only short-term problems, rather than eliminate pollutants. Costs of pollution control, cleanup, and liability have risen every year, as have the costs of resource inputs, energy, and raw materials. Through many years of research, we are beginning to understand the complexities of pollution management problems [1–10]. Some professionals still believe that pollution control via end-of-pipe strategies, such as a wastewater treatment plant, flue gas cleaning system, land disposal, or incineration can solve pollution problems. This is because such equipment or systems limit the release of harmful pollutants compared to uncontrolled discharge into the environment. As with pain-relieving 157 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 medication, pollution control methods attempt, although imperfectly, to minimize the effect of releasing pollutants into the environment. Some releases and effects are curtailed, but the original toxic or environmentally harmful pollutants and products remain behind or are transformed into different hazardous substances to some degree. It is important to realize that pollution prevention applies beyond industrial sectors to a variety of economic sectors and institutional settings. Many organizations and institutions can apply pollution prevention concepts, which not only reduce generation of pollutants and wastes, but also minimize use of certain environmentally harmful products and services. In practice, pollution prevention approaches can be applied to all pollution-generating activities, including energy production and consumption, transportation, agriculture, construction, land use, city planning, government activities, and consumer behavior. Economics plays an increasingly important role in environmental decision making. The resolution of virtually every environmental issue involves an economic component. Traditionally, most industry and business decision makers who invested in control technologies such as waste treatment and disposal facilities considered these nonproductive, because such added costs to production would be hard to recover. Product prices could be increased to offset these costs, but this was not an option in a competitive market. Such perspectives seemed valid in the past because decision makers did not know the various benefits of pollution prevention that will be described later in this chapter. Accepting the primacy of pollution management strategy and preventive technologies does not mean abandoning traditional waste management strategy and pollution control technologies or the government regulatory and legal systems designed to ensure their implementation. In fact, not all waste and pollution can be eliminated or prevented, either immediately or in the long run. The remaining waste that cannot be prevented needs to be adequately treated and disposed of. What is absolutely crucial, however, is to recognize the importance of pollution prevention in the hierarchy of environmental options [1]. This chapter highlights the concept and applications of pollution prevention, focusing on the expanding environmental problems from municipal and industrial wastes to toxic chemicals, hazardous products and services, as well as the pollution management challenges to search for new cost-effective technologies such as pollution prevention (P2). Discussions include P2 laws and regulations, project feasibility analyses, implementation, as well as systematic examination of industrial P2. The purpose is to provide readers with a better understanding of pollution sources and pollution prevention. While subtopics may not necessarily be covered in depth, references can provide additional P2 knowledge and information. 5.2 TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT OF POLLUTANTS AND WASTEWATER The demand for fresh water rises continuously as the world’s population grows. From 1940 to 1990, withdrawals of fresh water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and other water sources increased about fourfold. Water is used for various purposes. In the United States, irrigation, electric power generation, and other utilities respectively consume 39, 39, and 12% of water; industry and mining uses 7%, and the rest is used for agricultural livestock and commercial purposes. Table 1 gives a list of major parameters that have great environmental impacts. Wastewater contains mainly human sewage, industrial wastewater, and agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), some 37% of lakes and estuaries, and 36% of rivers are too polluted for basic uses such as fishing or swimming during all or part of the year [2]. In developing nations, more 158 Chen et al. © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 than 95% of untreated urban sewage is discharged into rivers and bays, which can result in a serious human health hazard. For example, in China, the fastest developing country in the last 20 years, overall municipal wastewater treatment is still less than 5%. Industrial processes of all types almost invariably produce wastes having numerous sources, forms, and names. For example, wastewater in a petroleum refinery is generated by units when water is contacted with process materials in desalting, stream stripping, and washing operations throughout the refinery processes. In addition, wastewater can be generated by utility systems, from boiler feedwater treatment processes, boiler blowdown, and cooling tower blowdown. The strength and quantity of the wastewater is dependent on the design and operation of the processes. Until the middle of the 20th century, industrial wastes were considered only a casual nuisance and were handled as such by generators. Industrial plants of the time disposed of most wastes by burial in landfills, discharge into seepage basins, or by pumping directly to a body of water or into a deep well. Refinements were added over the years; for example, much waste was drummed and the containerized waste sent for offsite disposal. However, little if any thought was given to the fact that these wastes, once generated, ultimately ended up being released to the environment unless they were destroyed by treatment. Industrial waste generators have been made increasingly aware of the nature of their wastes and the problems that waste disposal imposes on our environment. Spurred by mandates from the USEPA as well as by their own sense of corporate responsibility, industries addressed air pollution emissions, wastewater discharges, industrial hygiene/worker safety, and a variety of related issues. With rare exception, however, the actual generation of wastes was never questioned. New information regarding industrial wastes was developed and complementary federal regulations required industries to reexamine the overall concept of waste generation. First, it was determined that many chemicals present in industrial wastes exerted a permanent deleterious effect on human health. In fact, exposure to some chemicals can alter human genetic material so that the effects of exposure are passed on to future generations. Secondly, industrial wastes that are not properly treated and disposed of will ultimately release the constituents to the environment. For example, wastes disposed of in landfills may release constituents to subsurface aquifers that serve as drinking water supplies. Thirdly, testing methods have been developed to evaluate whether an industrial waste contains any constituents of concern to human health or the environment. Furthermore, the tests determine whether and at what rate a waste will release constituents into the environment. Table 1 Typical Parameters in Wastewater Item Name Physical parameters Color; conductivity; settleable solids; suspended solids; temperature; turbidity Chemical parameters pH; alkalinity or acidity; arsenic; hardness; biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); chemical oxygen demand (COD); total organic carbon (TOC); aluminum; cadmium; calcium; hexavalent chromium; total chromium; copper; iron; lead; magnesium; manganese; mercury; nickel; zinc; total phosphate; ammonium nitrate; total nitrogen; cyanide; oil and grease pesticides; fluoride; sulfate; phenol; surfactants; chlorinated hydrocarbons Biological parameters Coliform bacteria; fecal streptococci bacteria Pollution Prevention 159 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 Wastes that contain any of an extensive list of hazardous constituents or that exhibit a hazard characteristic or that are generated by certain industrial processes are referred to as hazardous wastes under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons; 70% comes from the chemical industry. The treatment, storage, and disposal of these wastes are now governed by strict regulations. Wastewater treatment and disposal for industrial residues have assumed growing importance. In particular, those wastes defined as RCRA-hazardous require meticulous attention to treatment and ultimate disposal. During the late 1980s, federal regulations were enacted eliminating any form of land disposal for a variety of hazardous wastes, thereby making imperative the treatment of these wastes to render them nonhazardous. 5.3 POLLUTION PREVENTION: MOTIVATION AND CONCEPT 5.3.1 Motivation According to Webster’s Dictionary, the environment is the complex of climatic, economic, and biotic factors that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival. It is the aggregate of social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or human behavior such as production and consumption. Environmental pollution is formed as a result of inefficiencies in manufacturing processes, both operational practices and improperly designed and utilized equipment. Pollutants can be unused raw materials, on byproducts resulting from production processes. Pollution represents a loss in profits during manufacturing. It also can be a result of careless human activities in social developments. Releasing pollutants and wastes into the environment creates pollution. Environmental pollution from human activities is never avoidable. End-of-pipe measures include wastewater treatment, hazardous waste incineration, landfills, and monitoring equipment. They have been used in environmental protection for many years and act as an important component in the P2 in environmental protection. In the last 20 years, however, many environmental accidents, complaints, and concerns have pressured industries to shift from the traditional end-of-pipe approaches to sound pollution prevention strategies. Public concern about the environment continues to grow. Public education through various media, such as school, television, and the Internet, has become powerful tools for spreading information about the environment and its impact on human health. Protection of the environment increasingly becomes a social responsibility. With increasing understanding of pollutants and their long-term consequences in the environment, some pollutants that were considered less harmful become more important. Dioxin is a good example. Pollution is no longer a site-specific problem; it has become a global issue. For example, mercury has been detected in deep-sea animals (e.g., salmon), which are not supposed to be exposed to polluted environments. The mercury accumulation in the animals is a result of its transport in seawater. Pollution means loss of raw materials and production of wastes (which are also byproducts). These activities can definitely cause a loss in profits. In addition, pollution created in the workplace can pose either high or low risks to workers, and faces the public most of the time. For example, an improperly operated swine farm can cause water pollution as well as unpleasant odors. The property value in industrial estates can be depreciated and the image of companies deteriorate. 160 Chen et al. © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 5.3.2 Principles of Environmental Pollution Socioeconomic development is necessary for meeting people’s basic needs of food, clothing, transportation, and shelter, and also to improve living standards; however, such development must be sustainable. That means development should be balanced with the environment. Environmental laws and regulations have focused on media-specific, end-of-pipe, and commend-and-control of pollutants and wastes. Such pollution control technologies have reduced pollution to a certain extent, but are not cost-effective and need to be upgraded to pollution prevention whenever possible. With that recognition, Shen [3] has addressed environmental pollution from a practical point of view by outlining three principles of environmental pollution, which are comparable to some of the thermodynamic laws familiar to most engineers and scientists. Table 2 gives these three important principles of environmental pollution. 5.3.3 Concept Environmental practitioners in various organizations define P2 based on their own understanding and applications, resulting in somewhat different interpretations. Essentially, it means to prevent or reduce the sources of pollution before problems occur [1]. It is generally contrasted with the media-specific and end-of-pipe control approaches. The difference between pollution prevention and pollution control can be illustrated by the following instances. Vaccines prevent illnesses, while antibiotics control illnesses; seat belts prevent injury, while casts and crutches help cure injury from car accidents. The P2 concept and practices find broad applications such as waste minimization, clean production, green chemistry, green product, waste utilization, ISO 14000, and a number of other related terminologies. Table 2 Shen’s Three Principles of Environmental Pollution Principle Description Pollution from human activities is unavoidable Pollution is created by releasing pollutants and wastes into the environment as well as by producing certain environmentally harmful products and services as a result of careless human activities related to social and economic development. Prevent pollution whenever possible As a result of the first law, pollution needs to be cost-effectively managed. Pollution can be prevented or minimized, but may not be completely eliminated. The remaining residual pollution from human activities must be properly treated and disposed in order to protect human health and the environment. Minimal pollution is acceptable Ecosystems can safely handle and assimilate certain amounts of pollution. If pollution is within the environmental quality standards, its impacts to human health and the environment can be acceptable. We must work within the confines of the natural laws to prevent pollution problems in a new planned and economically feasible fashion. Note: Human activities cover production, distribution, transport, storage, mining, urban development, construction, consumption, and services. The word products can be industrial, agricultural, mineral, structural, commercial, and others. The word services can be conceptual, technical, and physical such as professional and nonprofessional, government and nongovernment services, including design, plan, operation, construction, transportation systems, repair, maintenance, education and training, management, and others. Source: Ref. 1. Pollution Prevention 161 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 According to the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 and other related regulations, the United States defines pollution prevention as follows [4]: . Reduction of the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant reentering any waste stream or otherwise released into the environment prior to recycling, treatment, and disposal. . Reduction of the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the release of such substances, pollutants, or contaminants. . Reduction or elimination of the creation of pollutants through (a) increased efficiency in the use of raw materials; or (b) protection of natural resources by conservation. The Canadian Ministry of Environment defines pollution prevention as any action that reduces or eliminates the creation of pollutants or wastes at the source, achieved through activities that promote, encourage, or require changes in the basic behavioral patterns of industrial, commercial, and institutional generators or individuals. Traditionally, pollution prevention was defined more narrowly as waste reduction or toxic material cutback at sources, focused on waste releases from existing manufacturing operations. Releases of waste from production operations, including those from stacks, vents, and outfalls (called point sources) and those from leaks, open vats, paint areas, and other nonconfined sources (called fugitive emissions) are often the major sources of pollution. Certain products, while leaving the manufacturing plant for distribution through transport, storage, consumption, as well as used-product disposal can cause serious environmental pollution problems, such as hazardous waste treatment, disposal, and remedial sites. The definition of P2 needs to be updated as our knowledge increases. It should mean a broader sense of minimizing or eliminating the sources of the pollution from every place where they are created in industry, agriculture, commercial establishments, government and nongovernment organizations, and homes. It seeks not only to eliminate or reduce pollutants and wastes, but also certain harmful products and services. It optimizes total materials cycle from virgin material, to finished material, to components, to product, to obsolete product, to ultimate disposal, and also to various technical and nontechnical services. Pollution prevention includes practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants through increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources, or protection of natural resources by conservation. In practice, pollution prevention approaches can be applied not only to industrial sectors, but all sectors of our society, including energy production and consump- tion, construction, transport, land use, city planning, government activities, and consumer behavior [5]. 5.3.4 Industrial Pollution Prevention Industrial operations traditionally have adopted a variety of media-specific waste management techniques to control releases of pollutants and wastes. Most environmental legislation in the past had little economic incentive for industries to properly manage their wastes and manufacture green products. P2 is a relatively new pollution management strategy that involves prevention of pollutant and waste as well as promotion of environmentally friendly products and services. As mentioned in Section 5.3.2, pollution should be prevented whenever possible – from product design, production, distribution, and consumption activities. In the event that waste may not be completely prevented, the remaining residual waste from the manufacturing facilities should then be properly treated and disposed in a safe way. Pollution prevention is the logical extension of pollution control. Environmental management strategies are gradually being transformed as more professionals adopt the 162 Chen et al. © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 pollution prevention concept. It should be emphasized that there are many sources of environmental pollution. Industry is only one sector of pollution sources and surely it is the major one because of waste quantity and toxicity. Other pollution sectors include agriculture, commerce, mining, transport, energy, construction, and consumption. P2 technology in the energy sector, for example, can reduce environmental damages from extraction, processing, transport, and combustion of fuels. Its activities include: (a) increasing efficiency in energy use; (b) substituting fossil fuels by renewable energies; and (c) design changes that reduce the demand for energy [2]. More detailed P2 methods and technologies used in the industrial sector are described in Sections 5.4 and 5.7. 5.4 P2 TECHNOLOGIES AND BENEFITS 5.4.1 P2 Technologies Today’s rapidly changing technologies, industrial processes, and products may generate pollutants that, if improperly managed, could threaten public health and the environment. Many pollutants, when mixed, can produce hazards through heat generation, fire, explosion, or release of toxicsubstances. Toprevent thesehazards, pollution generators must be requiredto describe and characterize their pollutants accurately, by including information as to the type and the nature of the pollutants, chemical compositions, hazardous properties, and special handling instructions. In practice, preventive technologies not only reduce the generation of waste materials, but also encourage environmentally friendly products and services. It can be applied also to all pollution-generating activities, including energy production and consumption, transportation, agriculture, construction, land use, city planning, government activities, and consumer behavior. In the energy sector, for example, pollution management can reduce environmental damages from extraction, processing, transport, and combustion of fuels. Major preventive technologies applied in industrial processes are described in Section 5.8. Pollution prevention is receiving widespread emphasis internationally within multi- national organizations and within individual countries. The driving force behind the emphasis is the concept of sustainable development and the hold that this concept has over planning strategies and long-term solutions to global limits and north–south economic issues. Examples of some pollution prevention technologies are: . Raw material substitution – eliminating or reducing a hazardous constituent used either in the product or during manufacture of the product. . End product substitution – producing a different product that accomplishes the same function with less pollution than the original product. . Process modification – changing the process design to reduce waste generation. . Equipment redesign – changing the physical design of equipment to reduce waste generation. . Direct recycling – reusing materials directly in the manufacturing process without prior treatment. These materials would otherwise become wastes. . Good housekeeping – instituting new procedures, such as preventive maintenance, to reduce waste generation. . Inventory control – minimizing the quantities of raw materials or manufactured product in stock, to eliminate surplus that could become waste when the product is changed or discontinued [2]. In the energy sector, for example, pollution prevention can reduce environmental damage from extraction, processing, transport, and combustion of fuels. Pollution prevention Pollution Prevention 163 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 technologies include: (a) increasing efficiency in energy use; (b) substituting fossil fuels by renewable energies; and (c) design changes that reduce the demand for energy. During the past few years, considerable progress and success have been achieved in attaining pollution prevention in various sectors of our society. 5.4.2 P2 Benefits The most important benefit of P2 is that it can achieve national environmental goals while coinciding with the industry’s interests [6]. Businesses will have strong economic incentives to reduce the toxicity and volume of the waste they generate. Some reported benefits of P2 practices are that it can: . Avoid inadvertent transfer of pollutants across media by treatment and disposal systems; . Reduce the risks from any release of pollutants and wastes into the environment; . Protect natural resources for future generations; . Save money by preventing excessive use of raw material, energy, and natural resources; . Reduce costs of regulatory violations and costs for waste treatment and disposal; . Avoid long-term potential liabilities associated with releases of wastes and disposal sites; . Increase production efficiency and company reputation; . Improve product quality for world trade market competition. With P2, some wastes can be reused as raw materials. Waste reduction means increasing production efficiency and generating more profits. Reducing wastes also provides upstream benefits because it reduces ecological damage from raw material extraction and pollutant release during the production process as well as waste recycling, treatment, and disposal operations. A company with effective, ongoing P2 plans may well be the lowest-cost producer and enjoy significant benefits in a competitive world market as a result. Costs per unit produced will drop as P2 measures reduce liability risks and operating costs. Cost savings from prevention come not only from avoiding environmental costs such as hazardous waste disposal fees, but also from avoiding costs that are often more challenging to count, such as those resulting from injuries to workers and ensuing losses in productivity. In that sense, prevention is not only an environmental activity, but also a tool to promote workers’ health and safety. Furthermore, P2 activities may enhance the company’s public image, public health, and public relations. Among all the benefits, the economic benefits of P2 have proven to be the most compelling argument for industry and business to undertake prevention projects [7]. Many successful P2 cases are available in the literature (Table 3) [8–13]. The P2 program in the USEPA website (www.epa.gov) provides a series of good examples. A study was carried out by Bendavid-Val et al. [9] to compare the cost saving from the adoption of the P2. It can be seen from Table 3 that the nine randomly selected plants had different savings ranging from 0 to 100%. Among them, four plants had a saving of 100%. Another example is the dramatic reduction of the wastes from the pulp and paper processing industry [10]. It was reported that, through the implementation of P2 programs, the industry has witnessed the reduction of its biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS) by 75 and 45%, respectively, from 1975 to 1988. The U.S. paper recovery rate increased from 22.4% in 1970 to 45.2% in 1997. Other items, such as emissions of total reduced sulfur, SO 2 , and ClO 2 , were also reduced significantly. 164 Chen et al. © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 The benefits from the P2 exercises based on long-term evaluation are obvious; however, their short-term advantages may not be significant. Sometimes implementation of P2 may even cause a negative impact on industrial performances. Sarkis and Cordeiro [11] carried out an empirical evaluation of environmental efficiencies (by end-of-pipe or P2 approaches) and U.S. corporate financial performance. Interestingly, they found that there was a negative correlation between the above two performances. The negative relationship became more obvious when P2 was implemented. The corporate greening could cause depreciation of stock values. However, higher pollution levels can negatively affect a firm’s market values. Therefore, a sound balance must be carefully maintained. 5.5. P2 LAWS AND REGULATIONS 5.5.1 Federal Regulations and Laws In the United States, Congress enacted the Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 to achieve a goal of “fishable and swimmable” surface waters. It covers regulations of wastewater discharges [12]. Most industries must meet discharge standards for various pollutants. Specific methods of control such as pollution prevention are not specified. Many facilities use pollution prevention as a means of reducing the cost of compliance with federal regulations. State and local authorities also have responsibilities to implement the provisions of the CWA. These authorities must enforce the federal guidelines at a minimum, but may choose to enforce more stringent requirements. Some localities include pollution prevention planning requirements into discharge permits [12]. The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA, also known as SARA Title III) requires certain companies to submit an annual report of the amount of listed “toxic chemicals” entering the environments. Source reduction and waste management information must be provided for the listed toxic chemicals. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) to RCRA require that the reduction or elimination of hazardous waste Table 3 List of Industrial Case Studies in P2 Case Industrial operation/product P2 action Main benefits 1 Cardboard box manufacturer and printer “Good housekeeping” to reduce ink wastes 90% savings in waste disposal and reduction of costs for raw materials 2 Manufacturer of sliding rear windows of automotive industry Installation of an in-line computer monitoring system and replacement of a pump 90% reduction of hazardous wastes and improvement of safety 3 Brewing Use waste as fertilizer Reduction of waste disposal 4 Furniture manufacturing Hazardous waste reuse Reduction of waste disposal 5 Textile printing Solvent recovery 100% cost saving 6 Manufacturer of automatic fluid controls Replacement of trichloroethylene (TCE) with a waterbased, nontoxic detergent cleaner Elimination of TCE emissions and related wastes and improvement of safety Pollution Prevention 165 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 7574-Wang-ch05_R2_030806 generation at the source should take priority over other management methods such as treatment and disposal. Hazardous waste generators are required to certify on their hazardous waste manifests that they have programs in place to reduce the volume or quantity and toxicity of hazardous waste generated to the extent economically practicable. Materials that are recycled may be exempt from RCRA regulations if certain conditions are met. The Water Quality Act of 1987 further strengthened the CWA, and amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act required numerous treatment facility upgrades. Although all these acts are dramatic in their protection of U.S. citizens against waterborne diseases and the improvement of water quality, they placed little emphasis on source reduction or elimination of the root cause of pollution. To address this issue of the need of regulation upgrading, the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 was passed. It formalized a national policy and commitment to waste reduction, functioning primarily to promote the consideration of pollution prevention measures at the federal government level. This act crosses media boundaries by establishing a national policy on pollution prevention, including programs that emphasize source reduction, reuse, recycling, and training. All these areas are key to the successful implementation of a P2 industrial wastewater management program [1]. According to the act, the USEPA should review existing and proposed programs and new regulations to determine their effect on source reduction [12]. Source reduction activities among the USEPA programs and other federal agencies are coordinated. It provides public access to environmental data and fosters the exchange of source reduction information. It establishes pollution prevention training programs for federal and state environmental officials. Finally, the USEPA is required to facilitate adoption of source reduction by businesses, as well as identify and make recommendations to Congress to eliminate barriers to source reduction. Since 1990, the USEPA has implemented a diverse set of programs and initiatives to meet their obligations defined by the law. A series of achievements has been reported, including 33/50, Climate Wise, Green Lights, Energy Star, WAVE, the Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program, Indoor Air, Indoor Radon, Design for the Environment, the Environmental Leadership Program, and the Common Sense Initiative [12]. For example, reduction of a series of key pollutants was achieved through the 33/50 programs [13]. The Program targeted 17 priority chemicals (e.g., benzene, tetrachloroethylene, and toluene) and set as its goal a 33% reduction in releases and transfers of these chemicals by 1992 and a 50% reduction by 1995, measured against a 1988 baseline. Its primary purpose was to demonstrate whether voluntary partnerships could augment the USEPA’s traditional command-and-control approach by bringing about targeted reductions more quickly than would regulations alone. The program sought to foster a pollution prevention ethic, encouraging companies to consider and apply pollution prevention approaches to reducing their environmental releases rather than traditional end-of-pipe methods for treating and disposing of chemicals in waste. The 33/50 Program achieved its goal in 1994, one year ahead of schedule, primarily through program participants’ efforts. Facilities also reduced releases and transfers of the other 33/50 chemicals by 50% from 1988 to 1995 [13]. Traditionally, environmental laws and regulations have controlled the releases of pollutants and wastes. Only in recent years have laws and regulations gradually covered the production of certain environmentally unfriendly products and services that also caused environmental pollution. For example, DDT, CFCs, asbestos, leaded gasoline, certain kinds of plastics, medicines, cosmetics, fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides have been restricted in production. Similarly, consulting services in designing products and process, in equipment manufacturing and supply, and in education and training reduce significantly adverse impacts of the environmental quality. 166 Chen et al. © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... Stat Ch 111 ,7 951 to 7 957 IN Code Annl 3-9 -1 to-7 IA Code Ann 455 B .51 6 to 51 8 KY Rev Stat Ann 224.4 6-3 10 to -3 25 HB 147, HB 59 2 RI Gen Laws 3 7-1 5. 1-1 to 11 SC Code Ann 6 8-4 6-3 01 to -3 12 WI Stat Ann 144. 955 Source: Ref 12 5. 5.3 Local Pollution Prevention Requirements According to the CWA, qualified local publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) are given the authority to administer pretreatment programs... Ann 4 9-9 61 to -7 3 CA Health & Safety Code 252 44.12 to 24 GA Code Ann 1 2-8 -6 0 to -8 3 LA Rev Stat Ann 30.2291 to 22 95 ME Rev Stat Ann., tit 38, 2301 to 2312 MA Ann Laws ch 211,1 to 23 MN Stat Ann 115D.01 to 12 MS Code Ann 4 9-3 1-1 to -2 7 NJ Stat Ann 13: 1D- 35 to -5 0 NY Envtl Conserv Law 2 7-0 900 to -0 9 25 OR Rev Stat 4 65. 003 to 037 TN Code Ann 6 8-2 1 2-3 01 to -3 12 TX Title 30, Ch 3 35 WA Rev Code 70.95C.010... Results, EPA 744-R-9 5- 0 06; USEPA: Washington, DC, 19 95 USEPA 33 /50 Program, The Final Record, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, EPA-7 4 5- R9 9-0 04; USEPA: Washington, DC, March, 1999 Metcalf and Eddy, Inc Wastewater Engineering Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 4th Ed McGrawHill, New York, 2002 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 190 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Chen et... Group, LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 168 Chen et al Table 5 List of State Voluntary Pollution Prevention Programs Voluntary P2 programs Alaska Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Illinois Indiana Iowa Kentucky Ohio Rhode Island South Carolina Wisconsin Statute AK Stat 46.06.021 to 041 CO Rev Stat Ann 2 5- 1 6. 5- 1 01 to -1 10 CT Gen Stat Ann Appendix Pamphlet, P.A 9 1-3 76 7 DE Code Ann 7801 to 78 05 FL Stat... LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 188 Figure 2 Illustration of manufacture production and subsequent waste generation 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 Pollution Prevention 189 Numerical optimization approaches are based on several considerations, such as energy consumption and mass transfer Economic analysis together with consumption of both energy and mass have been incorporated by some researchers The well-cited... 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 183 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 Pollution Prevention Figure 1 Separation technologies for particles of various sizes 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 184 Chen et al product also makes membrane reactors advantageous if the product can react with a reactant to form a waste Membranes are important in modern separation processes, because they... per month of an acutely hazardous waste The California law only applies to facilities that generate more than 12,000 kg of hazardous waste or 12 kg of extremely hazardous waste in a calendar year The programs require facilities to perform P2 planning that identifies waste sources and specific technical steps that can be taken to eliminate or reduce the generation of hazardous wastes The facilities are... reduce emission of pollutants Well-informed employees are also better able to make valuable waste reduction suggestions Plant personnel should comprehend fully the costs and liabilities incurred in generating wastes They should have a basic idea of why and where waste is produced and whether the waste is planned or unplanned © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 178 Chen et al Employee... discusses toxic release inventories, material accounting data, and expansion of the Community-Right-to-Know program used by the U.S regulatory agencies to measure the progress of pollution prevention and project revisions © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 Pollution Prevention 1 75 Measuring pollution prevention progress is to evaluate the progress against the established... generators of waste since they do not have sufficient volume of waste solvent to justify onsite recycling Commercial recycling facilities are privately owned companies that offer a variety of services ranging from operating a waste recycling unit on the generator’s property to accepting and recycling batches of solvent waste at a central facility © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 . 111 ,7 951 to 7 957 Indiana IN Code Annl 3-9 -1 to-7 Iowa IA Code Ann. 455 B .51 6 to .51 8 Kentucky KY Rev Stat. Ann. 224.4 6-3 10 to -3 25 Ohio HB 147, HB 59 2 Rhode Island RI Gen. Laws 3 7-1 5. 1-1 to .11 South. Stat. Ann. 115D.01 to .12 Mississippi MS Code Ann. 4 9-3 1-1 to -2 7 New Jersey NJ Stat. Ann. 13: 1D- 35 to -5 0 New York NY Envtl Conserv. Law 2 7-0 900 to -0 9 25 Oregon OR Rev. Stat. 4 65. 003 to .037 Tennessee. Ann. 6 8-2 1 2-3 01 to -3 12 Texas TX Title 30, Ch 3 35 Washington WA Rev. Code 70.95C.010 to .240 Source: Ref. 12. Pollution Prevention 167 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 757 4-Wang-ch 05_ R2_030806 5. 5.3