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Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome Michael J. Fraipont, MD, and Gregory J. Adamson, MD Abstract Compartment syndrome is defined as increased pressure within a closed fibro-osseous space, causing reduced blood flow and tissue perfusion in that space, leading to ischemic pain and possible damage to the tissues of the compartment. Compartment syndrome may be either chronic or acute. Chronic compartment syndrome is often recurrent and is associated with repetitive exertion. It is typically seen in athletes whose exercise level ele- vates the intramuscular pressure to a point that the tissues within the affected compartment become tight and painful, thus preventing further activity. The pain disappears quickly after rest, and there are usually no permanent sequelae in the affected tissue. In 1962, French and Price 1 doc- umented elevated compartment pressures as the cause of chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) of the tibia. Previously, in 1956, Mavor 2 had successfully treated a CECS by widening the fascia of the anterior compartment of the tibia. The anterior and lateral compartments of the leg are most commonly involved in CECS, but it has been described in all compartments of the leg, shoulder, upper arm, forearm, hand, gluteus, thigh, and foot. In contradistinction, acute compartment syndromes, whether induced by trauma or repeated exertion, are commonly progressive and require urgent attention to avoid ir- reversible damage to the tissues of the affected compartment. Patients with acute compartment syndrome present with severe pain that is exacer- bated by passive stretch of the muscles and does not resolve spon- taneously with rest. Development of paresthesia and pallor can be fol- lowed by the loss of pulse in the distal extremity. The typical presentation of an acute compartment syndrome most often occurs after a high-energy trauma with or without fracture or reperfusion of an ischemic limb. In an exercise-induced acute compartment syndrome, symptoms may not devel- op until 24 to 48 hours after the pre- cipitating event. The syndrome has been reported in the hand, forearm, leg, thigh, gluteus, and foot. In the rare untreated case, an acute compartment syndrome may result in myonecrosis, causing release of myoglo- bin into the vascular circulation, which can lead to renal failure. Treat- ment of myonecrosis consists of prompt hydration, restoration of fluid deficits, and concomitant diuresis (maintained at 100 to 200 mL/h). 3 Anatomy The three areas most commonly affected by CECS are the lower leg, thigh, and forearm. The lower leg consists of four compartments: anterior, lateral, superficial posterior, and deep posterior (Fig. 1). Each compartment contains one major nerve, and two compartments (anterior and deep posterior) house major blood vessels, which may be affected by CECS. The anterior compartment contains the anterior tibial artery and the deep peroneal nerve. The lateral compartment contains the superficial peroneal nerve. The superficial posterior compartment contains the sural Dr. Fraipont is Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Southern California, Pasadena, CA. Dr. Adamson is Associate Clinical Professor, Depart- ment of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Southern California. Reprint requests: Dr. Fraipont, Suite 201, 39 Congress Street, Pasadena, CA 91105. Copyright 2003 by the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome is an often overlooked and uncommon cause of pain in the extremities of individuals who engage in repetitive physical activity. A thorough history, a careful physical examination, and compartment pressure testing are essential to establish the diagnosis. Catheter measurements can pro- vide useful information on baseline resting compartment pressures as well as compartment pressures after exercise or trauma. Patients with chronic exertional compartment syndrome usually do not respond to nonsurgical therapy other than completely ceasing the activities that cause the symptoms. Surgical intervention en- tails fasciotomies of the involved compartments. Although obtaining accurate compartment pressure measurements can be difficult and fascial releases must be done carefully, patients typically have satisfactory functional results and are able to return to their usual physical activities after fasciotomy. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2003;11:268-276 268 Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons nerve. The deep posterior compartment contains the posterior tibial nerve and both the posterior tibial and peroneal arteries and veins. The thigh consists of three compartments that can be affected by CECS: anterior, medial, and posterior (Fig. 2). The anterior compartment contains the femoral nerve. The medial compartment contains the obturator nerve and both the femoral and femoral profundus arteries. The posterior compartment contains the sciatic nerve. The forearm consists of three compartments: volar (superficial and deep) and dorsal, and the mobile wad (Fig. 3). The volar compartment consists of the six muscles responsible for flexion, pronation, and supination: flex- or carpi radialis, flexor pollicis longus, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, and flexor digitorum profundus. This compartment also contains the median and ulnar nerves along with the radial, ulnar, and anterior interosseous arteries. The dorsal compartment contains the extensor pollicis brevis, extensor digitorum communis, and extensor carpi ulnaris muscles, as well as the posterior interosseous nerve and artery and perforators off the anterior interosseous artery. The mobile wad consists of three muscles: the brachio- radialis, extensor carpi radialis longus, and extensor carpi radialis brevis. Pathophysiology During strenuous exercise, muscle fi- bers can swell to up to 20 times their resting size, leading to a 20% increase in the muscle volume and weight. 4 In- creased perfusing blood volume, muscle hypertrophy, and interstitial fluid volume within a nonexpanding compartment increase pressure in ac- cordance with Laplace’s law (a cap- illary membrane subjected to internal and external pressure reaches an equilibrium based on those forces). The blood flow through muscles is chiefly regulated by the resistance of the arteriole, which depends on the tension in the vascular wall. The increase in intramuscular pressure causes a decrease in arteriolar blood flow. Even though the circulation may not be totally arrested, venous return is markedly reduced and some cap- illaries may become occluded. When the blood flow is insufficient to meet the requirements of the muscle, the patient experiences pain with continued activity. The symptoms of CECS, which result from this ischemia, are caused by inadequate tissue oxygenation from the decreased venous return and insufficient perfusion of muscle tissue. Because muscles have blood flow only during the Figure 1 Cross section of the lower left leg. Figure 2 Cross section of the left thigh, 10 to 15 cm inferior to the inguinal ligament. Note the intermuscular fascial septa. Michael J. Fraipont, MD, and Gregory J. Adamson, MD Vol 11, No 4, July/August 2003 269 relaxation phase of exercise, increased intracompartmental pressures during the relaxation phase are thought to have the greatest effect on muscle ischemia. The most critical intracompartmental pressures are those present when the muscle is not in a contractile state. During this phase, the balance between intramuscular compartment pressure and the mi- crovascular pressure determines the adequacy of perfusion and, hence, the oxygenation of the muscle. These val- ues are best reflected by measuring postexercise pressure. The patient will continue to experience pain in the affected extremity after exercise until the total intramuscular pressure decreases to a level at which the blood flow can again meet the muscle’s requirements. Of patients with CECS involving the legs, 39% to 46% have fascial defects over the anterolateral lower leg compared with asymptomatic individuals, who have <5% incidence. 4,5 These fascial hernias or defects are usually 1 to 2 cm 2 in size and occur near the intermuscular septum between the anterior and lateral compartments, often at the exit of the superficial peroneal nerve. The fascial hernia is approximately at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the leg. The superficial peroneal nerve can be compressed by either the edge of the fascial defect itself or the muscle bulging through the defect.At rest, no palpable abnormality may be apparent, but with exercise, local tenderness and swelling may occur. Oc- casionally Tinel’s sign may be found at the site of the hernia. It is not clear why patients with CECS have increased total intramuscular pressure at rest and higher than normal intramuscular pressure with exercise compared with normal individuals. It is unlikely that a limited osseofascial expansion can be the sole explanation of this increase because, after fasciotomy, the total intramuscular pressure at rest usually remains higher than that in normal individuals. In addition, while fascial hernias are a contributing anatomic finding, fascial hernias are not present in all patients with CECS. Arteriole reg- ulation also may be a factor; however, it is likely that a combination of anatomic limitations contributes to the presence and severity of CECS. 6 Evaluation History During physical exertion, a patient with CECS often notices pain that ini- tially begins as a dull ache. If it is ig- nored and the patient continues to train, the pain increases to the point that the activity must be stopped. The onset and degree of the pain often become both predictable and reproducible because the pain begins at about the same time during the exercise activity. The pain typically is well localized to the entire affected compartment. Patients experience a feeling of fullness or a cramplike sensation in the affected compartment when they attempt to exercise. They also may complain of transient numbness, tingling, or weakness in the motor and sensory distributions of nerves within the involved compartments. In some cases, patients may have had a recent increase in training time or intensity that now takes them over their threshold level for generating symptoms. Rest usually relieves the pain, but it takes some time for complete relief to occur, especially as the CECS becomes more severe. Patients typically will not have persistent pain the following day unless they exercise again. Generally, they have no history of trauma, and if they return to their sport after discontinuing it for some time, the symptoms typically recur. Most patients present with bi- lateral symptoms. 7 Patients with CECS of the forearm complain of a feeling of firm- ness or cramping associated with weakness in the hands and wrists during vigorous athletic or repetitive grasping activities. In addition, they may experience numbness and tingling. These symptoms can man- ifest in the thenar, interosseous, or hypothenar regions as well as in the forearm. Symptoms resolve quickly when the activity is discontinued but recur with resumption of the activity. Figure 3 Cross section of the middle of the left forearm distal to the level of the pronator teres insertion. Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome 270 Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Physical Examination Results of the physical examination of the lower extremity at rest are usually normal. However, Rowdon et al 8 showed that athletes with CECS demonstrated a contradictory elec- tromyographic finding: decreased postexercise potentiation of the peroneal motor amplitude and mild im- pairment in vibratory sensation. Di- rect inspection and circumference measurements are typically normal; however, muscle atrophy may be found if the condition is unilateral. Results of physical examination of the extremity after it has been provoked by exercise may reveal tenderness and increased tension in the involved compartment. In addition, there may be an associated decreased sensation or tingling in the distal region. In the upper extremity, results of physical examination usually reveal neither signs of nerve entrapment (eg, a Tinel sign at the wrist or elbow) nor abnormal two-point discrimination. Results of the neurodiagnostic evaluation, including nerve-conduction studies and electromyographs of the ulnar and median nerves, also should be normal, although Kutz et al 9 reported slowed median nerve conduction in one case. While muscle tenderness may be noted, symmetrically functioning muscles in the hands and forearms are usually found. Differential Diagnosis A number of different conditions may overlap with the diagnosis of CECS (Table 1). When the patient history, physical examination results, and pressure measurements are not diagnostic for CECS, consideration should be given to further imaging, neurophysiologic testing, and/or lab- oratory studies. Testing Equipment and Criteria Patients with CECS demonstrate increased intracompartmental pressures in the affected extremity at rest and during and after exercise. Mea- suring intracompartmental pressures during exercise is difficult and im- practical; resting and postexercise measurements have been shown to be the best method of confirming the diagnosis of CECS. 4,5,10-12 The type of exercise used during measurement taking can vary, but it must be suf- ficiently provocative to induce symptoms. The following different compartment measurement methods show equal effectiveness, assuming correct use: slit catheter, 13 microtip pressure method, 14 wick catheter, 15 microcapillary infusion, 5 and needle manometer. 16 Many authors use the criteria of Pedowitz et al 10 to evaluate patients. These criteria are appropriate for evaluation of both the upper and lower extremities: a resting pressure measurement ≥15 mm Hg, and/or a measurement taken 1 minute after exercise ≥30 mm Hg, and/or a measurement taken 5 minutes after exercise ≥20 mm Hg. The criteria of Whitesides and Heckman 17 for acute compartment syndrome have been applied to CECS. Compartment ischemia is considered to occur when a compartment pres- Table 1 Differential Diagnosis for Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome Diagnosis Findings Confirmatory Studies Stress fracture Localized tenderness directly over the tibia; pain with torsional or bending stress Plain radiograph, bone scan, MRI Medial tibial stress syndrome (periostitis at the muscular attachment site along the posteromedial tibia) Manual resistance to active plantarflexion and inversion leading to pain along the distal posteromedial aspect of the tibia; localized to diffuse tibial tenderness Bone scan, MRI Chronic regional pain syndrome (reflex sympathetic dystrophy) Allodynia and trophic skin changes Triple-phase bone scan, thermography, sympathetic block Tenosynovitis of the ankle dorsiflexors or the posterior tibialis tendon Tenderness along the extent of the tendon aggravated by flexion and extension maneuvers MRI Peripheral nerve entrapment syndromes Tingling or numbness associated with a specific location (Tinel’s sign) EMG, nerve conduction study Venous stasis disease Trophic skin changes Duplex ultrasound Deep vein thrombosis Palpable cords or pain with plantarflexion; calf swelling Duplex ultrasound, venogram Radiculopathy Sensory losses, weakness EMG, central nervous system evaluation Arterial vascular disease Pain, paresthesias, and coolness with activities; claudication Ankle-brachial index Popliteal artery entrapment syndrome Pain and coolness; paradoxical claudication Arteriogram EMG = electromyogram; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging Michael J. Fraipont, MD, and Gregory J. Adamson, MD Vol 11, No 4, July/August 2003 271 sure increases to 20 mm Hg below the diastolic pressure. Measurement Limitations Factors that can affect the accuracy of pressure measurements include proper use of the equipment, correct anatomic placement of the catheter tip, depth of needle insertion, position of the extremity during pressure measurement, and the contractile force of the muscle. This process can be especially difficult to control and interpret in the clinical setting. There- fore, care must be taken to place the limb in a relaxed and consistent position for accurate, reproducible measurements. Although the measurement of intracompartmental pressures of the anterior compartment of the leg is rel- atively simple, the same cannot be said for the deep posterior compartment or for the so-called fifth compartment, the tibialis posterior muscle. When measuring deep posterior compartment and tibialis posterior muscle pressures, the exact location of the tip of the catheter may vary. Schepsis et al 18 described a method of placing the catheter medially, par- allel to the posterior surface of the tibia at the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the leg, into the flexor digitorum longus muscle. Wiley et al 19 proposed using ultrasound as a guide for catheter placement into the deep posterior compartment. Mollica and Duyshart 20 advocated placing intracompartmental pressure measurement apparatus in the medial foot compartment. Upper extremity catheter placement is determined by the affected compartment. 21,22 Other Testing Modalities Alternative methods of testing for elevated compartment pressures are being considered, especially because of the difficulty in measuring the deep compartment pressures. Mohler et al 23 found that patients with CECS of the anterior compartment had greater deoxygenation of the muscle during Figure 4 The single-incision or perifibular approach allows access to all four compartments through a lateral incision. A, The skin incision is made in line with and directly over the fibula. B, Release of the lateral compartment (2) can be done directly after identification of the intermuscular septum. Care must be taken to preserve the superficial peroneal nerve, and the fasciotomy is done 1 cm posterior to the intermuscular septum. C, If the anterior compartment (1) needs to be released, the skin is retracted anteriorly and the fasciotomy is done 1 cm anterior to the intermuscular septum. D, For the fasciotomy of the superficial posterior compartment (3), the skin is retracted posteriorly for exposure. E, For fasciotomy of the deep posterior compartment (4), the lateral and superficial posterior compartments are retracted and the compartment is reached by following the interosseous membrane from the posterior aspect of the fibula. (Adapted with permission from Rorabeck CH: A practical approach to compartment syndromes: III. Management. Instr Course Lect 1983;32:102-113.) Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome 272 Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons exercise and delayed reoxygenation of the muscle after exercise compared with patients who did not have CECS, as measured by infrared spectrosco- py. A more promising and practical measurement of elevated pressure is by magnetic resonance imaging, which can be used in diagnosing CECS. 24 The affected compartment shows an increase in T2-weighted signal intensity during exercise. Although the assistance of an experienced radiologist in reviewing these subtle findings can be helpful, the intracompartmental signal intensity can be normalized with the signal intensity from surrounding tissue not affected by CECS. 24 Bone scan technology using thallium Tl 201 single-photon emission computed to- mography (SPECT) has been shown to localize an ischemic compartment. 25 Management CECS occurs when athletes perform an activity above their threshold level. Therefore, nonsurgical treatment of CECS can be successful only when the patient gives up the activity or the activity level that causes the symptoms. However, it is not unreasonable to offer a treatment plan that includes stopping the activities that provoke the symptoms while introducing a different program of appropriate con- ditioning. Nevertheless, because most patients with CECS who seek med- ical attention are unwilling to mod- ify their exercise programs, subcuta- neous fasciotomy of the involved compartment should be considered. It is the mainstay of treatment and is successful in relieving pain and al- lowing a return to full activities. 12,26 Endoscopically assisted, two- incision fasciotomy is an alternative technique purported to be as safe and effective as single-incision fasciotomy. 27 The advantages of endoscopic release in the lower extremity are access to the entire length of the compartment and visualization of the superficial peroneal nerve and its branches. 27 Surgical Techniques Anterior and Lateral Leg Compartment Fasciotomy Surgical release of the anterior and lateral compartments is done through a 10-cm longitudinal incision over the anterolateral aspect of the leg in its midportion between the tibial crest and the fibula (Fig. 4, A). After identification of the anterior intermuscular septum between the anterior and lateral compartments (Fig. 4, B and C), the fascia is divided proximally Figure 5 Either or both incisions from the two-incision fasciotomy technique can be utilized depending on the number and location of affected compartments. A, Position of two incisions (dotted line = posteromedial incision). B, Cross section of lower leg showing the relationship of the two incisions to the four compartments. 1 = anterior compartment, 2 = lateral compartment, 3 = superficial posterior compartment, 4 = deep posterior compartment. C, The anterior intermuscular septum. D, The fascia is divided to separate the anterior and lateral compartments. The superficial peroneal nerve will be visualized. (Adapted with permission from Rorabeck CH: A practical approach to compartment syndromes: III. Man- agement. Instr Course Lect 1983;32:102-113.) Michael J. Fraipont, MD, and Gregory J. Adamson, MD Vol 11, No 4, July/August 2003 273 and distally in both compartments under direct visualization (Fig. 4, D). Care must be taken to identify the superficial peroneal nerve before release. Fasciotomy should include inspection for and release of any fascial hernias. Superficial and Deep Posterior Leg Compartment Fasciotomy The superficial posterior, deep posterior, and tibialis posterior muscle compartments can be released through either an extended dissection from the lateral approach (Fig. 4, D and E) or more easily through a separate 10-cm medial incision (Fig. 5 ). Once the muscular fascia is identified, the superficial posterior compartment can be released directly because it lies more posterior to the other compartments (Fig. 5, B). To reach the deep posterior compartment, it is necessary to undermine anteriorly to reach the posterior tibial margin, thereby avoiding the saphenous vein and nerve as well as reaching the soleus muscle. The soleus originates from the entire proximal upper half of the tibia and fibula, creating a soleus bridge under which the deep posterior compartment resides. The proximal soleus attachment to the tibia and fibula must be completely de- tached to visualize the deep posteri- or compartment. In addition to per- forming a fasciotomy of the deep posterior compartment, it is recom- mended that a specific fasciotomy of the tibialis posterior muscle compartment be done, as well. 11,12 Release of the deep posterior compartment of the leg has not been as successful as that of the superficial posterior compartment. The reasons for this are not clear. Published expla- nations 11,12,18 for these reported fail- ures include the fact that the patients did not have CECS; the fasciotomy was incomplete, specifically not iden- tifying and releasing the posterior tibialis muscle within the deep compartment; and dense scar tissue had formed after surgery. Thigh Compartment Fasciotomy Tarlow et al 28 described a two- incision fasciotomy release in which the lateral incision is through the fascia lata and the iliotibial band (Fig. 6, A). Both the anterior and posterior compartments can be addressed by releasing the lateral intermuscular septum (Fig. 6, B). After identification of the lateral intermuscular septum between the lateral and posterior compartments, the fascia is divided proximally and distally in both compartments under direct visualization. Care must be taken to identify and palpate the sciatic nerve. A separate medial incision is required to address the vas- tus medialis and the adductor muscles. After identification of the medial intermuscular septum between the Figure 6 Thigh compartment fasciotomy. A, Lateral incision site. B, Cross section of thigh showing opening ofthe anterior compartment and release of the posterior compartment through the lateral intermuscular septum. C, Lateral view of the thigh showing the two-incision fasciotomy release technique. (Panels A and B adapted with permission from Tarlow SD, Achterman CA, Hayhurst J, Ovadia DN: Acute compartment syndrome in the thigh complicating fracture of the femur: A report of three cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1986;68:1439-1443. Panel C adapted with permission from Azar FM, Pickering RM: Traumatic disorders, in Ca- nale ST [ed]: Campbell’s Operative Orthopaedics, ed 9. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1998, vol 2, p 1408.) Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome 274 Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons anterior and posterior compartments, the fascia is divided proximally and distally in both compartments under direct visualization. Care must be taken to identify and palpate the femoral artery and nerve. Forearm Compartment Fasciotomy In a superficial volar forearm compartment fasciotomy, the incision begins just above the elbow over the medial antecubital fossa through the entire length of the volar forearm in a curvilinear fashion to the wrist. It is important to release the lacertus fi- brosus at the elbow and the carpal tunnel at the wrist to decompress the median nerve. The mobile wad compartment also may be released through this incision and can be addressed as needed. 29 In a dorsal compartment fasciotomy, a dorsal incision is made in a line with the lateral aspect of the forearm connecting the lateral epicondyle to the distal radioul- nar joint. Postoperative Care Ice and elevation of the extremity are used for 3 to 5 days after surgery to help limit pain and excessive swelling. Active range-of-motion exercises should be instituted immediately after surgery. Crutches or an upper- extremity sling may be used as necessary for the first few postoperative days, but patients should be encour- aged to walk and perform light activities without assistance. Weight bear- ing as tolerated may be begun directly after fasciotomies of the lower extremity. Full activities may begin as soon as tolerated, usually 3 to 4 weeks after surgery. Results The results of compartment releases indicate that most patients surgically treated for CECS in the leg experience a high level of pain relief and are sat- isfied with the results of surgery. Re- ports of improvement range from 81% to 100%. 4,11,12,18,26,30-32 However,authors who differentiate the results of anterior versus deep posterior compartment releases report notably different outcomes for the deep posterior compartment releases. Success of deep posterior compartment release of the lower extremity rangesfrom 50% to 65%. 11,12,32 CECS in the deep posterior compartment is multifactorial, and a fasciotomy may not fully alleviate the cause of the pain. 11,12,18 Therefore, these outcomes underscore the need to perform compartment pressure measurements before compartment releases are done so that the correct compartment or compartments can be identified and adequate expectations can be relayed to the patient. Generally, patients have noted a high level of pain relief and satisfac- tion with the results of fasciotomy. In their report on the subjective percent- age of pain relief experienced by patients, Howard et al 32 stated that relief may come in increments of improvement from the preoperative level and is dependent on the indi- vidual. Patients can expect to return to light activity by 2 to 4 weeks and to full activity by 4 to 6 weeks. Complications Complications of surgery for CECS include hemorrhage, wound infec- tion, nerve entrapment, swelling, artery injury, hematoma/seroma, lym- phocele, peripheral cutaneous nerve injury, and deep vein thrombosis. Incidence ranges from 4.5% to 13%. 4,11,12,19,31 In addition to postoperative complications, recurrence of symptoms has been reported in 7% to 17% of patients after surgical compartment release. 11,12,18 Summary Recurrent CECS is diagnosed with accuracy when there is a history of reproducible exertional pain associated with increased compartment pressure measurements at rest and/ or after exercise. In patients with recurrent CECS, fasciotomy is advis- able to allow a return to all activities. At surgery, particular attention should be paid to the careful release of fascial defects anteriorly and lat- erally in the leg and posteriorly in the posterior tibialis muscle. As well, when releasing compartments, whether in the foot, leg, thigh, or forearm, care must be taken to avoid injuring the surrounding neurovas- cular structures. References 1. French EB, Price WH: Anterior tibial pain. BMJ 1962;2:1290-1296. 2. Mavor GE: The anterior tibial syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1956;38:513-517. 3. Matava MJ, Whitesides TE Jr, Seiler JG III, Hewan-Lowe K, Hutton WC: Deter- mination of the compartment pressure threshold of muscle ischemia in a ca- nine model. J Trauma 1994;37:50-58. 4. Fronek J, Mubarak SJ, Hargens AR, et al: Management of chronic exertional anterior compartment syndrome of the lower extremity. Clin Orthop 1987;220: 217-227. 5. Styf JR, Korner LM: Microcapillary infusion technique for measurement of intramuscular pressure during exercise. Clin Orthop 1986;207:253-262. 6. Reneman RS: The anterior and the lateral compartmental syndrome of the leg due to intensive use of muscles. Clin Orthop 1975;113:69-80. 7. Jones DC, James SL: Overuse injuries of the lower extremity: Shin splints, iliotibial band friction syndrome, and exertional compartment syndromes. Clin Sports Med 1987;6:273-290. 8. Rowdon GA, Richardson JK, Hoffmann P, Zaffer M, Barill E: Chronic anterior compartment syndrome and deep per- Michael J. Fraipont, MD, and Gregory J. Adamson, MD Vol 11, No 4, July/August 2003 275 oneal nerve function. Clin J Sports Med 2001;11:229-233. 9. Kutz JE, Singer R, Linday M: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the forearm: A case report. J Hand Surg [Am] 1985;10:302-304. 10. Pedowitz RA, Hargens AR, Mubarak SJ, Gershuni DH: Modified criteria for the objective diagnosis of chronic compartment syndrome of the leg. Am J Sports Med 1990;18:35-40. 11. Rorabeck CH, Bourne RB, Fowler PJ: The surgical treatment of exertional compartment syndrome in athletes. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1983;65:1245-1251. 12. 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Mohler LR, Styf JR, Pedowitz RA, Har- gens AR, Gershuni DH: Intramuscular deoxygenation during exercise in patients who have chronic anterior compartment syndrome of the leg. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1997;79:844-849. 24. Verleisdonk EJ, van Gils A, van der Werken C: The diagnostic value of MRI scans for the diagnosis of chronic exertional compartmentsyndrome of the lower leg. Skeletal Radiol 2001;30:321-325. 25. Takebayashi S, Takazawa H, Sasaki R, Miki H, Soh R, Nishimura J: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome in lower legs: Localization and follow-up with thallium-201 SPECT imaging. J Nucl Med 1997;38:972-976. 26. Styf JR, Korner LM: Chronic anterior- compartment syndrome of the leg: Re- sults of treatment by fasciotomy. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1986;68:1338-1347. 27. Leversedge FJ, Casey PJ, Seiler JG III, Xerogeanes JW: Endoscopically assisted fasciotomy: Description of technique and in vitro assessment of lower- leg compartment decompression. Am J Sports Med 2002;30:272-278. 28. Tarlow SD, Achterman CA, Hayhurst J, Ovadia DN: Acute compartment syndrome in the thigh complicating fracture of thefemur:Areportof three cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1986;68:1439-1443. 29. Hoppenfeld S, de Boer P: The forearm, in Surgical Exposures in Orthopaedics: The Anatomic Approach, ed 2. Philadelphia, PA, Lippincott-Raven, 1994, pp 125-127. 30. Qvarfordt P, Christenson JT, Eklof B, Ohlin P, Saltin B: Intramuscular pressure, muscle blood flow, and skeletal muscle metabolism in chronic anterior tibial compartment syndrome. Clin Orthop 1983;179:284-290. 31. Detmer DE, Sharpe K, Sufit RL, Girdley FM: Chronic compartment syndrome: Diagnosis, management, and outcomes. Am J Sports Med 1985;13:162-170. 32. Howard JL, Mohtadi NG, Wiley JP: Evaluation of outcomes in patients following surgical treatment of chronic exertional compartment syndrome in the leg. Clin J Sport Med 2000;10:176-184. Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome 276 Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons . treatment of exertional compartment syndrome in athletes. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1983;65:1245-1251. 12. Rorabeck CH, Fowler PJ, Nott L: The results of fasciotomy in the management of chronic exertional. Street, Pasadena, CA 91105. Copyright 2003 by the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome is an often overlooked and uncommon cause of pain in the extremities. compartment pressures as well as compartment pressures after exercise or trauma. Patients with chronic exertional compartment syndrome usually do not respond to nonsurgical therapy other than completely

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