Restoration of Aquatic Systems © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Marine Science Series The CRC Marine Science Series is dedicated to providing state-of-the-art coverage of important topics in marine biology, marine chemistry, marine geology, and physical oceanography. The series includes volumes that focus on the synthesis of recent advances in marine science. CRC MARINE SCIENCE SERIES SERIES EDITOR Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D. P UBLISHED TITLES Artificial Reef Evaluation with Application to Natural Marine Habitats, William Seaman, Jr. The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume I, Peter L. Lutz and John A. Musick Chemical Oceanography, Second Edition, Frank J. Millero Coastal Ecosystem Processes, Daniel M. Alongi Ecology of Estuaries: Anthropogenic Effects, Michael J. Kennish Ecology of Marine Bivalves: An Ecosystem Approach, Richard F. Dame Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, Larry McEdward Ecology of Seashores, George A. Knox Environmental Oceanography, Second Edition, Tom Beer Estuarine Indicators, Stephen A. Bortone Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection, Michael J. Kennish Estuary Restoration and Maintenance: The National Estuary Program, Michael J. Kennish Eutrophication Processes in Coastal Systems: Origin and Succession of Plankton Blooms and Effects on Secondary Production in Gulf Coast Estuaries, Robert J. Livingston Handbook of Marine Mineral Deposits, David S. Cronan Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands, Joy B. Zedler Intertidal Deposits: River Mouths, Tidal Flats, and Coastal Lagoons, Doeke Eisma Marine Chemical Ecology, James B. McClintock and Bill J. Baker Morphodynamics of Inner Continental Shelves, L. Donelson Wright Ocean Pollution: Effects on Living Resources and Humans, Carl J. Sindermann Physical Oceanographic Processes of the Great Barrier Reef, Eric Wolanski The Physiology of Fishes, Second Edition, David H. Evans Pollution Impacts on Marine Biotic Communities, Michael J. Kennish Practical Handbook of Estuarine and Marine Pollution, Michael J. Kennish Practical Handbook of Marine Science, Third Edition, Michael J. Kennish Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, and Management, Stephen A. Bortone Trophic Organization in Coastal Systems, Robert J. Livingston © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Boca Raton London New York Singapore A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc. Restoration of Aquatic Systems Robert J. Livingston Director Center for Aquatic Research and Resource Management Florida State University Tallahassee © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-1966-8 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-1966-2 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2004064948 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Livingston, Robert J. Restoration of aquatic systems / by Robert J. Livingston. p. cm. –- (Marine science series) Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-8493-1966-8 Restoration ecology–-Florida. 2. Aquatic ecology-–Florida. 3. Wildlife habitat improvement–-Florida. I. Title. II. Series. QH105.F6L582 2005 639.9—dc22 2004064948 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at and the CRC Press Web site at Taylor & Francis Group is the Academic Division of T&F Informa plc. 1966_Discl.fm Page 1 Friday, June 3, 2005 7:52 AM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA http://www.taylorandfrancis.com http://www.crcpress.com For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com “The road to Perdition is paved with good intentions.” — Unattributed aphorism “Approximately 80% of our air pollution stems from hydrocarbons released by vegetation, so let’s not go overboard in setting and enforcing tough emission standards from man-made sources.” — Ronald Reagan “No witchcraft, no enemy action had silenced the re-birth of new life in this stricken world. The people had done it themselves.” —Rachel Carson, Silent Spring “A vast and destructive algae bloom has floated out of the backcountry and settled near Islamorada. …Crossing the tall arch to Long Key, you noticed a foul-looking stain stretching gulfward to the horizon. What you saw is Florida Bay dying.” — Carl Hiaasen, Miami Herald , 1993 “It sounds like a bad 1950s science fiction movie: ugly green slime spreading through the sea, killing fish and threatening children and animals that swim in the water. But experts say this scenario could become reality in the Baltic, the world’s largest brackish water sea…” —Nina Garlo, Reuters article, 2003 “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.” — Ralph Waldo Emerson “Collectively, the restoration effort is billed as the nation’s premier watershed restoration program and is billed as a model for estuarine restoration programs worldwide. All the while, decades pass and the Bay’s most basic environmental indicators suggest little if any sustained improvement…. As the region’s polit- ical system continues to grapple with environmental protection, it is important not to adjust environmental goals to reflect ‘political realities’ or to grow content with hollow ‘successes’ that fail to reflect tangible environmental improve- ments.” —Howard R. Ernst, Chesapeake Blues, 2003 1966_C000.fm Page v Tuesday, June 7, 2005 1:30 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Preface The research effort on which this book is based has involved continuous analyses of various river–estuarine and coastal systems in the southeastern United States since 1970. These long-term studies have been carried out using a combination of field descriptive and experimental (lab and field) approaches. The research team for this work has included field collection personnel, chemists, taxonomists, experimental biologists, physical ocean- ographers, hydrological engineers, statisticians, computer programmers, and modelers. A long-term, interdisciplinary, comparative database has been created that is currently being published in a series of books and peer-reviewed scientific journals. This program has been used to evaluate system-level processes that determine the effects of nutrient loading and nutrient dynamics on phytoplankton/benthic macrophyte productivity and associ- ated food web responses. Efforts have been made to determine how human activities affect these processes. The emphasis of the research has been on seasonal and interannual trophic response to habitat changes and an evaluation of the interrelationships of cultural eutroph- ication and toxic substances on secondary production. This research is currently being used to develop realistic indices of ecosystem condition and determine restoration methods. This book includes several features that have been integrated using the ecosystem evaluations to determine the efficacy of habitat rehabilitation. In addition, information regarding the way in which the scientific data have been reported by American news media and the public response to such information have also been analyzed. The long- evaluation of the efficacy of the restoration process. The various components of the res- toration of damaged aquatic systems are not restricted to the scientific effort. Other factors include economic and political interests, information dissemination, public response, and the complex synergism that goes into controversial environmental issues. This book is thus concerned with just how effective the restoration process becomes as a product of a complex mixture of competing interests. The primary emphasis is on the relationship of scientific research to the rehabilitation of aquatic habitats. 1966_C000.fm Page vii Tuesday, June 7, 2005 1:30 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC term database (Table 1) has thus been used as objective background material for an Table 1 Field/Experimental Effort of the Florida State University Research Group from 1970 to 2004 System Met. PC LC POL PHYTOPL SAV ZOOPL INFAUNA INV FISHES FW NL NR North Florida Lakes 35 14 14 5 6 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 Apalachicola System 85 17 2 2 1 1 1 8 14 14 8 2 nd Apalachee Bay 50 26 12 2 5 15 3 2 18 19 26 3 1 Perdido River–Bay 50 16 16 3 13 3 3 16 16 16 16 16 1 Pensacola Bay System 30 1.5 1.5 1 1.5 nd 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 nd Blackwater–East Bay System 4 1.5 1.5 1 nd 1 nd 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 nd Escatawpa System 5 2 2 2 nd nd nd 2 2 2 nd nd nd Choctawhatchee River–Bay 30 4 4 2 2 1 2 4 4 4 2 2 nd Mobile River Estuary 3 2 2 2 nd nd nd 2 2 2 nd nd nd Nassau–Amelia Estuaries 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 nd 1 Sampit River–Winyah Bay System 5 4 4 4 nd nd nd 4 2 2 nd nd nd Met. = river flow, rainfall. PC = salinity, conductivity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, oxygen anomaly , pH, depth, Secchi. LC = NH 3 , NO 2 , NO 3 , TIN, PON, DON, TON, TN, PO 4 , TDP, TIP, POP, DOP, TOP, TP, DOC, POC, TOC, IC, TIC, TC, BOD, silicate, TSS, TDS, DIM, DOM, POM, PIM, NCASI color, turbidity, chlorophyll a , b , c , sulfide. POL = water/sediment pollutants (pesticides, metals, PAH). PHYTOPL = whole water and/or net phytoplankton. SAV = submerged aquatic vegetation. ZOOPL. = net zooplankton. INFAUNA = infaunal macroinvertebrates taken with cores and/or ponars. INV = invertebrates taken with seines (freshwater) and otter trawls (bay). FISHES = fishes taken with seines (freshwater) and otter trawls (bay). FW = food web transformations. NL= nutrient loading. NR = nutrient limitation experiments. nd = no data. 1966_C000.fm Page viii Tuesday, June 7, 2005 1:30 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC About the Author Robert J. Livingston is currently Professor Emeritus of the Department of Biological Sciences at Florida State University (Tallahassee, Florida, USA). His interests include aquatic ecology, pollution biology, field and laboratory experimentation, and long-term ecosystem-level research in freshwater, estuarine, and marine systems. Past research includes multidisciplinary studies of lakes and a series of drainage systems on the Gulf and East coasts of the United States. Over the past 35 years, Livingston’s research group has conducted a series of studies in areas from Maine to Mississippi. Dr. Livingston has directed the programs of 49 graduate students who have carried out research in behavioral and physiological ecology with individual aquatic populations and communities in lakes, rivers, and coastal systems. He is the author of more than 170 scientific papers and five books on the subject of aquatic ecology, and has been the principal investigator for more than 100 projects since 1970. The primary research program of the author has been carried out largely in the southeastern United States. The areas studied include the Apalachicola drainage system, the Choctawhatchee drainage system, the Perdido drainage system, the Escambia River and Bay system, the Blackwater River estuary, the Escatawpa Pascagula drainage system, the Mobile River estuary, the Winyah Bay system (including the Sampit River), Apalachee Bay (the Econfina and Fenholloway River estuaries) and a series of north Florida lake of anthropogenous activities on a range of physical, chemical, and biological processes. A computer system has been developed to aid in the analysis of the established long- term databases. Together with associates and former graduate students, Livingston is currently in the process of publishing the long-term database. Field research is ongoing in the Perdido system. Retirement is not an option. 1966_C000.fm Page ix Tuesday, June 7, 2005 1:30 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC systems (Table 1). This work has included determinations of the impact of various forms Acknowledgments There were many people who contributed to the research effort over the past 35 years. It is impossible to acknowledge all these people. Literally thousands of undergraduate students, graduate students, technicians, and staff personnel have taken part in the long- term field ecology programs. Various people have been involved in CARRMA research associated with the Center for Aquatic Research and Resource Management at Florida State University for the study period. The program has had the support and cooperation of various experts. Dr. A.K.S.K. Prasad studied phytoplankton taxonomy and systematics. Robert L. Howell IV, ran the field collections and identified fishes and invertebrates. Glenn C. Woodsum designed the overall database organization and, together with Phillip Homann, ran database manage- ment and day-to-day data analysis of the research information. Dr. F. Graham Lewis III, was instrumental in the development of analytical procedures and statistical analyses. Dr. David A. Flemer designed the overall approach for analytical chemistry. Dr. Duane A. Meeter, Dr. Xufeng Niu, and Loretta E. Wolfe performed statistical analyses. The taxonomic consistency of the field collections was carried out with the help of world-class system- atists, including Dr. John H. Epler (aquatic insects), Dr. Carter R. Gilbert and Dr. Ralph Yerger (freshwater fishes), and Dr. Clinton J. Dawes (submerged aquatic vegetation). The long-term field ecological program has benefited from the advice of a distin- guished group of scientists. Dr. John Cairns, Jr., Mr. Bori Olla, Dr. E.P. Odum, Dr. J.W. Hedgpeth, Dr. O. Loucks, Dr. K. Dickson, Dr. F.J. Vernberg, and Dr. Ruth Patrick reviewed the early work. Dr. D.M. Anderson, Dr. A.K.S.K. Prasad, Mr. G.C. Woodsum, Dr. M.J. Kennison, Dr. K. Rhew, Dr. M. Kennish, Dr. E. Fernald, Dr. David C. White, and Ms. V. Tschinkel have reviewed various aspects of the recent work. Other reviews have been provided by Dr. C.H. Peterson, Dr. S. Snedaker, Dr. R.W. Virnstein, Dr. D.C. White, Dr. E.D. Estevez, Dr. J.J. Delfino, Dr. F. James, Dr. W. Herrnkind, and Dr. J. Travis. Dr. Eugene P. Odum gave me the good advice to write up our results in a series of books, which turned out to be the only way our work could be adequately treated. Over the years, we have had a long list of excellent co-investigators who have partic- ipated in various projects. Recent collaborative efforts in the field have included the following scientists: Dr. D.C. White (microbiological analyses), Dr. D.A. Birkholz (toxicology, residue analyses), Dr. G.S. Brush (long-core analysis), Dr. L.A. Cifuentes, (nutrient studies, isotope analyses), Dr. K. Rhew (microalgal analyses), Dr. R.L. Iverson (primary produc- tivity), Dr. R.A. Coffin (nutrient studies, isotope analyses), Dr. W.P. Davis (biology of fishes), Dr. M. Franklin (riverine hydrology), Dr. T. Gallagher (hydrological modeling), Dr. W.C. Isphording (marine geology), Dr. C.J. Klein III (aquatic engineering, estuarine modeling), Dr. M.E. Monaco (trophic organization), Dr. R. Thompson (pesticide analyses), Dr. W. Cooper (chemistry), Mr. D. Fiore (chemistry), and Dr. A.W. Niedoroda (physical oceanography). We have had unusually strong support in the statistical analyses and modeling of our data, a process that is continuing to this day. These statistical determinations and modeling 1966_C000.fm Page xi Tuesday, June 7, 2005 1:30 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC efforts have been carried out by the following people: Dr. T.A. Battista (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), Dr. B. Christensen (University of Florida), Dr. J.D. Christensen (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), Dr. M.E. Monaco (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), Dr. Tom Gallagher (Hydroqual, Inc.), Dr. B. Galperin (University of South Florida), and Dr. W. Huang (Florida State University). Experimental field and laboratory ecology has been carried out by the following graduate students: Dr. B.M.S. Mahoney (experimental biology), Dr. K. Main (experimental biology), Dr. Frank Jordan (biology of fishes), Dr. Ken Leber (experimental biology), Dr. W.H. Clements (trophic analyses), Dr. C.C. Koenig (fish biology), Dr. P. Sheridan (trophic analyses), Dr. J. Schmidt (aquatic macroinvertebrates), Dr. A.W. Stoner (trophic analyses), Dr. R.A. Laughlin (trophic analyses), Dr. J.L. Luczkovich (experimental biology), Dr. J. Holmquist (experimental biology), Dr. D. Bone (experimental biology), Dr. B. MacFarlane (biology of fishes), Ms. C. Phillips (experimental biology), Mr. M. Kuperberg (submerged aquatic vegetation), Ms. T.A. Hooks (experimental biology), Mr. Joseph Ryan (trophic analyses), Mr. C.J. Boschen (trophic analyses), Mr. G.G. Kobylinski (experimental biology), Mr. C.R. Cripe (experimental biology), Mr. T. Bevis (biology of fishes), Mr. P. Muessig (experimental biology), Ms. S. Drake (experimental biology), Mr. K.L. Heck, Jr. (experimental biology), Ms. H. Greening (aquatic macroinvertebrates), Mr. Duncan Cairns (experimental biology), Ms. K. Brady (larval fishes), Mr. B. McLane (aquatic macroinver- tebrates), Ms. B. Shoplock (zooplankton), Ms. J.J. Reardon (phytoplankton, submerged aquatic vegetation), and Ms. J. Schmidt-Gengenbach (experimental biology). Taxonomy is at the heart of a comprehensive ecosystem program, which is something I learned from my major professors (Dr. Carl Hubbs, Dr. C. Richard Robbins, Dr. Arthur A. Myrberg, and Dr. Charles E. Lane) while attending graduate school. Our attention to systematics and natural history has benefited from the efforts of a long line of graduate students, post-doctoral fellows, and trained technicians who include the following: Dr. A.K.S.K. Prasad and Dr. K. Rhew (phytoplankton, benthic microalgae), Dr. F. Graham Lewis III (aquatic macroinvertebrates), Dr. J. Epler (aquatic macroinvertebrates), Dr. R.D. Kalke (estuarine zooplankton), Dr. G.L. Ray (infaunal macroinvertebrates), Dr. K.R. Smith (oligochaetes), Dr. E. L. Bousfield (amphipods), Dr. F. Jordan (trophic analyses), Dr. C.J. Dawes (submerged aquatic vegetation), Dr. R.W. Yerger and Dr. Carter Gilbert (fishes), Mr. R.L. Howell III (infaunal and epibenthic invertebrates and fishes), Mr. W.R. Karsteter (freshwater macroinvertebrates), and Mr. M. Zimmerman (submerged aquatic vegetation). A number of phycologists have given their time to the taxonomy and nomenclature of phytoplankton species over the years: Dr. C.W. Reimer (Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia), Dr. G.A. Fryxell (University of Texas at Austin), Dr. G.R. Hasle (University of Oslo, Norway), Dr. P. Hargraves (University of Rhode Island), Professor F. Round (University of Bristol, England), Mr. R. Ross, Ms. P.A. Sims, Dr. E.J. Cox and Dr. D.M. Williams (British Museum of Natural History, London, United Kingdom), Dr. L.K. Medlin and Dr. R.M. Crawford (Alfred-Wegener Institute, Bremerhaven, Germany), Professor T.V. Desikachary (University of Madras, India), Dr. J.A. Nienow (Valdosta State University, Georgia), Dr. P. Silva (University of California at Berkeley), Dr. M.A. Faust (Smithsonian Institution), Dr. R.A. Andersen (Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, Maine), Dr. D. Wujeck (Michigan State University), Dr. M. Melkonian (University of Koln, Germany), Dr. C.J. Tomas (Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, St. Petersburg), Profes- sor T.H. Ibaraki (Japan), Dr. Y. Hara (University of Tsukuba, Japan), and Dr. J. Throndsen (University of Oslo, Norway). Technical assistance with transmission and scanning elec- tron microscopes was provided by Ms. K.A. Riddle (Department of Biological Science, Florida State University). Mrs. A. Black and Mr. D. Watson (Histology Division, Depart- ment of Biological Science, Florida State University) aided in specimen preparation and serial thin sectioning. 1966_C000.fm Page xii Tuesday, June 7, 2005 1:30 PM © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... Apalachee Bay 10 6 4.6.6 Zooplankton Distribution 11 0 4.7 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation .11 0 4.7 .1 SAV Distribution in Space and Time .11 0 4.8 Invertebrates .11 5 4.9 Fishes 11 8 4 .10 Summary of Findings 12 0 4 .10 .1 Water Quality 12 0 4 .10 .2 Chlorophyll a .12 1 4 .10 .3 Phytoplankton .12 3 4 .10 .4 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation... Management of the Apalachicola Bay System 305 12 .5 .1 Wetlands Purchases 305 12 .5.2 Local, State, and Federal Cooperation 308 12 .5.2 .1 The Beginning: 19 72 to 19 77 309 12 .5.2.2 The Middle Years: 19 78 to 19 82 311 12 .5.2.3 19 83 to the Present 313 12 .6 Water Use in the ACF System . 314 12 .7 The Apalachicola Model: Management, not Restoration 315 Chapter 13 Conclusions... Quality 265 10 .4 Recent Evaluations of the Everglades Ecosystem 267 10 .5 Management and Restoration 269 10 .6 The News Media and Public Involvement 2 71 Section IV: Restoration of Toxic Waste Sites Chapter 11 Mercury and Dioxin in Aquatic Systems .277 11 .1 Mercury in the Aquatic Environment 277 11 .2 Penobscot River–Bay System in Maine 278 11 .2 .1 Background... 12 8 4 .10 .5 Invertebrates 12 9 4 .10 .6 Fishes 14 6 4 .11 Press Coverage, Public Response, and Failure of the Restoration Process 15 1 Chapter 5 Nutrient Loading and the Perdido System 15 9 5 .1 Phytoplankton Blooms in Coastal Systems 15 9 5.2 Research in the Perdido River-Bay System 16 0 5.3 History of Results 16 2 5.3 .1 River Flow Trends .16 2... 286 11 .3.4 Resolution 287 11 .4 Dioxin in the Aquatic Environment 287 11 .4 .1 Background of Dioxin in the Newark Bay Complex 287 11 .4.2 Dioxin in Fish and Invertebrate Tissues 289 11 .4.3 Newark Bay Ecology: Fate, Effects, and Restoration 290 11 .4.4 Legal Action and Regulatory Response 292 11 .5 Regulatory Requirements and the Restoration Process 292 11 .6 Press... 278 11 .2.2 Mercury in the Penobscot River–Bay System 279 11 .2.3 The “Wetlands Hypothesis” 2 81 11. 2.4 Proposed Restoration of the Penobscot System 283 11 .2.5 Legal Solution to the Penobscot Mercury Problem 284 11 .3 Mercury in the South River–South Fork Shenandoah River 284 11 .3 .1 Background 284 11 .3.2 Mercury in the South River–South Fork System 284 11 .3.3 Ongoing... Florida as a Microcosm of the Restoration Paradigm Chapter 2 Cultural Eutrophication of North Florida Lakes 13 2 .1 Background of Solution (Sinkhole) Lakes .13 2.2 Urban Runoff and Solution Lakes 16 2.3 Lake Ecology Program 17 2.4 Urban Runoff and Lake Jackson .17 2.4 .1 Background 17 2.4.2 Long-Term Cycles of Rainfall and Storm Water Runoff 20 2.4.3 Water... Statistical Analyses of the Long-Term Data 18 0 The Press and the Perdido System .18 4 5.4 .1 The Dioxin Issue 18 5 5.4.2 Cumulative Impacts of Development on Perdido Bay 18 7 5.4.3 The News Media and Perdido Bay 19 0 Chapter 6 The Pensacola Bay System 19 5 6 .1 Background .19 5 6.2 Purpose of Study 19 5 6.3 Summary of Results 19 6 6.4 Contamination... Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 19 66_C000.fm Page xv Tuesday, June 7, 2005 1: 30 PM Contents Section I: Definitions Chapter 1 The Restoration Paradigm 3 1. 1 Definitions .3 1. 2 Ecosystem Research and Restoration .3 1. 3 Human Impacts on Aquatic Systems .4 1. 4 The Paradox of Actual Risks and Public Concerns .6 1. 5 Factors for Successful Restoration 7 Section... 257 10 .1 The System 257 10 .2 Background .259 10 .2 .1 Kissimmee River–Lake Okeechobee 259 10 .2.2 Florida Everglades 260 10 .2.3 Florida Bay 2 61 10.2.4 Florida Keys, Coral Reefs 262 10 .3 Water Quality in the Florida Everglades System .263 10 .3 .1 Mercury 263 10 .3.2 Nutrients 264 10 .3.2 .1 Relationships of Nutrient . 85 17 2 2 1 1 1 8 14 14 8 2 nd Apalachee Bay 50 26 12 2 5 15 3 2 18 19 26 3 1 Perdido River–Bay 50 16 16 3 13 3 3 16 16 16 16 16 1 Pensacola Bay System 30 1. 5 1. 5 1 1.5 nd 1. 5 1. 5 1. 5 1. 5 1. 5 1. 5. America on acid-free paper 10 9876543 21 International Standard Book Number -1 0 : 0-8 49 3 -1 96 6-8 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number -1 3 : 97 8-0 -8 49 3 -1 96 6-2 (Hardcover) Library of Congress. Bay 10 6 4.6.6 Zooplankton Distribution 11 0 4.7 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation 11 0 4.7 .1 SAV Distribution in Space and Time 11 0 4.8 Invertebrates 11 5 4.9 Fishes 11 8 4 .10 Summary of Findings 12 0 4 .10 .1