RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LAKES AND RESERVOIRS - CHAPTER 1 potx

RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT OF LAKES AND RESERVOIRS THIRD EDITION G. DENNIS COOKE EUGENE B. WELCH SPENCER A. PETERSON STANLEY A. NICHOLS Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Published in 2005 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number-10: 1-56670-625-4 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-5667-0625-4 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2004062816 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Restoration and management of lakes and reservoirs / edited by G. Dennis Cooke … [et al.].—3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-625-4 (alk. paper) 1. Restoration ecoology. 2. Water quality management. I. Cooke, G. Dennis (George Dennis), 1937- II. Title. QH541.15.R45R49 2005 628.1'68—dc22 2004062816 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Taylor & Francis Group is the Academic Division of T&F Informa plc. L1625_T&FLOC.fm Page 1 Tuesday, April 5, 2005 1:54 PM Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Preface Environmental problems usually develop from the interactions of people, consumption, and resources. Increasing population, increasing consumption and limited resources exacerbate these problems. One concern that heads the list of critical problems is the availability of clean, fresh, surface water. It is the basis of the existence of human societies and economies. Fresh water is essential for many forms of life, is required by humans for drinking, agriculture, and most industrial processes, and plays a prominent role in our recreational activities. Since we completed the second edition of this book in 1992 (Cooke et al., 1993), hundreds of millions of people have been added to the human population, each of them exerting demands and impacts on a finite supply of fresh water. As noted in our Introduction, the overall quality of lakes and reservoirs in many areas of the United States, southern Canada, and Europe continues to deteriorate. In some areas, fresh water resources are so polluted that economic systems and human health are impaired. Although there are several urgent global environmental problems, scientists, environmentalists, and policy makers must focus much more attention on the human population explosion and its well-known relationship to fresh water pollution. Certainly all nations should be taking significant steps to reduce the likelihood of global climate change and to limit additional water pollution and aquatic habitat destruction. Lake and reservoir management and restoration methods are new technologies that have devel- oped over the last 35 years, and are ones that promise to be of great significance in protecting and improving fresh water systems. We hope that our book will be a useful addition. Every lake or reservoir utilized by humans requires management. This may involve only monitoring to assure that it is not degraded, or it may require regular efforts to maintain it, perhaps with equipment or techniques that have been adopted to enhance or protect the system. Restoration of impaired lakes and reservoirs, in the strict sense, is not possible, but the term is applied to procedures to return the system to some approximation of an earlier, less disturbed condition. We are just beginning to learn the art and science of management and restoration. Applied limnology developed as an extension of basic sciences. There is a great need to understand fresh water systems if we are to provide for their competent protection, management, and restoration for current and future generations. Long-term funding to support basic and applied limnology must be greatly expanded, and this must be recognized by politicians, administrators, and others who support science through policies and appropriations. We strongly endorse the work of the North American Lake Management Society (NALMS), and other professional and environ- mental organizations, which together have been so consistent in delivering this message to scientists, appropriate legislators, and citizens. Our goals in this book are to describe the eutrophication process, outline methods for developing a pre-management and restoration diagnosis-feasibility study, and to provide detailed descriptions of scientifically sound management and restoration methods. Each chapter includes an introduction to the scientific basis of the problem, a description of the method’s procedures, and presents some case histories. Potential negative impacts and costs, where known, also are noted. The chapters are updated and extensively referenced, and three new chapters have been added to this edition. Our book will be useful as a classroom text, as a reference manual, and as a general guide for interested lake users. This book is certainly not the last word on the topic. It is our sincere hope that it will stimulate new and improved perspectives and ideas in lake and reservoir management and restoration. The L1625_C000.fm Page v Sunday, December 18, 2005 8:27 PM Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis content of this book is a product of the study, input, and concurrence of all of the authors, as well as a product of our combined years of field and laboratory research in limnology. Where appropriate and possible, we report costs in 2002 U.S. dollars by correcting for inflation. This was done by using year-to-year increases in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) to correct costs reported for earlier years to their present values. We thank Dr. Thomas S. Lough (Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California) for the use of his CPI scale to correct for inflation. The contributions to this book by Spencer A. Peterson, an employee of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), were made on his own time, with Agency permission. However, the research and writing were independent of USEPA employment and have not been subjected to the Agency’s peer and administrative review. Therefore, the conclusions and opinions stated are solely those of the author and should not be construed to reflect the views of the USEPA. Specific chapter authorship is: G. Dennis Cooke (Chapters 5, 9, 10, 13, 15, and 17), Eugene B. Welch (Chapters 3, 4, 6, 7, 18, and 19), Spencer A. Peterson (Chapter 20), Stanley A. Nichols (Chapters 11, 12, 14, and 16), G. Dennis Cooke and Spencer A. Peterson (Chapters 1 and 2), and Eugene B. Welch and G. Dennis Cooke (Chapter 8). L1625_C000.fm Page vi Sunday, December 18, 2005 8:27 PM Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Acknowledgments Numerous and often unnamed, our colleagues and students have provided a rich array of ideas, articles, books, theses, and reports from which to draw materials to write the book. Many have spent years in the field and in the laboratory, collecting data and studying lakes. The many stimulating discussions with them have been invaluable as well. We dedicate this book to them. We thank Dr. Brent Bruot, Chair, Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, for invaluable facilities and support during the book’s preparation, and Dr. Gertrud Cronberg and the late Dr. Gunnar Andersson for permission to use unpublished figures and photographs, respec- tively, in Chapter 20. We also thank Chris Lind and the General Chemical Corporation for permis- sion to use a figure in Chapter 8, and Drs. Richard Lathrop, William Walker and Jacob Kann for permission to use unpublished figures in Chapter 3. We thank Tetra Tech, Inc. (Seattle, Washington) for its general office and computer assistance to Eugene Welch. We thank the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for authorizing Spencer Peterson to write this book on his own time, but also to have occasional use of his computing and graphic arts contractor (Computer Sciences Corpora- tion), especially Suzanne M. Pierson, for drafting some new figures for this third edition. We gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey Staff, especially Susan Hunt and Mindy James, for graphic, editorial, and computer support for chapters prepared by Stanley Nichols. CRC Press has been a joy to work with. We are especially grateful to Patricia Roberson for her exceptional assistance during the book’s preparation, Jill Jurgensen and Sylvia Wood for their able editorial work, and our editor, Matt Lamoreaux, for his continuous support. Suzanne Pierson and Spencer Peterson assisted CRC’s Shayna Murry to design, compose and select colors for the book cover. G. Dennis Cooke Eugene B. Welch Spencer A. Peterson Stanley A. Nichols January 2005 BOOK COVER PHOTO CREDITS Front Cover Top: A partitioned pond phosphorus inactivation experiment at Cline’s Pond, Oregon (top half of left pond untreated; bottom half of left pond treated with zirconium tetrachloride; right pond is untreated reference pond). Courtesy of Spencer Peterson (1974). Bottom: Whole lake phosphorus inactivation at Dollar Lake, Ohio (left, small round lake treated with alum in 1974), West Twin Lake, Ohio (right, round lake treated with alum in 1975) and reference lake (center, irregularly shaped East Twin Lake). Courtesy of Dennis Cooke (1976). Background cover photo is an enlargement of the Twin Lakes photo by Dennis Cooke. Back Cover Left to right, row 1: 1. Shoreline of West Twin Lake, Ohio. Courtesy of Dennis Cooke (1976). 2. IR photo of Lilly Lake, Wisconsin prior to dredging. Courtesy of Spencer Peterson (1977). L1625_C000.fm Page vii Sunday, December 18, 2005 8:27 PM Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis 3. Sewer pipe installation around Liberty Lake, Washington prior to phosphorus inactivation with alum. Courtesy of Spencer Peterson (1977). 4. Dredge pipeline in Lake Trummen, Sweden. Gunnar Andersson (1969), University of Lund, Lund, Sweden. With permission. 5. Milman Mudcat dredge on Lake Jarnsjon, Sweden. Ellicott, Division of Baltimore Dredges LLC (1993), Baltimore, MD. With permission. Left to right, row 2: 1. Mudcat dredge in Mexico (nd). Ellicott, Division of Baltimore Dredges LLC, Baltimore, Maryland. With permission. 2. Aerator installation in Lake Stevens, Washington (nd). Courtesy of Harry Gibbons, Tetra Tech, Inc., Seattle, Washington. 3. Grass carp or white amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella Val.) (1987). Courtesy of Dennis Cooke. 4. Aquatic plant harvester on Lake Sallie, Minnesota. Courtesy of Spencer Peterson (1969). 5. Aquatic plant harvester. Courtesy of Dennis Cooke (1980). Left to right, bottom: 1. Alum application barge on Green Lake, Washington. Courtesy of Eugene Welch (nd). 2. Alum application at Medical Lake, Washington. Courtesy of Spencer Peterson (1977). 3. Waldo Lake, Oregon. Courtesy of Spencer Peterson (1982). Bottom of back cover, bar graph figure: Biomass before dredging and over a more than 30-year history following dredging in Lake Trummen, Sweden. Gertrud Cronberg, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden. With permission. L1625_C000.fm Page viii Sunday, December 18, 2005 8:27 PM Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Authors G. Dennis Cooke is Emeritus Professor of Biological Sciences and Member of the Water Resources Research Institute at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. He was a founding member and the first President of the North American Lake Management Society and also served two terms as a board member. He is also a founding member of the Ohio Lake Management Society and served as its president and as a board member. Dr. Cooke is the author of several books, including Reservoir Management for Water Quality and THM Precursor Control, and many articles and reports on limnology and lake and reservoir management. Eugene B. Welch is Emeritus Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Washington, Seattle, and is a consultant with Tetra Tech, Inc., in Seattle. He is Past President of the North American Lake Management Society (1992–93 term), was a founding member of the Society, and served on its first Board of Directors. Dr. Welch is author of two other books, including Pollutant Effects in Fresh Water: Applied Limnology, and many reports and articles on applied limnology and lake and reservoir management. Spencer A. Peterson is a Senior Research Ecologist with the USEPA’s Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program at the National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, Oregon, and affiliate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle. Dr. Peterson is a founding member of the North American Lake Management Society and the author of many articles on lake management, con- taminated sediments, and non-point source and hazardous waste assessment. Stanley A. Nichols is Emeritus Professor of Environmental Sciences at the University of Wisconsin- Extension in Madison. For most of his career he worked at the Environmental Resources Center and the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. His initial efforts in lake restoration and management began more than 30 years ago as a member of the Inland Lake Renewal and Demonstration Project in Wisconsin and the Lake Wingra International Biological Program team. He has published widely in the areas of aquatic plant ecology and management, lake protection, exotic species control, habitat restoration, and lake sampling. He is a past member of the North American Lake Management Society and the Aquatic Plant Management Society. Presently, he consults and writes on aquatic plants, lake management, and habitat restoration issues. L1625_C000.fm Page ix Sunday, December 18, 2005 8:27 PM Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Contents SECTION I Overview Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle and the Quantity of Fresh Water 1.2 Status of Fresh Water in the United States 1.3 Sources of Lake and Reservoir Problems 1.4 Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs 1.5 History of Lake Restoration and Management References Chapter 2 Basic Limnology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Lakes and Reservoirs 2.3 Basic Limnology 2.3.1 Physical–Chemical Limnology 2.4 Biological Limnology 2.5 Limiting Factors 2.6 The Eutrophication Process 2.7 Characteristics of Shallow and Deep Lakes 2.8 Ecoregions and Attainable Lake Conditions 2.9 Summary References Chapter 3 Lake and Reservoir Diagnosis and Evaluation 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Diagnosis/Feasibility Studies 3.2.1 Watershed 3.2.2 In-Lake 3.2.3 Data Evaluation 3.2.3.1 Example 1 3.2.3.2 Example 2 3.3 Selection of Lake Restoration Alternatives 3.3.1 Algal Problems 3.3.1.1 Nutrient Diversion/Advanced Waste Treatment 3.3.3.2 P Inactivation 3.3.3.3 Dilution/Flushing 3.3.3.4 Lake Protection From Urban Runoff 3.3.3.5 Hypolimnetic Withdrawal 3.3.3.6 Artificial Circulation 3.3.3.7 Food-Web Manipulations 3.3.3.8 Copper Sulfate Treatment Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis 3.3.4 Macrophyte Problems 3.3.4.1 Harvesting 3.3.4.2 Biological Controls 3.3.4.3 Lake-Level Drawdown 3.3.4.4 Sediment Covers 3.3.4.5 Sediment Removal 3.3.4.6 Hypolimnetic Aeration 3.5 Guidelines for Choosing Lake Restoration Alternatives 3.6 The Lake Improvement Restoration Plan References SECTION II Algal Biomass Control Techniques Directed toward Control of Plankton Algae Chapter 4 Lake and Reservoir Response to Diversion and Advanced Wastewater Treatment 4.1 General 4.2 Techniques for Reducing External Nutrient Loads 4.3 Recovery of World Lakes 4.4 Lake Washington, Washington 4.5 Lake Sammamish, Washington 4.6 Lake Norrviken, Sweden 4.7 Shagawa Lake, Minnesota 4.8 Madison Lakes, Wisconsin 4.8 Lake Zürich, Switzerland 4.9 Lake Søbygaard, Denmark 4.10 Costs 4.11 In-Lake Treatment Following Diversion 4.12 Summary References Chapter 5 Lake and Reservoir Protection From Non-Point Pollution 5.1 Introduction 5.2 In-Stream Phosphorus Removal 5.3 non-point Nutrient Source Controls: Introduction 5.4 non-point Source Controls: Manure Management 5.5 non-point Nutrient Source Controls: Ponds and Wetlands 5.5.1 Introduction 122 5.5.2 Dry And Wet Extended Detention (ED) Ponds 5.5.3 Constructed Wetlands 5.6 Constructed Wetlands: Case Histories 5.7 Pre-Dams 5.8 Riparian Zone Rehabilitation: Introduction 5.9 Riparian Zone Rehabilitaton Methods 5.10 Reservoir Shoreline Rehabilitation 5.11 Lakeshore Rehabilitation 5.12 Summary References Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Chapter 6 Dilution and Flushing 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Theory and Predictions 6.3 Case Studies 6.3.1 Moses Lake 6.3.2 Green Lake 6.3.3 Lake Veluwe 6.4 Summary: Effects, Applications, and Precautions References Chapter 7 Hypolimnetic Withdrawal 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Test Cases 7.2.1 General Trends 7.2.1 Specific Cases 7.2.1.1 Mauen See 7.2.1.2 Austrian Lakes 7.2.1.3 U.S. Lakes 7.2.1.4 Canada 7.3 Costs 7.4 Adverse Effects 7.5 Summary References Chapter 8 Phosphorus Inactivation and Sediment Oxidation 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Chemical Background 8.2.1 Aluminum 8.2.2 Iron and Calcium 8.3 Dose Determination and Application Techniques 8.3.1 Aluminum 8.3.2 Iron and Calcium 8.3.3 Application Techniques for Alum 8.4 Effectiveness and Longevity of P Inactivation 8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Stratified Lake Cases 8.4.2.1 Mirror and Shadow Lakes, Wisconsin (WI) 8.4.2.2 West Twin Lake (WTL), Ohio 8.4.2.3 Kezar Lake, New Hampshire 8.4.2.4 Lake Morey, Vermont 8.4.3 Shallow, Unstratified Lake Cases 8.4.3.1 Long Lake, Kitsap County, Washington 8.4.3.2 Campbell and Erie Lakes, Washington 8.4.3.3 Green Lake, Washington 8.4.4 Reservoirs 8.4.5 Ponds 8.4.6 Iron Applications 8.4.7 Calcium Applications to Hardwater Lakes 8.5 Problems that Limit Effectiveness of P Inactivation Copyright © 2005 by Taylor & Francis [...]... 18 10 0 25 88 88 70 57 46 73 — — 42 50 32 0 74 8 74 37 6 — — 66 99 14 68 74 97 — 11 94 68 24 — 21 . America on acid-free paper 10 9876543 21 International Standard Book Number -1 0 : 1- 5 667 0-6 2 5-4 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number -1 3 : 97 8 -1 -5 66 7-0 62 5-4 (Hardcover) Library of Congress. 19 ), Spencer A. Peterson (Chapter 20), Stanley A. Nichols (Chapters 11 , 12 , 14 , and 16 ), G. Dennis Cooke and Spencer A. Peterson (Chapters 1 and 2), and Eugene B. Welch and G. Dennis Cooke (Chapter. Overview Chapter 1 Introduction 1. 1 The Hydrologic Cycle and the Quantity of Fresh Water 1. 2 Status of Fresh Water in the United States 1. 3 Sources of Lake and Reservoir Problems 1. 4 Restoration and Management