Handbook of ECOTOXICOLOGY - Section 3 ppt

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC SECTION III Case Histories and Ecosystem Surveys 24 The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Reactor Accident: Ecotoxicological Update Ronald Eisler 25 Pesticides and International Migratory Bird Conservation Michael J. Hooper, Pierre Mineau, María Elena Zaccagnini, and Brian Woodbridge 26 Effects of Mining Lead on Birds: A Case History at Coeur d’Alene Basin, Idaho Charles J. Henny 27 White Phosphorus at Eagle River Flats, Alaska: A Case History of Waterfowl Mortality Donald W. Sparling 28 A Mining Impacted Stream: Exposure and Effects of Lead and Other Trace Elements on Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) Nesting in the Upper Arkansas River Basin, Colorado Christine M. Custer, Thomas W. Custer, Andrew S. Archuleta, Laura C. Coppock, Carol D. Swartz, and John W. Bickham 29 The Hudson River — PCB Case Study John P. McCarty 30 Baseline Ecological Risk Assessment for Aquatic, Wetland, and Terrestrial Habitats along the Clark Fork River, Montana Greg Linder, Daniel F. Woodward, and Gary Pascoe © 2003 by CRC Press LLC CHAPTER 24 The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Reactor Accident: Ecotoxicological Update Ronald Eisler CONTENTS 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Local Effects 24.2.1 Acute Effects 24.2.2 Latent Effects: Humans 24.2.3 Latent Effects: Plants and Animals 24.3 Nonlocal Effects 24.3.1 Soil and Vegetation 24.3.2 Aquatic Life 24.3.3 Wildlife 24.3.4 Domestic Animals 24.4 Summary References 24.1 INTRODUCTION The partial meltdown of the 1000 MW reactor at Chernobyl, Ukraine on April 26, 1986 released large amounts of radiocesium and other radionuclides into the environment, causing widespread radioactive contamination of Europe and the former Soviet Union. 1–8 Among the reactors operating in the former Soviet Union, 13 are identical to the one in Chernobyl, Ukraine, including units in Chernobyl, Leningrad, Kursk, and Smolensk. 70 Of the three remaining reactors in Chernobyl, one was closed in 1991 after a fire swept through the turbine hall, causing extensive damage, though not to the reactor. 168 A second unit was closed in 1994 by the Russian president after pledges were received from the Group of Seven to help finance an overall plan to decommission the Chernobyl complex. And the last unit was closed in late 2000. 168 At least 3,000,000 trillion becquerels (TBq) were released from the fuel during the April 1986 accident, dwarfing — by orders of magnitude — radiation releases from other highly publicized reactor accidents at Windscale (U.K.) and Three-Mile Island (U.S.). 3,9,159 (Note: 1 Bq = 1 disinte- gration/sec; about 0.037 Bq = 1 picoCurie.) The Chernobyl accident happened while a test was © 2003 by CRC Press LLC being conducted during a normal scheduled shutdown and is attributed mainly to human error. 3 About 25% of the released radioactive materials escaped during the first day of the accident; the rest over a 9-day period. 3 The initial explosions and heat from the fire carried some of the radioactive materials to an altitude of 1500 m, where they were transported by prevailing winds. Long-range atmospheric transport spread the radioactivity through the northern hemisphere, where it was initially detected in Japan on May 2, in China on May 4, in India on May 5, and in Canada and the United States on May 5–6, 1986. Airborne activity was also detected in Turkey, Kuwait, and Israel in early May. No airborne activity from Chernobyl has been reported south of the equator. 3 Effective dose equivalents from the Chernobyl accident in various regions of the world were highest in southeastern Europe (1.2 milliSieverts [mSv]), northern Europe (0.97 mSv), and central Europe (0.93 mSv). 3,4 (Note: 1 mSv = 0.1 rem.) In the first year after the accident, whole-body effective dose equivalents were highest in Bulgaria, Austria, Greece, and Romania (0.5–0.8 mSv); Finland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Italy (0.3–0.5 mSv); Switzerland, Poland, U.S.S.R, Hungary, Norway, Germany, and Turkey (0.2–0.3 mSv); and elsewhere (< 0.2 mSv). 3,4 This value was 0.81 mSv in the former Soviet Union, < 0.2 mSv in southwest Asia and western Europe, and < 0.1 mSv elsewhere. 3,4 By comparison, the recommended whole-body annual effective dose equivalent for the general public is < 5 mSv. 3 Thyroid dose equivalents were significantly higher than whole-body effective dose equivalents because of significant amounts of 131 I in the released materials. Thyroid dose equivalents were as high as 25 mSv to infants in Bulgaria, 20 mSv in Greece, and 20 mSv in Romania; the adult thyroid dose equivalents were usually 80% lower than the infant dose equivalents. 3 This account briefly summarizes ecological and toxicological aspects of the Chernobyl accident with an emphasis on natural resources; it complements and supplements previous reviews. 8,74,75,121,123,147,149,165,166,172 24.2 LOCAL EFFECTS The initial contamination rate in the 30-km exclusion zone surrounding the site of the nuclear accident was estimated at 37,000,000 Bq/km 2 (1,000 Ci/km 2 ); isotopes included iodine-131, tellu- rium 127+132, barium-140, lanthanum-140, cerium-141+144, zirconium-95, niobium-95, ruthe- nium-103+106, praseodymium-144, cesium-134+137, molybdenum-99, strontium-89+90, pluto- nium-238+239+240+241, silver-110, antimony-125, and others. 89 About 28,000 km 2 of land and 2225 settlements in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine were officially declared contaminated with radiocesium, i.e., levels were > 185,000 Bq 134+137 Cs/m 2 (> 5 Ci/km 2 ). 165 Approximately 850,000 people are still living in these contaminated areas. About 105,000 km 2 were contaminated with 37,000 Bq/m 2 (1 Ci/km 2 ) or more. In the first years of the catastrophe, 144,000 ha of agricultural land and 492,000 ha of forest were withdrawn from use. More than 4 million people in these three countries were affected by the accident. Current estimates of the eventual toll from cancer deaths as a direct result of Chernobyl range from a minimum of 14,000 to a maximum of 475,000. 165 24.2.1 Acute Effects At Chernobyl, at least 115 humans received acute bone marrow doses > 1 Grey (Gy), as judged by lymphocyte aberrations. (Note: 1 Gy = 100 rad.) The death toll within 3 months from the accident was at least 30 individuals, usually from groups receiving > 4 Gy, especially the reactor’s operating staff and the fire-fighting crew. 3 Humans from highly contaminated areas within 30 km of Chernobyl received mean thyroid doses from radioiodines of 1.6 Gy for adults, 2.1 Gy for those age 7–17 years, and 4.7 Gy for infants. 143 Residents were evacuated from a 30-km exclusion zone surrounding the reactor because of increasing radiation levels; more than 115,000 people, including 27,000 children, were evacuated from the Kiev region, Belarus, and Ukraine. 3 Children evacuated © 2003 by CRC Press LLC from the contaminated areas showed — in July 1986 — significantly elevated levels of dicentric chromosomal aberrations when compared to resident children of noncontaminated areas. 116 Vitamin E and A deficiencies observed in some children were correlated with high Chernobyl radiation loads of their mothers. 142 Tens of thousands of cattle were also removed from the contaminated area, and consumption of locally produced milk and other foods was banned. Agricultural activities were halted and large-scale decontamination was undertaken. 3 Humans residing in areas where topsoil contamination exceeded 555,000 Bq/m 2 were cautioned against inclusion of forest products in their diets and to avoid cattle grazing on wet floodplain meadows without remediation. 146 The forced evacuation and health concerns contributed to severe sociopsychological impacts in all age groups of the displaced population. 126 The most sensitive ecosystems affected at Chernobyl were the soil fauna and pine forest communities; the majority of the terrestrial vertebrate communities were not adversely affected by released ionizing radiation. 10 Pine forests seemed to be the most sensitive ecosystem. One 400-ha stand of Pinus silvestris died and probably received a dose of 80–100 Gy. Other stands experienced heavy mortality of 10- to 12-year-old trees and as much as 95% necrotization of young shoots; these pines received an estimated dose of 8–10 Gy. Abnormal top shoots developed in some Pinus, and these probably received 3–4 Gy. In contrast, leafed trees in the Chernobyl Atomic Power Station zone, such as birch, oak, and aspen, survived undamaged, probably because they are about ten times more radioresistant than pines. 10 Extremely high radioresistance was documented in geneti- cally adapted strains of the filamentous fungus Alternaria alternata isolated from the reactor of the Chernobyl power plant; other strains of this species are supersensitive to radiation. 167 There was no increase in mutation rate of spiderwort (Arabidopsis thaliana), a radiosensitive plant, suggesting that the dose rate was < 0.05 Gy/h in the Chernobyl locale. 10 Populations of soil mites were reduced in the Chernobyl area, but no population showed a catastrophic drop in numbers. By 1987, soil microfauna — even in the most heavily contaminated plots — was comparable to controls. 10 Flies (Drosophila spp.) collected at various distances from the accident site and bred in the laboratory had highest incidences of dominant lethal mutations (14.7%, estimated dose of 0.8 mGy/h) at sites nearest the accident and higher incidences than controls (4.2%). 10 The most contaminated water body in the Chernobyl emergency zone was the Chernobyl cooling pond ecosystem, an area of about 30 km 2 . 71,99 On May 30, 1986, the total amount of radioactivity in the water of this system was estimated at 806 TBq and in sediments 5657 TBq. 71 In water, 131 I contributed about 31% of the total radioactivity, 140 Ba- 140 La 25%, 95 Zr- 95 Nb 15%, 134 Cs and 137 Cs 11%, 141 Ce and 144 Ce 10%, 103 Ru and 106 Ru 7%, and 90 Sr < 1%. The distribution pattern in sediments was significantly different: about 41% of the total radioactivity was contributed by 95 Zr- 95 Nb, 27% by 141 Ce and 144 Ce, 16% by 103 Ru and 106 Ru, 12% by 140 Ba- 140 La, 3% by 134 Cs and 137 Cs, 1% by 90 Sr, and 0.5% by 131 I. 71 Fish populations seemed unaffected in July–August 1987, and no grossly deformed individuals were found; however, 134+137 Cs levels were elevated in young fish. The most heavily contaminated teleost in May 1987 was the carp (Carassius carassius). But carp showed no evidence of mutagen - esis, as judged by incidence of chromosomal aberrations in cells from the corneal epithelium of carp as far as 60 km from Chernobyl. 10 In 1986, total radioactivity in muscle of birds near Chernobyl after the accident exceeded the temporarily permitted limits for human food consumption (598 Bq/kg FW) by about 100 times. 89 In 1987, radionuclide concentrations in bird muscle had decreased by a factor of about 7, due in part to physical decay of short-lived isotopes. 89 Several rodent species comprised the most widely distributed and numerous mammals in the Chernobyl vicinity. It was estimated that about 90% of rodents died in an area receiving 60 Gy and 50% in areas receiving 6 to 60 Gy. Rodent populations seemed normal in spring 1987, and this was attributed to migration from adjacent nonpolluted areas. The most sensitive small mammal was the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus), which experienced embryonic mortality of 34%. The © 2003 by CRC Press LLC house mouse (Mus musculus) was one of the more radioresistant species. Mus from plots receiving 0.6–1.0 mGy/h did not show signs of radiation sickness, were fertile with normal sperm, bred actively, and produced normal young. Some chromosomal aberrations, namely, an increased fre - quency of reciprocal translocations, were evident. 10 New data on the house mouse suggests that fertility was dramatically reduced in the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant station in 1986–1987 and that survivors had high frequencies of abnormal spermatozoa heads and dominant lethal mutations. 76 Elevated incidences of germ line mutations were observed in four species of Apodemus mice from the vicinity of Chernobyl when compared to control areas; however, variability between species was large. 170 During the early period after the accident, there was no evidence of increasing mortality, decline in fecundity, or migration of vertebrates as a result of the direct action of ionizing radiation. The numbers and distribution of wildlife species were somewhat affected by the death of the pine stand, the evacuation of people, termination of cultivation of soils (the crop of 1986 remained standing), and the forced transfer of domestic livestock. There were no recorded changes in survival or species composition of game animals and birds. In fact, because humans had evacuated and hunting pressure was negligible, many game species — including fox, hare, deer, moose, wolf, and waterfowl — moved into the zone in autumn 1986–winter 1987 from the adjacent areas in a 50- to 60-km radius. 10 24.2.2 Latent Effects: Humans The frequency of childhood thyroid cancer in areas of Belarus and Ukraine most affected by the Chernobyl accident is significantly higher than any other region of the world. 114,155–158 Thyroid cancers in children were induced by 131+132 I, although the mechanisms of action are imperfectly understood. 127 During the period 1985–1995, childhood thyroid cancer rates in Belarus were higher after a minimum latent period of 3 years, higher in children under age 10 years than those age 10 to 15 years, and higher in females than males. 114 Between 1990 and 1997, the group most affected were those younger than 5 years old in 1986; the largest number of cases occurred in patients living in areas of thyroid radiation doses > 0.5 Gy. 156,157 The post-Chernobyl thyroid carcinomas were usually papillary, more aggressive at presentation, and frequently associated with thyroid autoim - munity. 155–157 Gene mutations involving the receptor tyrosine kinase (RET) protooncogene were the causative agents specific to papillary cancer. 155,157,158 Cutaneous radiation syndrome was the primary cause of death in most of the 32 adult patients who died shortly after the accident. Excessive cutaneous fibrosis in eight survivors who participated in the Chernobyl cleanup was treated successfully with interferon over a period of 36 months. 125 There is general agreement that cleanup workers and populations residing in heavily-contaminated areas (> 555,000 Bq 137 Cs/m 2 ) had an increased frequency of thyroid cancers in the period 1986–1993, but current epidemiological evidence does not conclusively support an increased incidence of other types of cancers. 126 Increased frequencies of chromosome breakage were evident in plants and small mammals from the Chernobyl-contaminated zone in the period 1986–1991. 164 For humans, chromosome and chromatid aberration frequencies in lymphocytes of Chernobyl evacuees (receiving 330–420 mGy) and cleanup personnel (receiving a maximum of 940 mGy) 1 year after the accident were three to four times higher than in controls. 164 By 1994–1995, aberration frequency in evacuees receiving <250 mGy was the same as the controls; however, this value was 1.7 times higher than controls in cleanup personnel, 1.95 times higher in evacuees receiving 250 mGy, and 2.37 times higher in evacuees receiving > 250 mGy in 1986. In some patients, the increased level of chromosome breakage was associated with high cancer susceptibility. 164 Russian adult males who participated in Chernobyl cleanup activities (n = 126) received an estimated 0.14–0.15 Gy (maximum of 0.56–0.95 Gy, depending on the statistical model); however, dose estimates could be overestimated if age and smoking status were ignored, particularly for older subjects who smoke. 112 This group had a significantly increased frequency of chromosomal © 2003 by CRC Press LLC translocations when compared to Russian controls (n = 53). 112 Cancer incidence between 1986 and 1996 for cleanup workers (n = 114,504) with no known oncology before arrival in 1986 at the 30- km zone increased significantly for solid tumors and malignant neoplasms of the digestive tract (but not of the respiratory system) when compared to controls. 110 By 1996, Chernobyl cleanup workers experienced a variety of eye pathologies that seemed to increase in frequency with increasing time postaccident and with high initial doses of absorbed radiation. 140 Eye-pathology patterns are still developing because the latency period for irradiation cataract can exceed 10 years. 140 The incidence of urinary bladder cancer in Ukraine increased from 26.2 per 100,000 population in 1986 to 36.1 in 1997. 139 Individuals from the most severely radiocontaminated areas showed the greatest incidence of early malignant transformation of bladder epithelium. 139 In 1995, the endocrine status and spermatogenesis of Chernobyl cleanup workers were normal except for lower cortisol and higher testosterone. 135 A woman resident of Kiev during the period 1986–1992 who subse- quently emigrated to the United States was diagnosed in 1996 with radiation-induced cancer of the ovaries, kidneys, and bile duct. 148 In certain rural portions of Russia receiving Chernobyl contamination on April 28–29, 1986, 137 Cs concentrations in the human body in 1986–1987 were positively correlated with consumption of meat and dairy products. 160 Domestic livestock were fed clean feed as much as possible for milk production and were fed clean feed for 40 to 120 days before slaughter. 165 Beginning in 1993, however, and persisting to at least 1996, the content of 137 Cs in whole humans correlated positively with the levels of consumption of naturally occurring foodstuffs, such as mushrooms, wild berries, fish, and game. 160 24.2.3 Latent Effects: Plants and Animals Total radiocesium-137 deposited in soils at Chernobyl sites 2 to 15 km from the reactor was estimated at 1,660,000 Bq/m 2 , mainly as insoluble fuel particles. 106 The half-time persistence of 137 Cs in surface soils 0–2 cm in depth decreased from 9 years in 1987 to 3 years in 1994; but the residence time of this isotope increased with increasing depth over time. This increase in deeper layers is attributed to the progressive fixation of radiocesium by clay minerals of the soil. 106 In 1992, bacteria were isolated from soils within 30 km of the power plant. Spore-forming bacilli collected nearest the power plant were more resistant to x-radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide than were isolates of the same species from control sites. 141 In 1993–1995, populations of cellulolytic, nitrifying, and sulfate-reducing bacteria collected within the 10-km zone from contaminated soils (11,000–629,000 Bq/kg DW soil) were 10 to 100 times lower in abundance and diversity than were populations from control soils (< 222 Bq/kg DW soil). 169 On heavily contaminated agricultural lands — about 2.4 million ha — about 388,000 ha were withdrawn from use, and the remainder planted with crops of low coefficients of radionuclide transfer from soil, such as grains, potatoes, and corn. 165 In addition, the upper polluted layer of soil (5–6 cm) was ploughed to a depth of 40–50 cm to inhibit transfer to root systems, especially those of grasses. Application of potassium and phosphorus fertilizers in combination with liming further reduced uptake of 90 Sr and 137 Cs by plants. 165 From autumn 1986 to 1991, 137 Cs in vegetable and animal agricultural products from various contaminated areas of Russia decreased at an observed half-time persistence of 0.7 to 1.5 years. 115 Beginning in 1991 and extending through 1995, the average values of transfer factors for 137 Cs from all sources from soil to milk and potatoes were similar to those of the pre-Chernobyl period. 115 Dose rates from soil to the house mouse between 1986 and 1993 ranged from 0.0002 to 2 mGy/h, and these were positively correlated with the frequency of reciprocal translocations in mouse spermatocytes. The frequency of mice hetero- zygous for recessive lethal mutations decreased over time after the accident. 76,150 In 1991, pine forests (Pinus silvestris) within 10 km of Chernobyl exposed initially to doses of 10–60 Gy had low survival and no regeneration since 1987; mortality was exacerbated by pathogenic insect invaders. 92 Samples of wood and bark from these trees had significant histological © 2003 by CRC Press LLC changes in resin ducts and radial rays, and this was correlated with radionuclide content of bark. 96 Stands exposed initially to 0.1–1.0 Gy had reduced growth; trees receiving initial doses of less than 0.1 Gy seemed outwardly normal. 92 Between 1986 and 1996, radiocesium-137 concentrated in the bark of pine trees grown in the exclusion zone from about 10,000 Bq/kg DW in 1986 to 37,000 Bq/kg DW in 1996; the high 137 Cs concentrations were associated with growth suppression. 111 In the period 1986–1994, 137 Cs dynamics in forests within the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl reactor were influenced mainly by the size of radioactive particles in the fallout, humidity, soil type, and tree age. 103 In June 1996, abnormal development in three species of plants (black locust tree, Robina pseudoacacia; rowan, Sorbus aucuparia; camomile, Matricaria perforata) was observed between Chernobyl and an uncontaminated area 225 km to the southeast. 128 Abnormalities, including leaf or flower asymmetry, were three to four times more frequent near Chernobyl than more distant sites and were directly related to 137 Cs concentrations in soils. 128 In 1993–1994, about 55% of all young (2- to 9-year-old) plants of pine and spruce growing within 10 km of Chernobyl had abnormal needles, due in part to radiation-induced alterations in protein composition. 144 In 1993–1995, timber products within 30 km of Chernobyl were sufficiently contaminated with radiocesium and other isotopes as to preclude human use, as was the case for berries and mush - rooms. 151 Economic damage to forest products within the 30-km exclusion zone is estimated at U.S.$278 million annually with a total estimated loss between 1986 and 2015 of U.S.$8.4 billion. 151 Concentrations of radioactivity in water, sediments, and biota of the Chernobyl cooling pond ecosystem declined between 1986 and 1990, as judged by 137 Cs concentrations (Table 24.1). Carp and other fish species held in Chernobyl cooling pond waters had reproductive-system anomalies that were more pronounced in males than females. 98,99 Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) survivors from the cooling pond of the Chernobyl nuclear power station received 7–11 Gy between 1989 and 1992 and displayed reproductive-system disorders that included sterility, changes in gonadal morphology, and degeneration of reproductive cells. 99 Silver carp born in 1989 from parents reared in Chernobyl cooling pond waters had a marked increase of 17 to 26% above controls in reproductive-system anomalies in 1989–1992. 72 Anomalies included degenerative changes in oocytes, spermatogonia, and spermatocytes, and the appearance of bisexual and sterile fish. The gonadal abnormalities are attributed to the high radiation dose of 7–10 Gy received by the parent fish during gonad formation and the continuing exposure of 0.2 Gy annually to this generation. 72 Mature silver carp dwarf individuals age 4+, descendants of fish irradiated in 1986, were observed in 1991. 100 In 1992, second-generation fish hatched from 3-year-old fish of the first generation. Female reproductive systems were not significantly different from controls; however, males had decreased ejaculate volume and concentration and destructive changes in testes caused by irradia - tion. 101 Silver carp from this ecosystem also had a dose-dependent decrease in hormonal control over the Na + , K + -pump in erythrocytes, with increased passive permeability of the erythrocyte membrane to radioactive analogs of sodium and potassium. 73 Radionuclide levels in soil invertebrates, soil, litter, and terrestrial insects within the 30-km exclusion zone declined sharply between 1986 and 1987, usually by a factor of ten or more. 165 Radionuclide concentrations in muscle of fishes from the Kiev Reservoir decreased significantly during the period 1986–1997. 105 Female northern pike, Esox lucius, of the 1986 year class from this locale had gonadal abnormalities during the period 1987–1997. Abnormality frequency rate was about 34% and included asymmetry, histopathology, and roe resorption. The internal radiation dose from 134+137 Cs decreased from about 0.1–0.2 Gy in 1986 to 0.001–0.002 Gy during 1993–1997. 105 In the 5-year period following the accident, amphibians and reptiles within the 30- km exclusion zone, had gamma radiation levels that remained stable and sometimes increased due to accumulation of radionuclides. 165 One year after the accident, terrestrial birds within the 30-km exclusion zone had gamma radiation levels five to seven times higher than did conspecifics from uncontaminated areas. Waterfowl, however, during the summer of 1987, had radiation levels that were two to five times higher than a year previously, with highest levels in young and females. 165 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Table 24.1 Radionuclide Concentrations in Organisms and Abiotic Materials near Chernobyl Locale, Radionuclide, Sample, and Other Variables Concentration a and Reference Chernobyl cooling pond ecosystem; 137 Cs; 1986 (postaccident) vs. 1990 Water 210 FW vs. 14 FW 71 Sediments 170,000 FW vs. 140,000 FW 71 Algae 90,000 FW vs. 19,000 FW 71 Fishes; 5 spp.; muscle 30,000–180,000 FW vs. 8000–80,000 FW 71 Various ponds; 20–40 km from Chernobyl; 137 Cs; September 9–19, 1992 Sediments Usually < 1000 DW; Max. 11,000 DW 171 Crucian carp, Carassius carassius; muscle < 1000–8200 DW 171 Terrestrial Invertebrates Within 30-km exclusion zone, 1986 (postaccident) Soil invertebrates; gamma vs. beta radiation levels 21,800–34,800 DW vs. 48,100–166,700 DW 165 Insects; gamma vs. beta radiation levels 4,800–218,300 DW vs. 200–37,000 DW 165 Pine forest 80 km from Chernobyl; 1988; 134+137 Cs Forest workers, human b 205 FW 162 Soil, up to 5 cm deep 296 DW 162 Pine needles 2040 DW 162 Forest substrate 151,700 DW 162 Mosses 161,000 DW 162 Vegetation July–August 1988; 6–18 km from power plant Fungi; 9 spp. 90 Sr 1800–93,600 DW 133 134+137 Cs 25,900–350,300 DW 133 Lichens, 4 spp. 90 Sr 8000–277,300 DW 133 134+137 Cs 100,100–1,456,400 DW 133 Mosses, 5 spp. 90 Sr 27,100–292,800 DW 133 134+137 Cs 118,000–2,602,300 DW 133 Soils Total deposition; sites 2–15 km from reactor; 137 Cs 1,660,000 Bq/m 2 106 Soils and litter; 1986 (postaccident); within 30-km exclusion zone 500,000–650,000 DW 165 Fishes Kiev Reservoir (30 km from Chernobyl) Muscle; 4 spp.; 137 Cs 1985 10 FW 105 1986 (postaccident) 54–1998 FW 105 1987 662–1773 FW 105 1990 326–1288 FW 105 1991 224–1431 FW 105 1992 155–1131 FW 105 1993 123–411 FW 105 1994 107–450 FW 105 1995 25–310 FW 105 1996 54–370 FW 105 Muscle; 4 spp.; 90 Sr 1990 20–31 FW 105 1991 23–56 FW 105 1992 31–96 FW 105 1993 18–47 FW 105 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Northern pike, Esox lucius; muscle; 137 Cs; Kiev Reservoir (30 km from Chernobyl) vs. Lake Kojanoskoye (400 km from Chernobyl); 1994 450 FW vs. 28,315 FW 105 Perch, Perca fluviatilis; muscle; 137 Cs 1994; Kiev Reservoir vs. Lake Kojanoskoye 327 FW vs. 29,856 FW 105 1997 Kiev Reservoir 326 FW 105 River Teterev (45 km from Chernobyl) 125 FW 105 Lake Svjatoe (300 km distant) 90,804 FW 105 Amphibians and Reptiles Within 30-km exclusion zone; 1986 (postaccident); gamma radiation levels; whole body Max. 370,000 DW (vs. 2400 DW for controls) 165 Birds Summer 1986 vs. summer 1987; gamma radiation; within 30-km exclusion zone; whole body Max. 300,000 DW vs. 500–8300 DW 165 June 1986; within 30 km of Chernobyl nuclear plant; whole bird; total radioactivity Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos 80,576 FW 89 Northern shoveler, Anas clypeata 44,400 FW 89 Common teal, Anas crecca 73,177 FW 89 Gerganey, Anas querquedula 62,108 FW 89 Common snipe, Gallinago gallinago 61,420 FW 89 Black grouse, Lyurus tetrix 59,735 FW 89 1986 (postaccident); within 30 km exclusion zone; muscle; beta emitters; young birds vs. adults 18,870 FW vs. 7400 FW 89 1994; mallard; within 10 km of Chernobyl; gamma emitters Diet 5000 FW 89 Feathers 8000 FW 89 Gizzard 20,000 FW 89 Kidneys 17,000 FW 89 Liver 15,000 FW 89 Muscle: breast vs. leg 28,000 FW vs. 30,000 FW, Max. > 100,000 FW 89 Mammals Lactating dairy cattle fed herbage for 12 days collected from a pasture 3.5 km from Chernobyl; summer 1993; herbage vs. milk 90 Sr 41,900 DW vs. 210 FW 130 137 Cs 28,400 DW vs. 1520 FW 130 Large mammals; 4 spp.; summer 1986; within 30-km exclusion zone; whole body; gamma radiation 50,000–400,000 DW 165 Small mammals; 8 spp.; skeleton; 90 Sr; near Chernobyl power plant; May 1994–August 1996 79,000–497,000 (1200–2,275,000) AW 145 Small mammals; 12 spp.; within 30-km exclusion zone; whole body Gamma radiation; 1986 (postaccident) vs. 1990 Max. 225,000 DW vs. Max. 335,000 DW 165 90 Sr; 1986 (postaccident) vs. 1990 500–600 DW vs. 700 DW 165 Within evacuation zone immediately north of Chernobyl near Savichi; 1994–95; initial contamination of 555,000–1,480,000 Bq 137 Cs/m 2 Moose, Alces alces 137 Cs; muscle (190–11,700) FW 174 90 Sr; muscle vs. bone (4–95) DW vs. (11,420–95,100) DW 174 Roe deer, Capreolus capreolus 137 Cs; muscle (4840–10,730) FW 174 90 Sr; muscle vs. bone (4–23) DW vs. (4250–61,300) DW 174 Wild boar, Sus scrofa Table 24.1 Radionuclide Concentrations in Organisms and Abiotic Materials near Chernobyl (Continued) Locale, Radionuclide, Sample, and Other Variables Concentration a and Reference © 2003 by CRC Press LLC In June 1991, male barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) collected within 50 km of Chernobyl — when compared to control areas 100 km distant and with museum samples from both areas — had significant differences in length of tail feathers between the right and left side (fluctuating asym - metry) and in morphology of feathers. The degree of fluctuating asymmetry in male tail length and the frequency of deviant morphology in the tails of male barn swallows were associated with a delay in the start of the breeding season. 117 In 1996 , barn swallows near Chernobyl, when compared to conspecifics from distant sites, had decreased lymphocyte and immunoglobulin concentrations, reduced spleen size, and reduced intensity of carotenoid-based coloration. 137 Length of outermost tail feathers of males — important secondary sexual characteristics — was positively related to coloration in controls but not in the Chernobyl population, and this may affect breeding success of Chernobyl swallow populations. 137 In 1994, mallard tissues collected within 10 km of Chernobyl had 8000 to 30,000 Bq/kg FW (Table 24.1 ). Conspecifics collected 45 km from the reactor in 1994 had tissue concentrations that were 40 to 100 times lower. 89 Po pulation numbers of mallards and teals decreased in the 30-km zone in 1994, perhaps due to decreased food sources of farmlands, and invasion of nest areas by plant communities not used in agriculture. 89 In 1994, there were no cases of radiation-induced pathology in any bird examined. 89 Also in 1994, there were increased sightings of rarely seen species of egrets, cranes, and eagles. 89 In 1991, 5 years after the accident, a female root vole (Microtus oeconomus) with an abnormal karyotype (reciprocal translocation) was found within the 30-km radius of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. These chromosomal aberrations were probably inherited and did not affect the viability of vole populations. 77 Pop ulation density of Chernobyl rodents in 1988–1989 was about twice that predicted from previous cycles and was attributed, in part, to increasing radioresistance and abun - dance of food supplies. 154 In 1994–1995, the diversity and abundance of the small mammal population (12 species of rodents) at the most radioactive sites at Chernobyl were the same as reference sites. 78 Ro dents from the most radioactive areas did not show gross morphological features other than enlargement of the spleen. There were no gross chromosomal arrangements, as judged by examination of the karyotypes. Also observed within the most heavily contaminated site were red fox (Vulpes vulpes), gray wolf (Canis lupus), moose (Alces alces), river otter (Lutra lutra), roe deer (Capreolus capre - 137 Cs; muscle (3700–61,900) FW 174 90 Sr; muscle vs. bone (3–10) DW vs. (4210–30,880) DW 174 Ungulate forage plants; 137 Cs Aspen, Populus sp.; sprouts vs. bark 1540 FW vs. 7190 FW 174 Sprouts; 5 species 1060–4300 FW 174 Within 30 km of Chernobyl vs. 30–50 km southeast of exclusion zone; May 1994–August 1996; 134+137 Cs; muscle Old World field mouse, Apodemus agrarius 372,300 DW vs. 330 DW 145 Yellow-necked field mouse, Apodemus flavicollis 1,259,000 DW vs. no data 145 Wood mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus 555,200 DW vs. 7500 DW 145 Voles, Microtus spp., 3 spp. 469,400–695,000 DW vs. 780–1000 DW 145 Bank vole, Clethrionomys glareolus 5,062,200 (Max. 73,090,000) DW vs. 1800 (max. 3000) DW 145 Common shrew, Sorex araneus 632,300 (45,800–2,910,000) DW vs. 800 (300–1400) DW 145 Note: All concentrations are in Bq/kg fresh weight (FW), dry weight (DW), or ash weight (AW) unless indicated otherwise. a Concentrations are shown as mean, range in parentheses, maximum (Max.), and nondetectable (ND). b 65 kg person. Table 24.1 Radionuclide Concentrations in Organisms and Abiotic Materials near Chernobyl (Continued) Locale, Radionuclide, Sample, and Other Variables Concentration a and Reference [...]... myrtillus July 1986 July 1987 July 1988 © 20 03 by CRC Press LLC Concentrationa and Reference Max 6 DW 93 10 DW; Max 45 DW 93 8 DW; Max 15 DW 93 116 DW; Max 38 1 DW 93 Max 4.6 DW 93 Max 6.1 DW 93 3–10 DW; Max 11.2 DW 93 (4.1–5.0) vs (4.1–8.4) 134 (0.26–0 .38 ) vs (ND–0.51) 134 (0 .3 7.7) DW 134 (1.5–7.7) DW 134 (0.8–8.5) DW 134 ( . 1800– 93, 600 DW 133 134 + 137 Cs 25,900 35 0 ,30 0 DW 133 Lichens, 4 spp. 90 Sr 8000–277 ,30 0 DW 133 134 + 137 Cs 100,100–1,456,400 DW 133 Mosses, 5 spp. 90 Sr 27,100–292,800 DW 133 134 + 137 Cs. iodine- 131 , tellu- rium 127+ 132 , barium-140, lanthanum-140, cerium-141+144, zirconium-95, niobium-95, ruthe- nium-1 03+ 106, praseodymium-144, cesium- 134 + 137 , molybdenum-99, strontium-89+90, pluto- nium- 238 + 239 +240+241,. 1060– 430 0 FW 174 Within 30 km of Chernobyl vs. 30 –50 km southeast of exclusion zone; May 1994–August 1996; 134 + 137 Cs; muscle Old World field mouse, Apodemus agrarius 37 2 ,30 0 DW vs. 33 0 DW 145