C++ Language Tutorial ppt

cplusplus.com C++LanguageTutorial           Writtenby:JuanSoulié Lastrevision:June,2007    Availableonlineat: http://www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/   Theonlineversionisconstantlyrevisedandmaycontaincorrectionsandchanges  T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      2   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved                       Thisdocumentanditscontentiscopyrightofcplusplus.com©cplusplus.com,2008.Allrightsreserved. Anyredistributionorreproductionofpartorallofthecontentinanyformisprohibitedotherthantoprinta personalcopyoftheentiredocumentor downloadittoalocalharddisk,withoutmodifyingitscontentinanyway (including,butnotlimitedto,thiscopyrightnotice). Youmaynot,exceptwithexpresswrittenpermissionfromcplusplus.com,distributethecontentofthisdocument. Normayyoutransmititorstoreitinanyotherwebsite orotherformofelectronicretrievalsystem. T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      3   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved Tableofcontents Tableofcontents 3 Introduction 5 Instructionsforuse 5 BasicsofC++ 7 Structureofaprogram 7 Variables.DataTypes. 11 Constants 17 Operators 21 BasicInput/Output 29 ControlStructures 34 ControlStructures 34  Functions(I) 41 Functions(II) 47 Compounddatatypes 54 Arrays 54 CharacterSequences 60 Pointers 63 DynamicMemory 74 Datastructures 77 OtherDataTypes 82 ObjectOrientedProgramming 86 Classes(I) 86 Classes(II) 95  Friendshipandinheritance 100 Polymorphism 107 Advancedconcepts 113 Templates 113 Namespaces 120 Exceptions 123 TypeCasting 127 T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      4   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved Preprocessordirectives 133 C++StandardLibrary 138 Input/Outputwithfiles 138 T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      5   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved Introduction Instructions for use To whom is this tutorial directed? This tutorial is for those people who want to learn programming in C++ and do not necessarily have any previous knowledge of other programming languages. Of course any knowledge of other programming languages or any general computer skill can be useful to better understand this tutorial, although it is not essential. It is also suitable for those who need a little update on the new features the language has acquired from the latest standards. If you are familiar with the C language, you can take the first 3 parts of this tutorial as a review of concepts, since they mainly explain the C part of C++. There are slight differences in the C++ syntax for some C features, so I recommend you its reading anyway. The 4th part describes object-oriented programming. The 5th part mostly describes the new features introduced by ANSI-C++ standard. Structure of this tutorial The tutorial is divided in 6 parts and each part is divided on its turn into different sections covering a topic each one. You can access any section directly from the section index available on the left side bar, or begin the tutorial from any point and follow the links at the bottom of each section. Many sections include examples that describe the use of the newly acquired knowledge in the chapter. It is recommended to read these examples and to be able to understand each of the code lines that constitute it before passing to the next chapter. A good way to gain experience with a programming language is by modifying and adding new functionalities on your own to the example programs that you fully understand. Don't be scared to modify the examples provided with this tutorial, that's the way to learn! Compatibility Notes The ANSI-C++ standard acceptation as an international standard is relatively recent. It was first published in November 1997, and revised in 2003. Nevertheless, the C++ language exists from a long time before (1980s). Therefore there are many compilers which do not support all the new capabilities included in ANSI-C++, especially those released prior to the publication of the standard. This tutorial is thought to be followed with modern compilers that support -at least on some degree- ANSI-C++ specifications. I encourage you to get one if yours is not adapted. There are many options, both commercial and free. Compilers The examples included in this tutorial are all console programs. That means they use text to communicate with the user and to show their results. T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      6   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved All C++ compilers support the compilation of console programs. Check the user's manual of your compiler for more info on how to compile them. T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      7   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved BasicsofC++ Structure of a program Probably the best way to start learning a programming language is by writing a program. Therefore, here is our first program: // my first program in C++ #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main () { cout << "Hello World!"; return 0; } Hello World! The first panel shows the source code for our first program. The second one shows the result of the program once compiled and executed. The way to edit and compile a program depends on the compiler you are using. Depending on whether it has a Development Interface or not and on its version. Consult the compilers section and the manual or help included with your compiler if you have doubts on how to compile a C++ console program. The previous program is the typical program that programmer apprentices write for the first time, and its result is the printing on screen of the "Hello World!" sentence. It is one of the simplest programs that can be written in C++, but it already contains the fundamental components that every C++ program has. We are going to look line by line at the code we have just written: // my first program in C++ This is a comment line. All lines beginning with two slash signs (//) are considered comments and do not have any effect on the behavior of the program. The programmer can use them to include short explanations or observations within the source code itself. In this case, the line is a brief description of what our program is. #include <iostream> Lines beginning with a hash sign (#) are directives for the preprocessor. They are not regular code lines with expressions but indications for the compiler's preprocessor. In this case the directive #include <iostream> tells the preprocessor to include the iostream standard file. This specific file (iostream) includes the declarations of the basic standard input-output library in C++, and it is included because its functionality is going to be used later in the program. using namespace std; All the elements of the standard C++ library are declared within what is called a namespace, the namespace with the name std. So in order to access its functionality we declare with this expression that we will be using these entities. This line is very frequent in C++ programs that use the standard library, and in fact it will be included in most of the source codes included in these tutorials. int main () This line corresponds to the beginning of the definition of the main function. The main function is the point by where all C++ programs start their execution, independently of its location within the source code. It does not matter whether there are other functions with other names defined before or after it - the instructions contained within this function's definition will always be the first ones to be executed in any C++ program. For that same reason, it is essential that all C++ programs have a main function. The word main is followed in the code by a pair of parentheses (()). That is because it is a function declaration: In C++, what differentiates a function declaration from other types of expressions are these parentheses that follow its name. Optionally, these parentheses may enclose a list of parameters within them. Right after these parentheses we can find the body of the main function enclosed in braces ({}). What is contained within these braces is what the function does when it is executed. T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      8   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved cout << "Hello World!"; This line is a C++ statement. A statement is a simple or compound expression that can actually produce some effect. In fact, this statement performs the only action that generates a visible effect in our first program. cout represents the standard output stream in C++, and the meaning of the entire statement is to insert a sequence of characters (in this case the Hello World sequence of characters) into the standard output stream (which usually is the screen). cout is declared in the iostream standard file within the std namespace, so that's why we needed to include that specific file and to declare that we were going to use this specific namespace earlier in our code. Notice that the statement ends with a semicolon character (;). This character is used to mark the end of the statement and in fact it must be included at the end of all expression statements in all C++ programs (one of the most common syntax errors is indeed to forget to include some semicolon after a statement). return 0; The return statement causes the main function to finish. return may be followed by a return code (in our example is followed by the return code 0). A return code of 0 for the main function is generally interpreted as the program worked as expected without any errors during its execution. This is the most usual way to end a C++ console program. You may have noticed that not all the lines of this program perform actions when the code is executed. There were lines containing only comments (those beginning by //). There were lines with directives for the compiler's preprocessor (those beginning by #). Then there were lines that began the declaration of a function (in this case, the main function) and, finally lines with statements (like the insertion into cout), which were all included within the block delimited by the braces ({}) of the main function. The program has been structured in different lines in order to be more readable, but in C++, we do not have strict rules on how to separate instructions in different lines. For example, instead of int main () { cout << " Hello World!"; return 0; } We could have written: int main () { cout << "Hello World!"; return 0; } All in just one line and this would have had exactly the same meaning as the previous code. In C++, the separation between statements is specified with an ending semicolon (;) at the end of each one, so the separation in different code lines does not matter at all for this purpose. We can write many statements per line or write a single statement that takes many code lines. The division of code in different lines serves only to make it more legible and schematic for the humans that may read it. Let us add an additional instruction to our first program: T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      9   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved // my second program in C++ #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main () { cout << "Hello World! "; cout << "I'm a C++ program"; return 0; } Hello World! I'm a C++ program In this case, we performed two insertions into cout in two different statements. Once again, the separation in different lines of code has been done just to give greater readability to the program, since main could have been perfectly valid defined this way: int main () { cout << " Hello World! "; cout << " I'm a C++ program "; return 0; } We were also free to divide the code into more lines if we considered it more convenient: int main () { cout << "Hello World!"; cout << "I'm a C++ program"; return 0; } And the result would again have been exactly the same as in the previous examples. Preprocessor directives (those that begin by #) are out of this general rule since they are not statements. They are lines read and processed by the preprocessor and do not produce any code by themselves. Preprocessor directives must be specified in their own line and do not have to end with a semicolon (;). Comments Comments are parts of the source code disregarded by the compiler. They simply do nothing. Their purpose is only to allow the programmer to insert notes or descriptions embedded within the source code. C++ supports two ways to insert comments: // line comment /* block comment */ The first of them, known as line comment, discards everything from where the pair of slash signs (//) is found up to the end of that same line. The second one, known as block comment, discards everything between the /* characters and the first appearance of the */ characters, with the possibility of including more than one line. We are going to add comments to our second program: T T h h e e   C C + + + +   L L a a n n g g u u a a g g e e   T T u u t t o o r r i i a a l l      10   © cplusplus.com 2008. All rights reserved /* my second program in C++ with more comments */ #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main () { cout << "Hello World! "; // prints Hello World! cout << "I'm a C++ program"; // prints I'm a C++ program return 0; } Hello World! I'm a C++ program If you include comments within the source code of your programs without using the comment characters combinations //, /* or */, the compiler will take them as if they were C++ expressions, most likely causing one or several error messages when you compile it. [...]... 5 + 7 % 2;         27 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    might be written either as: a = 5 + (7 % 2); or a = (5 + 7) % 2; depending on the operation that we want to perform So if you want to write complicated expressions and you are not completely sure of the precedence levels, always include parentheses It will also become a code easier to read         28 © cplusplus.com... interpretation of that input Therefore, this method is usually preferred to get numerical values from the user in all programs that are intensive in user input         33 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    Control Structures  Control Structures A program is usually not limited to a linear sequence of instructions During its process it may bifurcate, repeat code or take decisions... declarations look like in action within a program, we are going to see the C++ code of the example about your mental memory proposed at the beginning of this section:         13 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    // operating with variables 4 #include using namespace std; int main () { // declaring variables: int a, b; int result; // process: a = 5; b = 2; a... within the body of a function or a block Global variables can be referred from anywhere in the code, even inside functions, whenever it is after its declaration         14 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    The scope of local variables is limited to the block enclosed in braces ({}) where they are declared For example, if they are declared at the beginning of the... support for strings through the standard string class This is not a fundamental type, but it behaves in a similar way as fundamental types do in its most basic usage         15 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    A first difference with fundamental data types is that in order to declare and use objects (variables) of this type we need to include an additional header file... content the initial string content"; endl; a different string content"; endl; For more details on C++ strings, you can have a look at the string class reference         16 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    Constants Constants are expressions with a fixed value Literals Literals are used to express particular values within the source code of a program We have already... an e character (that expresses "by ten at the Xth height", where X is an integer value that follows the e character), or both a decimal point and an e character:         17 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    3.14159 6.02e23 1.6e-19 3.0 // // // // 3.14159 6.02 x 10^23 1.6 x 10^-19 3.0 These are four valid numbers with decimals expressed in C++ The first number is PI,... otherwise in the source code of a program, like newline (\n) or tab (\t) All of them are preceded by a backslash (\) Here you have a list of some of such escape codes:         18 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    \n newline \r carriage return \t tab \v vertical tab \b backspace \f form feed (page feed) \a alert (beep) \' single quote (') \" double quote (") \? question... names for constants that you use very often without having to resort to memoryconsuming variables, simply by using the #define preprocessor directive Its format is:         19 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    #define identifier value For example: #define PI 3.14159 #define NEWLINE '\n' This defines two new constants: PI and NEWLINE Once they are defined, you can use... Here, pathwidth and tabulator are two typed constants They are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot be modified after their definition         20 © cplusplus.com 2008 All rights reserved The C++ Language Tutorial    Operators Once we know of the existence of variables and constants, we can begin to operate with them For that purpose, C++ integrates operators Unlike other languages