Handbook Corrosion (1992) WW Part 13 ppt

The most common fiberglass-reinforced plastic curing system uses methyl ethyl ketone-peroxide (MEKP) with a cobalt- containing promoter an obvious source of cobalt ions. The resin manufacturers provide mixed recommendations regarding alternative curing systems, some indicating that increased fabrication difficulty more than offsets the benefit of eliminating the cobalt. The quality of fabrication is a most important factor in successful applications of fiberglass- reinforced plastic and should not be compromised. Most resin suppliers recommend synthetic veils. Synthetic materials should certainly be used for strongly alkaline solutions. Postcuring is also recommended and provides a more resistant fabrication. Full curing of all secondary joints is most important. Finally, thixotropic agents should not be added to resin systems, especially when used in surfaces exposed to hypochlorite. Glass-flake reinforced spray linings are also used in hypochlorite services. The problems encountered indicate that these applications should be limited to low-temperature services or applied where the environment is not overly aggressive to the substrate. Elastomeric lining is common in a wide variety of hypochlorite applications a result of typically low temperatures. Probably the most frequently used lining material is chlorobutyl, because of its good resistance coupled with moderate cost. Other sheet lining materials with good resistance include EPDM and chlorosulfonated polyethylene. Natural rubber also finds some useful low-temperature applications. Other elastomeric applications might use the fluoroelastomers, which are good in any hypochlorite service, or neoprene, which has limited range. Glass is unaffected by hypochlorite within a moderate range of alkalinity and temperature. Glass-tubed heat exchangers have been used to cool soda bleach during manufacture. Vitrified clay pipe and other ceramic materials show excellent resistance to hypochlorite. Under certain conditions, concrete is resistant and has been used for manufacturing and storage tanks. Calcium Hypochlorite Although produced as a solid, the reactions of Ca(OCl) 2 in solution are very similar to those of NaOCl. In general, the recommended temperature levels for Ca(OCl) 2 are slightly higher, probably owing to the higher decomposition temperature. Like NaOCl, the calcium product is unstable at lower pH, but it can be concentrated to a higher degree. The corrosion rates for some metals are shown in Table 49. Table 49 Corrosion of metals and alloys in Ca(OCl) 2 204-day test in 18-20% Ca(OCl) 2 at 20-24 °C (70-75 °F) Corrosion rate Material mm/yr mils/yr Pitting Titanium nil none Zirconium 0.025 1 (a) none Hastelloy C <0.0025 <0.1 none Chlorimet 3 0.025 1 none (a) Severe attack under spacer Plastics and elastomerics can usually be used in Ca(OCl) 2 to slightly higher concentrations and temperatures than in NaOCl. Virtually the same applications are served by these materials in both products. The solid Ca(OCl) 2 product is typically packed in polyethylene or polyethylene-lined containers. Epoxy-phenolic lining performs effectively for trucks and railcars. It is critical to keep the product dry and away from organic fluids. Aluminum is sometimes used in handling solid Ca(OCl) 2 because any corrosion residue does not discolor the product. Corrosion by Ammonia A.S. Krisher, ASK Associates Anhydrous ammonia, a major commercial chemical, is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, HNO 3 , acrylonitrile, and other products. Except for a sensitivity to SCC, carbon steel is fully acceptable in NH 3 service. Stress-corrosion cracking of carbon steel NH 3 storage vessels was first observed in the early 1950s. In most cases, the developing cracks have been detected by inspection before leakage or rupture. However, there have been a few catastrophic failures. For example, in France in 1968, a tanker ruptured, killing 5 people. A second case was in South Africa, where a large tank failed in 1973 with 22 fatalities. Ammonia is stored under three conditions. It can be stored by cooling it to a low enough temperature, (-34 °C, or -29 °F) to maintain it in the liquid state at atmospheric pressure. This method is frequently described as cryogenic storage. A second approach is to contain the ammonia under sufficient pressure (about 2070 kPa, or 300 psig) to maintain the ammonia in the liquid phase at ambient temperature. Cylindrical pressure vessels are often used for fairly small quantities. Spherical pressure vessels are used for larger quantities. The third condition involves some degree of refrigeration combined with pressurization. This is termed semirefrigerated storage. Most cases of SCC have occurred in ambient-temperature pressurized storage vessels, for the most part in spheres. A few problems have been observed in semirefrigrated storage. There have been no documented cases of SCC in cryogenic storage vessels. When SCC does occur, cracks are primary transgranular and progress at a relatively slow rate compared to other SCC phenomena. Laboratory Studies One investigation using statically loaded tuning fork type specimens and tensile bars showed that NH 3 SCC is accelerated by cold work, welding, applied stresses, and the use of higher-strength steels. It was found that air contamination promotes SCC and that water in amounts greater than 0.1% inhibits cracking (Ref 217). Other experiments using slow strain rate tests and a low-alloy steel also found that air contamination promoted SCC and that water at a level greater than 0.09% was an effective inhibitor. Electrochemical studies showed that the SCC involves an anodic chemical process (Ref 218, 219). Field tests were conducted using specimens stressed by residual stresses from welding (Ref 220). Results indicated that high-strength steels fail more rapidly than low-carbon steel and that hard welds (welds that are harder than the base material) tend to accelerate cracking. Thermal stress relieving was also found to be effective in preventing SCC. Another investigation using low-alloy steels and slow strain rate test methods produced SCC at temperatures as low as 0 °C (32 °F). Again, air contamination and low water content promoted SCC (Ref 221). Results of an industry-sponsored technical investigation that used both slow strain rate tests and fracture mechanics type specimens are documented in Ref 222. It was found that oxygen levels greater than 5 ppm are required for SCC. Levels as low as 1 ppm caused cracking if carbon dioxide was also present and water was absent. This work also suggested that hydrazine (NH 2 ·NH 2 ), ammonium carbonate [(NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 ], and ammonium bicarbonate (NH 4 HCO 3 ) might be inhibitors. The fracture mechanics test methods were not successful, possibly because of the slow rate of cracking. Other tests using low-alloy steel and the slow strain rate test confirmed again that oxygen as a contaminant is damaging, with indications that levels as low a 0.01 ppm might be sufficient to cause the cracking, at least in low-alloy steel (Fig. 85). Nitrogen also appeared to be a cracking accelerator in combination with oxygen. The lower limit of the required water content to inhibit cracking was found to be about 0.08 wt% (Fig. 86). This work showed NH 2 ·NH 2 to be an effective inhibitor at 0.025 wt% for a contamination level of 200 ppm O 2 . Fig. 85 Effect of oxygen content on apparent ductility observed in slow strain rate tests of low- alloy steel in liquid NH 3 . Source: Ref 223 Fig. 86 Effect of water content on apparent ductility observed in slow strain rate tests of low- alloy steel in liquid NH 3 . Oxygen content was 200 ppm, added as air. Source: Ref 223 This body of laboratory work (seven studies over a period of 19 years by six different investigators using three different methods in four different countries) is impressive in its consistency. All of the studies showed that the primary causes of the cracking are high stresses and air contamination. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide were suggested by separate investigators as promoting SCC. Cracking is accelerated by the use of high-strength steels, the presence of hard welds, and air contamination. The cracking mechanism can be inhibited by water above about 0.1%. Thermal stress relief, if done properly, reduces stress below the critical level. Field Experiences Some reports suggest that water is not always an effective inhibitor, especially when water is added after SCC is detected. The significance of these reports is clouded by a lack of evidence that adequate control systems were used to ensure that a sufficient level of water was maintained. The research studies discussed previously do not address the effectiveness of water addition in slowing the growth of pre-existing cracks. There is also a problem area with the vapor phase of NH 3 tanks. Water is considerably less volatile than NH 3 , resulting in a lower water content in the vapor phase than in the liquid. If NH 3 vapor condenses on the wall of the vessel, the water content will probably be inadequate for inhibition, and SCC in the vapor phase is possible. There are also reports of recracking of vessels that cracked, were repaired, and then were stress relieved. It is extremely difficult to repair vessels that have suffered SCC. There are many cracks in the equipment, including some of submicroscopic, size. It is extremely difficult to prevent these cracks from propagating later. Stress relief of a vessel that has suffered SCC is also very likely to be unsuccessful. The very small cracks are contaminated to some degree. When this metal is subjected to the stress-relief thermal cycle, such phenomena a nitriding and carburizing may occur and promote further cracking. Practical Operating Guidance It is apparent that SCC of carbon and low-alloy steel NH 3 storage vessels can be a problem if proper procedures in design, fabrication, operation, inspection, and maintenance are neglected. If the degree of such neglect is large enough, catastrophic failure is possible. However, it is also apparent that application of proper procedures will ensure satisfactory long-term storage. Reference 224 discusses such practices. General recommendations for design, fabrication, operation, and inspection and maintenance practices are presented below. Design and Fabrication. Normal design methods used for vessels to contain hazardous fluids should be followed, including all requirements of governing codes and agencies. Design should also be reviewed using fracture mechanics concepts to assess the risk of brittle fracture. Fabrication should be carefully inspected by a properly qualified engineering representing the end user. A low-strength (specified tensile strength not exceeding 483 MPa, or 70 ksi) grade of carbon steel should be used. The hardness of welds should be specified to be 255 HB maximum, and the weld hardness should be checked in the field. Postweld heat treatment (stress relief) at 595 °C (1100 °F) minimum should be specified for all pressure vessels. The lower temperature/longer time alternatives for such treatment allowed in some codes are less effective in reducing residual stress levels. Operating practices should minimize air contamination. Water content should be maintained at 0.2% minimum if water is not objectionable to the user of the NH 3 . Water (and, if feasible, oxygen) content should be checked by routine sampling and analysis. Inspection and Maintenance. All tanks in NH 3 storage service should be carefully inspected on a routine basis. A new tank should be carefully inspected by the wet fluorescent magnetic-particle method after 1 to 2 years service. If no cracks are found, a somewhat longer inspection interval may be appropriate. If cracks are found, their severity should be assessed and appropriate actions taken. These actions may involve simply recording location and size of cracks, grinding out the cracked areas, or grinding out and rewelding the cracked areas. Figure 87 shows guidelines regarding modifications of inspection frequency as a function of oxygen and water content. Fig. 87 Guidelines for changes in inspection freque ncy when oxygen or water content is outside preferred range. Source: Ref 224 Any existing tank that has not been so inspected and has been in service longer than 2 years should be inspected at the first opportunity. Stress relief after repairs is not recommended. As noted previously, it is unlikely to be beneficial and may be harmful. References 1. W.D. Manly, Materials Industry: Present Trends/Future Outlook, in Advances in Materials Technology for Process Industries' Needs, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985, p 10-13 2. M. Stern and A.L. Geary, J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol 104, 1957, p 56 3. D.A. Rickard, Process Technology Industries Where They are Today and Where They Will be Tomorrow, in Advances in Materials Technology for Process Industries' Needs, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985, p 1-5 4. G.B. Elder, Met. Prog., Vol 111 (No. 4), 1977, p 44 5. O.W. Siebert, Mater. Perform., Vol 17 (No. 4), 1978, p 33 6. O.W. Siebert, Mater. Perform., Vol 22 (No. 10), 1980, p 9 7. "Protection of Austenitic Stainless Steel from Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking During Shutdown of Refinery Equipment," RP-01-70, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1970 8. C.P. Dillon et al., Guidelines For Control of Stress- Corrosion Cracking of Nickel Bearing Stainless Steels and Nickel-Bearing Alloys, Manual No. 1, Materials Technology Institute, 1979, p 159 9. R.J. Twigg, Can. Chem. Process, Vol 65 (No. 2), 1981, p 27 10. J.A.A. Ketelaar, Electrochem. Technol., Vol 5 (No. 3-4), p 143 11. T.F. Degnan, Mater. Perform., Vol 22 (No. 10), 1983, p 45 12. S. Lederman, "Glass Lined Equipment Typical a nd Atypical Glass Failures Encountered in the Field," Paper presented at Corrosion/82, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1982 13. "Cleaning Equipment for Oxygen Service," Pamphlet G-41, Compressed Gas Association, Inc. 14. A.W. Fynsk and R.T. Harris, Preoperational Cleaning of a Steam Generator System at a New Chemical Plant, in Proceedings of the 41st International Water Congress, 1980 15. L.C. Slabodrick, private communication 16. Patent assigned to Dow Chemical Company 17. Patent assigned to Pfizer Chemicals Div. 18. Industrial Cleaning Manual, TPC-8, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1982 19. "Cleaning and Descaling Stainless Steels," Publication SS103-582, 10M- GP, American Iron and Steel Institute 20. G.J. Falkenback, J.R. Fox, and R.P. Meister, "Investigation of Nondestructive Testing Techniques for Detecting Corrosion of Steel Under Insulation," Technical Report 4, Project 12, Phase I, Materials Technology Institute, July 1981 21. W.I. Pollock and J.M. Barnhart, Ed., Corrosion of Metals Under Insulation, in STP 880, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1984 22. A.W. Dana and W.B. DeLong, Corrosion, Vol 12, July 1956, p 309t 23. W.G. Ashbaugh, Mater. Protect., May 1965 24. T.F. Laundrie and W.G. Ashbaugh, A Study of Corrosion of Steel Under a Variety of Thermal Insulation Materials, in STP 880, W.I. Pollock and J.M. Barnhart, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980 25. O.A. Ullrich, "Investigation of an Approach to Detection of Corrosion Under Insula tion," Technical Report 7, Project 12, Phase II, Materials Technology Institute, March 1982 26. W.G. Ashbaugh, External Stress Corrosion Cracking of Stainless Steel Under Thermal Insulation 20 Years Later, in STP 880, W.I. Pollock and J.M. Barnhart, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980 27. C.P. Dillon and D.R. McIntyre, "Guidelines for Preventing Stress Corrosion Cracking in the Chemical Process Industries," Publication 15, Materials Technology Institute, March 1985 28. D.R. McIntyre, F actors Affecting the Stress Corrosion Cracking of Austenitic Stainless Steels Under Thermal Insulation, in STP 880, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980 29. P. Lazar, Factors Affecting Corrosion of Carbon Steel Under Insulation, in STP 880, Am erican Society for Testing and Materials, 1980 30. T. Sandberg, Experience With Corrosion Beneath Thermal Insulation in a Petrochemical Plant, in STP 880, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980 31. V.C. Long and P.G. Crawley, Recent Experiences With Corrosion Beneath Thermal Insulation in a Chemical Plant, in STP 880, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980 32. "Materials of Construction for Handling Sulfuric Acid," Technical Committee Report 5A151, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985 33. O.W. Siebert, Mater. Perform., Vol 20 (No. 2), Feb 1981, p 38 34. H.S. Tong, "Corrosion and Electrochemical Behavior of Fe-Cr- Ni Alloys in Concentrated Sulfuric Acid Solutions," Paper presented at Symposium on Progress in Electrochemica l Corrosion Testing, American Society for Testing and Materials, 20-25 May 1979 35. MG. Fontana, Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol 43, August 1951, p 65a 36. M. Tiivel and F. McGlynn, "Avoiding Problems in Sulfuric Acid Storage," Paper presented at AIChE Meeting, New Orleans, LA, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, April 1986 37. E. Williams and M.E. Komp, Corrosion, Vol 21 (No. 1), Jan 1965, p 9-14 38. H. Endo and S. Morioka, "Dissolution Phenomenon of Copper- Containing Steels in Aqueous Sulfuric Acid Solutio ns of Various Concentrations," Paper presented at the Japanese Metal Association 3rd Symposium, April 1938 39. D. Fyfe et al., Chem. Eng. Prog., March 1977 40. B.T. Ellison and W.R. Schmeal, Elec. Soc., Vol 125, 1978, p 524 41. S.W. Dean, Jr. and G.D. G rab, "Corrosion of Carbon Steel by Concentrated Sulfuric Acid," Paper 147, presented at Corrosion/84, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1984 42. S.W. Dean and G.D. Grab, "Corrosion of Carbon Steel Tanks in Concentrated Sulfuric Acid Service," Paper 298, presented at Corrosion/85, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985 43. M.G. Fontana and N.D. Greene, Corrosion Engineering, McGraw Hill, 1967 44. E. Maahn, Br. Corros. J., Vol 1, Nov 1966 45. "The Corrosion Resistance of Nickel-Conta ining Alloys in Sulfuric Acid and Related Compounds," Corrosion Engineering Bulletin 1, The International Nickel Company, Inc., 1983 46. J.E. Strutt, "Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels in 93% and 98.5% Sulfuric Acid," Materials Technology Institute, Sept 1985 47. H. Abo, M. Ueda, and S. Noguchi, Boshoku Gijutso, Vol 23, 1974, p 341-346 (in Japanese) 48. P.F. Wieser et al., Mater. Protec., Vol 12 (No. 7), July 1973, p 34-38 49. M.A. Streicher, Corrosion, Vol 14 (No. 2), Feb 1958, p. 59t-70t 50. G.C. Kiefer and W.G. Renshaw, Corrosion, Vol 8, Aug 1950, p 235 51. J.R. Auld, Effect of Heat Treatment and Welding on Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steels, in Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Metallic Corrosion, Nationa l Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1967 52. T.N. Anderson et al., Metall. Trans., Vol IIA, Aug 1980 53. D.R. McAlister et al., U.S. patent 4,576,813, granted March 1986, Heat Recovery From Concentrated Sulfuric Acid 54. D.R. McAlister et al., "A Majo r Breakthrough in Sulfuric Acid," Paper presented at AIChE 1986 Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, April 1986 55. M. Renner et al., "Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys in Concentrated Sulfuri c Acid," Paper 189, presented at Corrosion/86, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1986 56. D.J. Chronister and T.C. Spence, Influence of Higher Silicon Levels on the Corrosion Resistance of Modified CF-Type Cast Stainless Steels, in Proceedings of the NACE Corrosion/85 Symposium on Corrosion in Sulfuric Acid, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985, p 75 57. N. Sridhar, "Mechanisms of Corrosion in Concentrated Sulfuric Acid," Paper presented at Sulfur '85 International Conference, London, 10-13 Nov 1985 58. J.R. Crum and M.E. Adkins, Correlation of Alloy 625 Electrochemical Behavior with the Sulfuric Acid Isocorrosion Chart, in Proceedings of the NACE Corrosion/85 Symposium on Corrosion in Sulfuric Acid, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985, p 23 59. R.T. Webster and T.L. Yau, Zirconium in Sulfuric Acid Applications, in Proceedings of the NACE Corrosion/85 Symposium on Corrosion in Sulfuric Acid, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985, p 69 60. M.A. Maguire and T.L. Yau, "Corrosion- Electrochemical Properties of Zirconium on Mineral Acids," Paper 265, presented at Corrosion/86, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1986 61. L.W. Gleekman, Corrosion, Vol 14, Sept 1958 62. P.J. Gegner and W.L. Wilson, Corrosion, Vol 15 (No. 7), 1959 63. J.P. Cotton, Chem. Eng. Prog., Vol 66 (No. 10), Oct 1970 64. N.G. Feige, "The Industrial Applications of Titanium in the Chemical Industry," Paper presented at the Symposium on Titanium-Zirconium for the Chemical Process Industries, New Orleans, LA, Nov 1975 65. R.E. Tatnall and D.J. Kratzer, The Use of Fluoroplastics in Sulfuric Acid Service, in Proceedings of the NACE Corrosion/85 Symposium on Corrosion in Sulfuric Acid, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985, p 85 66. J.R. Schley, Chem. Eng., 18 Feb 1974 67. J.R. Schley, Chem. Eng., 18 March 1974 68. E. Shields and W.J. Dessert, Pollut. Eng., Dec 1981 69. J.A. Beavers, R.R. White, and W.E. Berry, "Corrosion Studies in Fuel Element Reprocessing Environments Containing Nitric Acid," ORNL/Sub 7327/13, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, April 1982 70. C. Chakrabarty, M.M. Singh, and C.U. Agarwal, J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol 31, 1982, p 165-169 71. G.L. Delaney and T.F. Lemke, Corros. Australasia, Vol 6, 1981, p 4-6 72. C. Hahin, R.M. Stoss, B.H. Nelson, and P.J. Reucroft, Corrosion, Vol 32 (No. 6), June 1976 73. M.J. Johnson, J.R. Kearns, and H.E. Deverall, "The Corrosion of the New Ferritic Stainless Steels in Nitric Acid," Paper 144, presented at Corrosion/84, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 2-6 April 1984 74. M. Kobayashi, M. Aoki, M. Ohkubo, and M. Miki, "Development of Nitric Acid Resistant Stainless Steels," Paper 145, presented at Corrosion/84, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 2-6 A pril 1984 75. A. Natarajan, T.S. Lakshmanon, K.V. Nagarajan, and B.K. Sarkar, Trans. Indian Inst. Met., Vol 35 (No. 1), Feb 1983 76. S. Sadigh, "Inspection Guidelines for Aluminum Tank Cars in 98% HNO 3 Service," Hercules Engineering Document, Hercules, Inc., 13 Aug 1980 77. S. Sadigh, "Prevention of Corrosion by Hot Concentrated HNO 3 in Condensers and Dehydration Columns," Proprietary Hercules Report, Hercules, Inc., 30 Dec 1981 78. J.E. Slater and R.W. Staehle, "A Study of the Mechanism of Stress Corrosion Cracking in the Iron-Nickel- Chromium Alloy System in Chloride Environments," Contract No. AT(11- 1)2069, United States Atomic Energy Commission, 30 Sept 1970 79. M.W. Wilding and B.E. Paige, "Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Survey on Corrosion o f Metals and Alloys in Solutions Containing Nitric Acid," Report N77- 32302, National Technical Information Service, Dec 1976 80. "Corrosion Resistance of Titanium," Timet Corporation 81. 26th Biennial Materials of Construction Report (Handling Nitric Acid), Chem. Eng., 11 Nov 1974, p 129 82. R.S. Stewart, Met. Prog., Vol 52, Dec 1947 83. K.F Krysiak, "Weldability and Corrosion Performance of a 4% Silicon Stainless Steel for 99% HNO 3 Service," Proprietary Hercules Report, Hercules, Inc., 29 May 1984 84. "Product Information on Stainless Steel for the Nitric Acid Industry," TOK31/08.82, Vereinigte Edel Stahlwerke 85. D.D.N. Singh, R.S. Chaudhary, and C.V. Agarwal, J. Electrochem. Soc., Sept 1982, p 1869 86. J.A. Beavers, J.C. Griess, and W.K. Boyd, Corrosion, Vol 36 (No. 5), May 1981 87. T.L. Yau, Corrosion, Vol 5, May 1983 88. J.P. Bennett, "Corrosion Resistance of Selected Ceramic Materials to Nitric Acid," Report 8851, Sup. Docs. 128.23.8851, United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines 89. C.P. Dillon, Mater. Protect., Vol 21 (No. 9), 1965, p 4 90. A.E. Tsinman et al., Elektrokhimiya, Vol II (No. 1), 1975, p 127 91. "Corrosion Resistance of Nickel- Containing Alloys in Organic Acids and Related Compounds," The International Nickel Company, Inc., 1979, p 5 92. G.B. Elder, Corrosion by Organic Acid, in Process Industries Corrosion, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1975, p 247 93. NACE Technical Committee, Mater. Perform., Vol 13 (No. 7), 1974, p 13 94. B. Larsson and U. Lundell, "Special Stainless Steels for the Process Industries," A.B. Sandvik Steel, 1983 95. "Corrosion by Acetic Acid," Technical Committee Report 5A157, National Association of Corrosion Engineers 96. A.B. McKee and W.W. Binger, Corrosion, Vol 13, 1957, p 786t 97. N.D. Groves et al., Corrosion, Vol 17 (No. 4), 1961, p 173t 98. A.E. Tsinman et al., Zashch. Met., Vol 8, 1972, p 567 99. R.F. Miller et al., Corrosion, Vol 10 (No. 1), 1954, p 7 100. "Storage and Handling Hydrochloric Acid," Technical Bullet in, E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, 1972 101. "Manufacturing Chemists Association Chemical Safety Data," Sheet SD- 39, Manufacturing Chemists Association, 1970 102. Corrosion Data Survey Part I, Metals, National Association of Corrosion Engineers 1974 103. L.W. Gleekman, Chemical Process Industries Symposium, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1975, p 225 104. "Resistance to Corrosion," 4th ed., Inco Alloys International, 1985, p 21-24 105. "Corrosion Resistance of Titanium," Titanium Metals Corporation of America 106. "Engineering Guide to Du Pont Elastomers," E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company 107. E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, private communication 108. "Properties of a High Purity 29% Cr-4% Mo-2% Ni Ferritic Alloy for Aggressive Environments," Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, 1982, p 9 109. "Zircadyne Corrosion Properties," Teledyne Wah Chang Albany, 1981 110. C.R. Bishop and M. Stern, Corrosion, Vol 17 (No. 8), 1961, p 379t 111. "Uniroyal Rubber Linings," Uniroyal, Inc., 1968 112. "B.F. Goodrich Tank Linings," B.F. Goodrich, Inc., 1974 113. NACE Technical Committee, Corrosion, Vol 17 (No. 9), 1961, p 453t 114. "The General Chemical Resistance of Various Elastomers," The Los Angeles Rubber Group Inc., 1970 115. "Chemical Resistance Guide for Systems Using Dow Plastic- Lined Piping Products," The Dow Chemical Company, 1978 116. R.E. Tatnall and D.J. Kratzer, Paper 307, presented at Corrosion/85, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985 117. J.E. Niesse, Mater. Perform., Vol 21 (No. 1), 1982, p 25 118. T.G. Priest and O.W. Seibert, Mater. Perform., Vol 20 (No. 10), 1981, p 38 119. W.W. McClellan, T.F. Anderson, and R.F. Stavinoha, 30th Anniversary Technical Conference, Section 6A, Reinforced Plastics/Composites Institute, The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., 1975 120. "Chemical Resistance Red Thread, Green Thread, Polythread, Chemline Piping Systems for the Chemical Process Industries," Product Bulletin 9002, A.O. Smith-Inland Inc. 121. 21st Biennial Report Materials of Construction Section 1, Chem. Eng., Vol 71 (No. 24), 9 Nov 1964, p 170 122. "Graphitar, A Challenge to Corrosion," Carbone-Lorraine Industries Corporation 123. "Pfaudler 5000 Glassteel Technical Data," The Pfaudler Company Inc., 1979 124. "Wood Tanks for Corrosive Applications," Technical Bulletin 758, National Wood Tank Institute, 1975 125. A.P. Pfeil, Des. Eng., June 1961, p 114 126. M.H. Brown, W.B. DeLong, and J.R. Auld, Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol 39 (No. 7), 1947, p 839-844 127. C.M. Schillmoller, Chem. Eng., Vol 87 (No. 5), 10 March 1980, p 161 128. J.P. Carter, B.S. Covino, Jr., T.J. Driscoll, W.D. Riley, and M. Rosen, Corrosion, Vol 40 (No. 5), 1984, p 205 129. "Hydrofluoric Acid," Technical Bulletin, E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., 1978 130. "Manufacturing Chemists Association Chemical Safety Data Sheet," SD- 25, Manufacturing Chemists Association 131. "Materials for Receiving, Handling, and Storing Hydrofluoric Acid," Technical Committee Report 5A171, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1983 132. M.E. Holmberg and F.A. Prange, Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol 37, 1945, p 1030 133. "Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation," Phillips Petroleum Company, 1946 134. H.A. Pray, F.W. Fink, B.E. Friedl, and W.J. Brain, Report 268, Battelle Memorial Institute, 1953 135. E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, private communication 136. G.C. Whitaker, Corrosion, Vol 6 (No. 9), 1950, p 283 137. G. Trabanelli, A. Frifnani, G. Brunoro, C. Monticelli, and F. Zucchi, Mater. Perform., Vol 24 (No. 6), 1985, p 33 138. "Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials for Oil Field Equipment," MR-01- 75, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1984 139. F.A. Prange, Corrosion, Vol 8 (No. 10), 1952, p 355 140. H.R. Copson and C.F. Cheng, Corrosion, Vol 12 (No. 12), 1956, p 647 141. "Methods and Controls to Prevent In-Service Cracking of Carbon Steel (P- 1) Welds in Corrosive Petroleum Refining Environments," RP-04-72, National Association of Corrosion Engineers 142. R.L. Schuyler III, Mater. Perform., Vol 18 (No. 8), 1979, p 9 143. M. Takemoto, T. Shonohara, M. Shirai, and T. Shinogaya, Mater. Perform., Vol 24 (No. 6), 1985, p 26 144. L. Graf and W. Wittich, Werkst. Korros., Vol 17, 1966, p 385 145. "Huntington Alloys Creating Change in the Che mical Processing and Related Industries," Inco Alloys International, 1979 146. B.E. Paige, Mater. Perform., Vol 17 (No. 5), 1978, p 15 147. "Technical Notes," Climax Molybdenum Company, 1959 148. H.H. Uhlig, Corrosion Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 1948, p 115, 303, 315, 769 149. F.L. LaQue and H.R. Copson, Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys, 2nd ed., A.C.S. Monograph 158, Reinhold, 1963 150. T.F. Degnan, Materials for Handling Hydrofluoric, Nitric, and Sulfuric Acids, in Process Industries Corrosion, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1975, p 233 151. W.R. Myers and W.B. DeLong, Chem. Eng. Prog., Vol 44, 1948, p 359 152. "Corrosion Engineering Bulletin CEB-5," The International Nickel Company Inc., 1975 153. "Summary of Replies to Que stionnaire on Handling of Chlorine Mixtures," Technical Committee Report 5A259, National Association of Corrosion Engineers 154. Bibliography of Corrosion by Chlorine, TPC-4, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1976 155. G. Heinemann, F.G. Garrison, and P.A. Haber, Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol 38 (No. 5), 1946, p 497 156. M.H. Brown, W.B. DeLong, and J.R. Auld, Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol 39 (No. 7), 1947, p 839 157. W.Z. Friend and B.B. Knapp, Trans. AIChE, Section A, 25 Feb 1943, p 731 158. K.L. Tseitlin and J.A. Strunkin, J. Appl. Chem. (USSR), Vol 31 (No. 12), 1958, p 1832 159. K.L. Tseitlin, J. Appl. Chem. (USSR), Vol 28 (No. 5), 1955, p 467 160. W.A. Luce and R.B. Seymour, Chem. Eng., Vol 57 (No. 10), 1950, 217 161. S.D. Kirkpatrick and J.R. Callahan, Chem. Eng., Vol 57 (No. 11), 1950, p 107 162. P.L. Daniel and R.A. Rapp, Halogen Corrosion of Metals, Vol 5, Advances in Corrosion Science and Technology, M.G. Fontana and R.W. Staehle, Ed., Plenum Press, 1976, p 55 163. G.N. Kirby, Chem. Eng., Vol 87 (No. 23), 1980, p 86 164. N.C. Horowitz, Chem. Eng., Vol 88 (No. 7), 1981, p 105 165. E. Rabald, Corrosion Guide, American Elsevier, 1968 166. P. Juniere and M. Sigwalt, Aluminum Its Application in the Chemical and Food Industries, Crosby Lockwood & Son Ltd., 1964 167. K.L. Tseitlin and J.A. Strunkin, J. Appl. Chem. (USSR), Vol 29 (No. 11), 1956, p 1793 168. K.L. Tseitlin, J. Appl. Chem. (USSR), Vol 27 (No. 9), 1954, p 889 169. K.L. Tseitlin, J. Appl. Chem. (USSR), Vol 29 (No. 2), 1956, p 253 170. E.L. Liening, Report ME-4242, The Dow Chemical Company, April 1980 171. B.J. Downey, J.C. Bernel, and P.J. Zimmer, Corrosion, Vol 25 (No. 12), 1969, p 502 172. R.S. Sheppard, D.R. Hise, P.J. Gegner, and W.L. Wilson, Corrosion, Vol 18 (No. 6), 1962, p 211t 173. "Huntington Alloys Resistance to Corrosion," Publication 25M(11-70)S- 37, Huntington Alloys, Inc., 1970 174. Lead for Corrosion Resistant Applications, Lead Industries Association, 1974 [...]... Service," Paper 23, presented at Corrosion/ 83, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1983 212 M Yasuda, F Takeya, and F Hine, Corrosion, Vol 39 (No 10), Oct 1983 213 S.R Seagle, Pulp Paper, Vol 53 (No 10), Sept 1979 214 Cabot Dig., Vol 36 (No 5), Sept 1985 215 "Resistance of Nickel and High Nickel Alloys to Corrosion by Hydrochloric Acid, Hydrogen Chloride and Chlorine," Corrosion Engineering Bulletin... 225, presented at Corrosion/ 78, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1978 222 K Farrow, J Hutchings, and G Sanderson, Br Corros J., Vol 16 (No 1), 1981, p 11-19 223 B.E Wilde, Corrosion, Vol 37 (No 3), 1981, p 131 -141 224 J.M.B Gotch et al., "Code of Practice for the Storage of Anhydrous Ammonia Under Pressure in the United Kingdom," Chemical Industries Association Ltd., 1980 Corrosion Industry... Rolls The corrosion- related failures of suction roll shells represent the most serious materials and corrosion problem in modern paper machines A variety of alloys are used for suction roll shells, including bronzes and various grades of stainless steel (martensitic, austenitic, duplex, precipitation hardening) Failure are due to corrosion thinning, pitting, corrosion fatigue, and stress -corrosion. .. temperature Closure is considered detrimental from a corrosion standpoint; however, there is no clear relationship between increasing closure and paper machine corrosion Although accelerated corrosion may be expected for construction materials that undergo general corrosion attack (carbon steels, cast irons, copper alloys), no effect on stainless steel corrosion may be noticed until a critical concentration... anodic and the surrounding metal to become cathodic Once crevice corrosion is initiated, its growth mechanisms is the same as that for pitting corrosion Fig 8 Crevice corrosion of a type 316L checking plate located adjacent to a headbox apron Corrosion developed under pulp pads that formed despite the highly polished surface The primary corrosion concern with white water system closure is that the critical... temperatures Generally, similar conclusions can be drawn from crevice corrosion tests in FeCl3 (Ref 4, 5) Such data are presented in Fig 12 and 13 The critical temperatures for crevice corrosion are lower than those for pitting, indicating that crevice corrosion is more readily initiated If equipment is not designed to avoid crevice corrosion, then this will be the mode of failure An example of this... 317L corrugated deck from a C-stage washer that failed because of crevice corrosion Fig 12 Effect of molybdenum content on the crevice corrosion temperature of commercial stainless steels The more resistant steels have higher crevice corrosion temperatures in the FeCl3 test Fig 13 Effect of molybdenum content on the crevice corrosion temperature of nickel-base alloys Note the superior performance... 25th Annual Technical Conference, The Society of the Plastic Industry, 1970 217 A.W Loginow and E.H Phelps, Corrosion, Vol 18 (No 8), 1962, p 299-309 218 D.C Deegan and B.E Wilde, Corrosion, Vol 29 (No 8), 1973, p 310-315 219 D.C Deegan, B.E Wilde, and R.W Staehle, Corrosion, Vol 32 (No 4), 1976, p 139 -142 220 T Kawamoto, T Kenjo, and Y Imasaka, IHI Eng Rev., Vol 10 (No 4), 1977, p 17-25 221 F.F Lyle and... of Cabot Corporation, 1985 183 "Corrosion Resistant Materials," Bulletin 104 PD1, Kawecki Berylco Industries, Inc., 1977 184 M Schussler, Corrosion Data Survey on Tantalum, Fansteel Inc., 1972 185 S Baranow, G.Y Lai, and M.F Rothman, "Materials Performance in High Temperature, Halogen-Bearing Environments," Paper 16, presented at Corrosion/ 84, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1984 186 M.J... (fillers with higher alloying contents, particularly molybdenum contents, than base metal) have been used to provide additional corrosion resistance for weldments Some headboxes have even been constructed of UNS N10276, a nickel-base alloy that is usually used in much more severe corrosion applications The reasoning behind this material selection is that immunity to corrosion means freedom from maintenance . " ;Corrosion of Carbon Steel by Concentrated Sulfuric Acid," Paper 147, presented at Corrosion/ 84, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1984 42. S.W. Dean and G.D. Grab, " ;Corrosion. Levels on the Corrosion Resistance of Modified CF-Type Cast Stainless Steels, in Proceedings of the NACE Corrosion/ 85 Symposium on Corrosion in Sulfuric Acid, National Association of Corrosion. Behavior with the Sulfuric Acid Isocorrosion Chart, in Proceedings of the NACE Corrosion/ 85 Symposium on Corrosion in Sulfuric Acid, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1985, p 23 59.